Fractal

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Afractalisanaturalphenomenonoramathematicalsetthatexhibitsa
repeatingpatternthatdisplaysateveryscale.Itisalsoknownas
expandingsymmetryorevolvingsymmetry.Ifthereplicationisexactly
thesameateveryscale,itiscalledaselfsimilarpattern.Anexampleof
thisistheMengerSponge.[1]Fractalscanalsobenearlythesameat
differentlevels.Thislatterpatternisillustratedinthemagnificationsofthe
Mandelbrotset.[2][3][4][5]Fractalsalsoincludetheideaofadetailedpattern
thatrepeatsitself.[2]:16618[3][6]
Fractalsaredifferentfromothergeometricfiguresbecauseofthewayin
whichtheyscale.Doublingtheedgelengthsofapolygonmultipliesits
areabyfour,whichistwo(theratioofthenewtotheoldsidelength)
raisedtothepoweroftwo(thedimensionofthespacethepolygonresides
in).Likewise,iftheradiusofasphereisdoubled,itsvolumescalesby
eight,whichistwo(theratioofthenewtotheoldradius)tothepowerof
three(thedimensionthatthesphereresidesin).Butifafractal'sone
dimensionallengthsarealldoubled,thespatialcontentofthefractalscales
byapowerthatisnotnecessarilyaninteger.[2]Thispoweriscalledthe
fractaldimensionofthefractal,anditusuallyexceedsthefractal's
topologicaldimension.[7]
Asmathematicalequations,fractalsareusuallynowhere
differentiable.[2][5][8]Aninfinitefractalcurvecanbeconceivedofas
windingthroughspacedifferentlyfromanordinaryline,stillbeinga1
dimensionallineyethavingafractaldimensionindicatingitalsoresembles
asurface.[2]:15[7]:48
Themathematicalrootsoftheideaoffractalshavebeentracedthroughout
theyearsasaformalpathofpublishedworks,startinginthe17thcentury
withnotionsofrecursion,thenmovingthroughincreasinglyrigorous
mathematicaltreatmentoftheconcepttothestudyofcontinuousbutnot
differentiablefunctionsinthe19thcenturybytheseminalworkofBernard
Bolzano,BernhardRiemann,andKarlWeierstrass,[9]andontothecoining
ofthewordfractalinthe20thcenturywithasubsequentburgeoningof
interestinfractalsandcomputerbasedmodellinginthe20thcentury.[10][11]
Theterm"fractal"wasfirstusedbymathematicianBenotMandelbrotin
1975.MandelbrotbaseditontheLatinfrctusmeaning"broken"or
"fractured",andusedittoextendtheconceptoftheoreticalfractional
dimensionstogeometricpatternsinnature.[2]:405[6]

Mandelbrotset:Selfsimilarity
illustratedbyimageenlargements.
Thispanel,nomagnification.

Thesamefractalasabove,
magnified6fold.Samepatterns
reappear,makingtheexactscale
beingexamineddifficultto
determine.

Thesamefractalasabove,
magnified100fold.

Thesamefractalasabove,
magnified2000fold,wherethe
Mandelbrotsetfinedetail
resemblesthedetailatlow
magnification.

Thereissomedisagreementamongstauthoritiesabouthowtheconceptof
afractalshouldbeformallydefined.Mandelbrothimselfsummarizeditas
"beautiful,damnhard,increasinglyuseful.That'sfractals."[12]Thegeneral
consensusisthattheoreticalfractalsareinfinitelyselfsimilar,iterated,and
detailedmathematicalconstructshavingfractaldimensions,ofwhichmanyexampleshavebeenformulatedand
studiedingreatdepth.[2][3][4]Fractalsarenotlimitedtogeometricpatterns,butcanalsodescribeprocessesin
time.[1][5][13]Fractalpatternswithvariousdegreesofselfsimilarityhavebeenrenderedorstudiedinimages,

structuresandsounds[14]andfoundinnature,[15][16][17][18][19]
technology,[20][21][22][23]art,[24][25]andlaw.[26]Fractalsareofparticular
relevanceinthefieldofchaostheory,sincethegraphsofmostchaotic
processesarefractal.[27]

Contents
1 Introduction
2 History
3 Characteristics
4 Brownianmotion
5 Commontechniquesforgeneratingfractals
6 Simulatedfractals
7 Naturalphenomenawithfractalfeatures
8 Increativeworks
9 Applicationsintechnology
10 Seealso
11 Notes
12 References
13 Furtherreading
14 Externallinks

Sierpinskicarpet(tolevel6),atwo
dimensionalfractal

Introduction
Theword"fractal"oftenhasdifferentconnotationsforlaypeoplethanformathematicians,wherethelayperson
ismorelikelytobefamiliarwithfractalartthanamathematicalconception.Themathematicalconceptis
difficulttodefineformallyevenformathematicians,butkeyfeaturescanbeunderstoodwithlittle
mathematicalbackground.
Thefeatureof"selfsimilarity",forinstance,iseasilyunderstoodbyanalogytozoominginwithalensorother
devicethatzoomsinondigitalimagestouncoverfiner,previouslyinvisible,newstructure.Ifthisisdoneon
fractals,however,nonewdetailappearsnothingchangesandthesamepatternrepeatsoverandover,orfor
somefractals,nearlythesamepatternreappearsoverandover.Selfsimilarityitselfisnotnecessarilycounter
intuitive(e.g.,peoplehaveponderedselfsimilarityinformallysuchasintheinfiniteregressinparallelmirrors
orthehomunculus,thelittlemaninsidetheheadofthelittlemaninsidethehead...).Thedifferenceforfractals
isthatthepatternreproducedmustbedetailed.[2]:16618[3][6]
Thisideaofbeingdetailedrelatestoanotherfeaturethatcanbeunderstoodwithoutmathematicalbackground:
Havingafractionalorfractaldimensiongreaterthanitstopologicaldimension,forinstance,referstohowa
fractalscalescomparedtohowgeometricshapesareusuallyperceived.Aregularline,forinstance,is
conventionallyunderstoodtobe1dimensionalifsuchacurveisdividedintopieceseach1/3thelengthofthe
original,therearealways3equalpieces.Incontrast,considertheKochsnowflake.Itisalso1dimensionalfor
thesamereasonastheordinaryline,butithas,inaddition,afractaldimensiongreaterthan1becauseofhowits
detailcanbemeasured.Thefractalcurvedividedintoparts1/3thelengthoftheoriginallinebecomes4pieces
rearrangedtorepeattheoriginaldetail,andthisunusualrelationshipisthebasisofitsfractaldimension.
Thisalsoleadstounderstandingathirdfeature,thatfractalsasmathematicalequationsare"nowhere
differentiable".Inaconcretesense,thismeansfractalscannotbemeasuredintraditionalways.[2][5][8]To
elaborate,intryingtofindthelengthofawavynonfractalcurve,onecouldfindstraightsegmentsofsome
measuringtoolsmallenoughtolayendtoendoverthewaves,wherethepiecescouldgetsmallenoughtobe
consideredtoconformtothecurveinthenormalmannerofmeasuringwithatapemeasure.Butinmeasuringa

wavyfractalcurvesuchastheKochsnowflake,onewouldneverfindasmallenoughstraightsegmentto
conformtothecurve,becausethewavypatternwouldalwaysreappear,albeitatasmallersize,essentially
pullingalittlemoreofthetapemeasureintothetotallengthmeasuredeachtimeoneattemptedtofitittighter
andtightertothecurve.[2]

History
Thehistoryoffractalstracesapathfromchieflytheoreticalstudiestomodern
applicationsincomputergraphics,withseveralnotablepeoplecontributing
canonicalfractalformsalongtheway.[10][11]AccordingtoPickover,the
mathematicsbehindfractalsbegantotakeshapeinthe17thcenturywhenthe
mathematicianandphilosopherGottfriedLeibnizponderedrecursiveself
similarity(althoughhemadethemistakeofthinkingthatonlythestraightline
wasselfsimilarinthissense).[28]Inhiswritings,Leibnizusedtheterm
"fractionalexponents",butlamentedthat"Geometry"didnotyetknowof
them.[2]:405Indeed,accordingtovarioushistoricalaccounts,afterthatpointfew
mathematicianstackledtheissuesandtheworkofthosewhodidremained
AKochsnowflakeisa
obscuredlargelybecauseofresistancetosuchunfamiliaremergingconcepts,
fractalthatbeginswithan
whichweresometimesreferredtoasmathematical"monsters".[8][10][11]Thus,it
equilateraltriangleandthen
wasnotuntiltwocenturieshadpassedthatin1872KarlWeierstrasspresented
replacesthemiddlethirdof
thefirstdefinitionofafunctionwithagraphthatwouldtodaybeconsidered
everylinesegmentwitha
fractal,havingthenonintuitivepropertyofbeingeverywherecontinuousbut
pairoflinesegmentsthat
nowheredifferentiable.[10]:7[11]Notlongafterthat,in1883,GeorgCantor,who
formanequilateral"bump"
[11]
attendedlecturesbyWeierstrass, publishedexamplesofsubsetsofthereal
lineknownasCantorsets,whichhadunusualpropertiesandarenowrecognizedasfractals.[10]:1124Alsointhe
lastpartofthatcentury,FelixKleinandHenriPoincarintroducedacategoryoffractalthathascometobe
called"selfinverse"fractals.[2]:166
Oneofthenextmilestonescamein1904,whenHelgevonKoch,extending
ideasofPoincaranddissatisfiedwithWeierstrass'sabstractandanalytic
definition,gaveamoregeometricdefinitionincludinghanddrawnimagesofa
similarfunction,whichisnowcalledtheKochsnowflake.[10]:25[11]Another
milestonecameadecadelaterin1915,whenWacawSierpiskiconstructedhis
famoustrianglethen,oneyearlater,hiscarpet.By1918,twoFrench
mathematicians,PierreFatouandGastonJulia,thoughworkingindependently,
arrivedessentiallysimultaneouslyatresultsdescribingwhatarenowseenas
AJuliaset,afractalrelated
fractalbehaviourassociatedwithmappingcomplexnumbersanditerative
totheMandelbrotset
functionsandleadingtofurtherideasaboutattractorsandrepellors(i.e.,points
thatattractorrepelotherpoints),whichhavebecomeveryimportantinthe
studyoffractals.[5][10][11]Veryshortlyafterthatworkwassubmitted,byMarch1918,FelixHausdorffexpanded
thedefinitionof"dimension",significantlyfortheevolutionofthedefinitionoffractals,toallowforsetsto
havenonintegerdimensions.[11]TheideaofselfsimilarcurveswastakenfurtherbyPaulLvy,who,inhis
1938paperPlaneorSpaceCurvesandSurfacesConsistingofPartsSimilartotheWholedescribedanew
fractalcurve,theLvyCcurve.[notes1]
Differentresearchershavepostulatedthatwithouttheaidofmoderncomputergraphics,earlyinvestigators
werelimitedtowhattheycoulddepictinmanualdrawings,solackedthemeanstovisualizethebeautyand
appreciatesomeoftheimplicationsofmanyofthepatternstheyhaddiscovered(theJuliaset,forinstance,
couldonlybevisualizedthroughafewiterationsasverysimpledrawings]).[2]:179[8][11]Thatchanged,however,
inthe1960s,whenBenotMandelbrotstartedwritingaboutselfsimilarityinpaperssuchasHowLongIsthe
CoastofBritain?StatisticalSelfSimilarityandFractionalDimension,[29]whichbuiltonearlierworkbyLewis

FryRichardson.In1975[6]Mandelbrotsolidifiedhundredsofyearsofthought
andmathematicaldevelopmentincoiningtheword"fractal"andillustratedhis
mathematicaldefinitionwithstrikingcomputerconstructedvisualizations.
Theseimages,suchasofhiscanonicalMandelbrotset,capturedthepopular
imaginationmanyofthemwerebasedonrecursion,leadingtothepopular
meaningoftheterm"fractal".[30]Currently,fractalstudiesareessentially
exclusivelycomputerbased.[8][10][28]
In1980,LorenCarpentergaveapresentationattheSIGGRAPHwherehe
introducedhissoftwareforgeneratingandrenderingfractallygenerated
landscapes.[31]

Astrangeattractorthat
exhibitsmultifractalscaling

Characteristics
OneoftenciteddescriptionthatMandelbrotpublishedtodescribegeometric
fractalsis"aroughorfragmentedgeometricshapethatcanbesplitintoparts,
eachofwhichis(atleastapproximately)areducedsizecopyofthewhole"[2]
thisisgenerallyhelpfulbutlimited.Authorsdisagreeontheexactdefinitionof
fractal,butmostusuallyelaborateonthebasicideasofselfsimilarityandan
unusualrelationshipwiththespaceafractalisembeddedin.[1][2][3][5][32]One
pointagreedonisthatfractalpatternsarecharacterizedbyfractaldimensions,
butwhereasthesenumbersquantifycomplexity(i.e.,changingdetailwith
UniformMassCenter
changingscale),theyneitheruniquelydescribenorspecifydetailsofhowto
TriangleFractal
[33]
constructparticularfractalpatterns. In1975whenMandelbrotcoinedthe
word"fractal",hedidsotodenoteanobjectwhoseHausdorffBesicovitchdimensionisgreaterthanits
topologicaldimension.[6]Ithasbeennotedthatthisdimensionalrequirementisnotmetbyfractalspacefilling
curvessuchastheHilbertcurve.[notes2]
AccordingtoFalconer,ratherthanbeingstrictlydefined,fractalsshould,inadditiontobeingnowhere
differentiableandabletohaveafractaldimension,begenerallycharacterizedbyagestaltofthefollowing
features[3]
Selfsimilarity,whichmaybemanifestedas:
Exactselfsimilarity:identicalatallscalese.g.Kochsnowflake
Quasiselfsimilarity:approximatesthesamepatternatdifferentscalesmaycontainsmallcopies
oftheentirefractalindistortedanddegenerateformse.g.,theMandelbrotset'ssatellitesare
approximationsoftheentireset,butnotexactcopies.
Statisticalselfsimilarity:repeatsapatternstochasticallysonumericalorstatisticalmeasuresare
preservedacrossscalese.g.,randomlygeneratedfractalsthewellknownexampleofthe
coastlineofBritain,forwhichonewouldnotexpecttofindasegmentscaledandrepeatedas
neatlyastherepeatedunitthatdefines,forexample,theKochsnowflake[5]
Qualitativeselfsimilarity:asinatimeseries[13]
Multifractalscaling:characterizedbymorethanonefractaldimensionorscalingrule
Fineordetailedstructureatarbitrarilysmallscales.Aconsequenceofthisstructureisfractalsmayhave
emergentproperties[34](relatedtothenextcriterioninthislist).
IrregularitylocallyandgloballythatisnoteasilydescribedintraditionalEuclideangeometriclanguage.
Forimagesoffractalpatterns,thishasbeenexpressedbyphrasessuchas"smoothlypilingupsurfaces"
and"swirlsuponswirls".[7]
Simpleand"perhapsrecursive"definitionsseeCommontechniquesforgeneratingfractals

Asagroup,thesecriteriaformguidelinesforexcludingcertaincases,suchasthosethatmaybeselfsimilar
withouthavingothertypicallyfractalfeatures.Astraightline,forinstance,isselfsimilarbutnotfractal
becauseitlacksdetail,iseasilydescribedinEuclideanlanguage,hasthesameHausdorffdimensionas
topologicaldimension,andisfullydefinedwithoutaneedforrecursion.[2][5]

Brownianmotion
ApathgeneratedbyaonedimensionalWienerprocessisafractalcurveofdimension1.5,andBrownian
motionisafiniteversionofthis.[35]

Commontechniquesforgeneratingfractals
Imagesoffractalscanbecreatedbyfractalgeneratingprograms.
Iteratedfunctionsystemsusefixedgeometricreplacementrulesmaybe
stochasticordeterministic[36]e.g.,Kochsnowflake,Cantorset,
Hafermancarpet,[37]Sierpinskicarpet,Sierpinskigasket,Peanocurve,
HarterHeighwaydragoncurve,TSquare,Mengersponge
Strangeattractorsuseiterationsofamaporsolutionsofasystemof
initialvaluedifferentialequationsthatexhibitchaos(e.g.,seemultifractal
image)
Lsystemsusestringrewritingmayresemblebranchingpatterns,such
asinplants,biologicalcells(e.g.,neuronsandimmunesystemcells[19]),
Selfsimilarbranching
[38]
patternmodeledinsilico
bloodvessels,pulmonarystructure, etc.orturtlegraphicspatternssuch
usingLsystems
asspacefillingcurvesandtilings
Escapetimefractalsuseaformulaorrecurrencerelationateachpoint
principles[19]
inaspace(suchasthecomplexplane)usuallyquasiselfsimilaralso
knownas"orbit"fractalse.g.,theMandelbrotset,Juliaset,BurningShip
fractal,NovafractalandLyapunovfractal.The2dvectorfieldsthataregeneratedbyoneortwo
iterationsofescapetimeformulaealsogiverisetoafractalformwhenpoints(orpixeldata)arepassed
throughthisfieldrepeatedly.
Randomfractalsusestochasticrulese.g.,Lvyflight,percolationclusters,selfavoidingwalks,fractal
landscapes,trajectoriesofBrownianmotionandtheBrowniantree(i.e.,dendriticfractalsgeneratedby
modelingdiffusionlimitedaggregationorreactionlimitedaggregationclusters).[5]
Finitesubdivisionrulesusearecursivetopologicalalgorithmforrefining
tilings[39]andtheyaresimilartotheprocessofcelldivision.[40]The
iterativeprocessesusedincreatingtheCantorsetandtheSierpinski
carpetareexamplesoffinitesubdivisionrules,asisbarycentric
subdivision.

Simulatedfractals
Fractalpatternshavebeenmodeledextensively,albeitwithinarangeofscales
ratherthaninfinitely,owingtothepracticallimitsofphysicaltimeandspace.
Afractalgeneratedbya
Modelsmaysimulatetheoreticalfractalsornaturalphenomenawithfractal
finitesubdivisionruleforan
features.Theoutputsofthemodellingprocessmaybehighlyartisticrenderings,
alternatinglink
outputsforinvestigation,orbenchmarksforfractalanalysis.Somespecific
applicationsoffractalstotechnologyarelistedelsewhere.Imagesandother
outputsofmodellingarenormallyreferredtoasbeing"fractals"eveniftheydonothavestrictlyfractal
characteristics,suchaswhenitispossibletozoomintoaregionofthefractalimagethatdoesnotexhibitany
fractalproperties.Also,thesemayincludecalculationordisplayartifactswhicharenotcharacteristicsoftrue
fractals.

Modeledfractalsmaybesounds,[14]digitalimages,electrochemicalpatterns,
circadianrhythms,[41]etc.Fractalpatternshavebeenreconstructedinphysical
3dimensionalspace[22]:10andvirtually,oftencalled"insilico"modeling.[38]
Modelsoffractalsaregenerallycreatedusingfractalgeneratingsoftwarethat
implementstechniquessuchasthoseoutlinedabove.[5][13][22]Asone
illustration,trees,ferns,cellsofthenervoussystem,[19]bloodandlung
vasculature,[38]andotherbranchingpatternsinnaturecanbemodeledona
Afractalflame
computerbyusingrecursivealgorithmsandLsystemstechniques.[19]The
recursivenatureofsomepatternsisobviousincertainexamplesabranch
fromatreeorafrondfromafernisaminiaturereplicaofthewhole:notidentical,butsimilarinnature.
Similarly,randomfractalshavebeenusedtodescribe/createmanyhighlyirregularrealworldobjects.A
limitationofmodelingfractalsisthatresemblanceofafractalmodeltoanaturalphenomenondoesnotprove
thatthephenomenonbeingmodeledisformedbyaprocesssimilartothemodelingalgorithms.

Naturalphenomenawithfractalfeatures
Approximatefractalsfoundinnaturedisplayselfsimilarityoverextended,butfinite,scaleranges.The
connectionbetweenfractalsandleaves,forinstance,iscurrentlybeingusedtodeterminehowmuchcarbonis
containedintrees.[42]Phenomenaknowntohavefractalfeaturesinclude:
Rivernetworks
Faultlines
Mountainranges
Craters
Lightningbolts
Coastlines
MountainGoathorns
Trees
Geometricaloptics[43]
Animalcolorationpatterns
Romanescobroccoli
Pineapple
Heartrates[15]
Heartsounds[16]
Earthquakes[23][44]

Frostcrystalsoccurring
naturallyoncoldglass
formfractalpatterns

Fractalbasinboundary
inageometricaloptical
system[43]

Earthquakes[23][44]
Snowflakes[45]
Psychologicalsubjectiveperception[46]
Crystals[47]
Bloodvesselsandpulmonaryvessels[38]
Oceanwaves[48]
DNA
Soilpores[49]
RingsofSaturn[50][51]
Proteins[52]

Afractalisformed
whenpullingaparttwo
gluecoveredacrylic
sheets

Highvoltage
breakdownwithina4in
(100mm)blockof
acryliccreatesafractal
Lichtenbergfigure

Romanescobroccoli,
showingselfsimilar
formapproximatinga
naturalfractal

Fractaldefrosting
patterns,polarMars.
Thepatternsareformed
bysublimationof
frozenCO2.Widthof

SlimemouldBrefeldia
maximagrowing
fractallyonwood

imageisabouta
kilometer.

Increativeworks
ThepaintingsofAmericanartistJacksonPollockhaveadefinitefractaldimension.WhilePollock'spaintings
appeartobecomposedofchaoticdrippingandsplattering,computeranalysisdemonstratesadegreeofself
similarityatdifferentscales(levelsofdetail)inhiswork.[53][54]
Decalcomania,atechniqueusedbyartistssuchasMaxErnst,canproducefractallikepatterns.[55]Itinvolves
pressingpaintbetweentwosurfacesandpullingthemapart.
CyberneticistRonEglashhassuggestedthatfractalgeometryandmathematicsareprevalentinAfricanart,
games,divination,trade,andarchitecture.Circularhousesappearincirclesofcircles,rectangularhousesin
rectanglesofrectangles,andsoon.SuchscalingpatternscanalsobefoundinAfricantextiles,sculpture,and
evencornrowhairstyles.[25][56]
Ina1996interviewwithMichaelSilverblatt,DavidFosterWallaceadmittedthatthestructureofthefirstdraft
ofInfiniteJesthegavetohiseditorMichaelPietschwasinspiredbyfractals,specificallytheSierpinskitriangle
(a.k.a.Sierpinskigasket)butthattheeditednovelis"morelikealopsidedSierpinskyGasket".[24]

Afractalthatmodelsthe
surfaceofamountain
(animation)

Applicationsintechnology

3drecursiveimage

recursivefractalimage
butterfly

FractalAntennas[57]
Fractaltransistor[58]
Fractalheatexchangers
Digitalimaging
Urbangrowth[59][60]
Classificationof
histopathologyslides
FractallandscapeorCoastline
complexity
Detectinglifeaswedon't
knowitbyfractalanalysis(ht
tp://journals.cambridge.org/act
ion/displayAbstract?fromPage
=online&aid=9012687&fileId
=S1473550413000177)
Enzymes(MichaelisMenten
kinetics)
Generationofnewmusic
Signalandimagecompression
Creationofdigital
photographicenlargements

Fractalinsoilmechanics
Computerandvideogame
design
ComputerGraphics
Organicenvironments
Proceduralgeneration
Fractographyandfracture
mechanics
Smallanglescatteringtheory
offractallyroughsystems
Tshirtsandotherfashion
Generationofpatternsfor
camouflage,suchasMARPAT
Digitalsundial
Technicalanalysisofprice
series

Fractalsinnetworks
Medicine[22]
Neuroscience[17][18]
DiagnosticImaging[21]
Pathology[61][62]
Geology[63]
Geography[64]
Archaeology[65][66]
Soilmechanics[20]
Seismology[23]
Searchandrescue[67]
Technicalanalysis[68]
Mortonorderspacefilling
curvesforGPUcache
coherencyintexture
mapping[69][70][71]and
rasterisation
[72][73]

Seealso
Banachfixedpointtheorem
Bifurcationtheory
Boxcounting
Brownianmotion
Butterflyeffect
Complexity
Constructaltheory
Cymatics
Diamondsquarealgorithm
Drosteeffect
Feigenbaumfunction
Fractalcompression
Fractalcosmology
Fractalderivative
Fractalgeneratingsoftware
Fractalgrid
Fracton
Goldenratio
Graftal

Greeble
Lacunarity
ListoffractalsbyHausdorffdimension
Mandelbulb
Mandelbox
Multifractalsystem
Newtonfractal
Patternsinnature
Percolation
Powerlaw
Publicationsinfractalgeometry
Randomwalk
Sacredgeometry
Selfreference
Strangeloop
Symmetry
Turbulence
Wienerprocess

Notes
1.Theoriginalpaper,Lvy,Paul(1938)."LesCourbesplanesougauchesetlessurfacescomposesdeparties
semblablesautout".Journaldel'colePolytechnique:227247,249291.,istranslatedinEdgar,pages181239.
2.TheHilbertcurvemapisnotahomeomorphism,soitdoesnotpreservetopologicaldimension.Thetopological
dimensionandHausdorffdimensionoftheimageoftheHilbertmapinR2areboth2.Note,however,thatthe
topologicaldimensionofthegraphoftheHilbertmap(asetinR3)is1.

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Furtherreading
Barnsley,MichaelF.andRising,HawleyFractalsEverywhere.Boston:AcademicPressProfessional,
1993.ISBN0120790610
Duarte,GermanA.FractalNarrative.AbouttheRelationshipBetweenGeometriesandTechnologyand
ItsImpactonNarrativeSpaces.Bielefeld:Transcript,2014.ISBN9783837628296
Falconer,KennethTechniquesinFractalGeometry.JohnWileyandSons,1997.ISBN0471922870
Jrgens,HartmutPeitgen,HeinsOttoandSaupe,DietmarChaosandFractals:NewFrontiersof
Science.NewYork:SpringerVerlag,1992.ISBN0387979034
Mandelbrot,BenoitB.TheFractalGeometryofNature.NewYork:W.H.FreemanandCo.,1982.ISBN
0716711869
Peitgen,HeinzOttoandSaupe,Dietmareds.TheScienceofFractalImages.NewYork:Springer
Verlag,1988.ISBN0387966080
Pickover,CliffordA.ed.ChaosandFractals:AComputerGraphicalJourneyA10YearCompilation
ofAdvancedResearch.Elsevier,1998.ISBN0444500022
Jones,JesseFractalsfortheMacintosh,WaiteGroupPress,CorteMadera,CA,1993.ISBN1878739
468.
Lauwerier,HansFractals:EndlesslyRepeatedGeometricalFigures,TranslatedbySophiaGill
Hoffstadt,PrincetonUniversityPress,PrincetonNJ,1991.ISBN069108551X,cloth.ISBN0691
024456paperback."Thisbookhasbeenwrittenforawideaudience..."IncludessampleBASIC
programsinanappendix.
Sprott,JulienClinton(2003).ChaosandTimeSeriesAnalysis.OxfordUniversityPress.ISBN978019
8508397.
Wahl,BerntVanRoy,PeterLarsen,MichaelandKampman,EricExploringFractalsontheMacintosh
(http://www.fractalexplorer.com),AddisonWesley,1995.ISBN0201626306
LesmoirGordon,Nigel"TheColoursofInfinity:TheBeauty,ThePowerandtheSenseofFractals."
ISBN1904555055(ThebookcomeswitharelatedDVDoftheArthurC.Clarkedocumentary
introductiontothefractalconceptandtheMandelbrotset).
Liu,HuajieFractalArt,Changsha:HunanScienceandTechnologyPress,1997,ISBN9787535722348.
Gouyet,JeanFranoisPhysicsandFractalStructures(ForewordbyB.Mandelbrot)Masson,1996.
ISBN2225851301,andNewYork:SpringerVerlag,1996.ISBN9780387941530.Outofprint.

AvailableinPDFversionat."PhysicsandFractalStructures"(inFrench).Jfgouyet.fr.Retrieved
20101017.
Bunde,ArminHavlin,Shlomo(1996).FractalsandDisorderedSystems.Springer.
Bunde,ArminHavlin,Shlomo(1995).FractalsinScience.Springer.
benAvraham,DanielHavlin,Shlomo(2000).DiffusionandReactionsinFractalsandDisordered
Systems.CambridgeUniversityPress.
Falconer,Kenneth(2013).Fractals,AVeryShortIntroduction.OxfordUniversityPress.

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