CHAPTER 4 PROPERTIES OF CURVES 41 Plane Curves Used as Directrices A knowiedge of the properties of plane curves commanty employed ax directrices of cylindrical shells is essential for developing the membrane theary of Chapter 6. ‘The curves considered are the arc of a circle, the parabola, the cyclaid, the eatenury, und the semiellipse, Of these, the first four belong to one family and their curvature properties can be expressed by a single formula. ‘The semicltipse alone needs to be considered separately. 42 Radius of Curvature Tt may be recalled that the radius of curvature at any point of a curve y =f lx) described in cartesian coordinates may be expressed as se tar" 3 at) Referring to Fig. 4-1, the radius of curviture may also be expressed in the form R= 4 (42) where @ is the angle made by the tangent tothe horizontal, [tis pro- posed to demonstrate that R= Ry cos" # is ehe equation to the family of curves comprising the arc of a circle, the parabola, the cycloid, and the ary. In this expression R is the radius of curvature at any point “ Fi. ette Background Mathematics and R, the radius of curvature at the crown where @ = Q'and the tangent is horizontal. It will also be shown that if (m= 0, the curve is a circle Gi) m= 1, the curve is a cycloid (iil) m= —2, the curve is a catenary and (iv) m= —3, the curve is a parabola 43° The Arc of a Circle If the curve is an are of a circle, the radius of curvature A is constan Hence R = Ry = Ry cos? @ It is thus evident that when # = 0, equation R = Ry cos" @ describes an arc of a circle. 44 The Parabola 4 ‘The cartesian coordinates x and y of a point on the parabola shown in Fig. 4-2 may be conveniently expressed in parameteic form as x = 2at and y = af? so that they satisfy the equation to the parabola xt = 4 ay. _ Differentiating, dy — Dat dt and dx = lade Hence er Pat-une es) ’ Differentiating once again, — d att ‘ nt B-sQ-S-2 Substituting (4-3) and (4-4) in Equation (4-1), we get Rm Dah + YM afd + tant HP me Da vec +5 R, corresponding to the crown which is also the origin is found by putting 2 = 0 in (4-5) to give Rn de (4-4) From (4-5) and (4-6) it is clear that for a paraba'a R= Rc (47)45 The Cycloid It may be recalled that a cycloid is generated by « point (Fig. 4-3) on the circumference of a circle 4% it rolls along a straight line without sliding. ‘The equation of the cycloid in parametric form is given by 3 x= alt sing) 4-4 yaa —onh: = Differentiating the relations in(4-8), dy = asin td and dx = a(t — con t) de Hence 2 BL aw cot jm tan Grist Shoe on Pu &3 Differentiating (4-9) once again with -eape 1 to », we get coset 4 d (dy Lecce tat 2 Zz = lg) — 3°" ~~ Gato = = pooeet (#10) ‘Substituting (4-9) and (4-10) in (4-1). R= ~tasin t (411) But from (4-9) it is evident that et #=(5-3) Hence sin j = ean Supstitating this result in (4-11), we have (4-12)Background Matioemetics At the crown, t = = and hence from (4-11), Rem te (1 From (4-12) and (4-13), a R= Rome Hence R = R, cos* @ represents a cycloid if a = 1. 44 The Catenary ‘The equation to acatenary (Fig. 4-4) in cartesian coordinates is y= a coah (Z) (ei4y ; © = tant — sinn (5) (415) Differentiating (4-15) once again with respect to x, B-i ow | yewcemt) Hence from (4-11), = as ay Fis. 44 go (3) , . 4a) But from relation (4-15), sinh® (5) = rant @ Hence conht (2) = 14 tant 8 = cect Substituting this value in (4-17), R= aes = acortd (418) At the origin, x = 0 and cosh (xia) ~ 1. Hence from (4-17), Raa (419)Properties of Curves From (4-18) and (4-19), we deduce the relation R= Rycorte (4.20) 47 The Semiellipse ‘The parametric coordinates of a point on the semiellipse shown in Fig. 4-5 may be written 25 k=ecmt ymbsine (an Hence dy = bemtdt de = —asintdt ts z- — bent = tan 8 am Semietione Fre. #5 Differentiating ence more with respect to x, Fy ab cocct # ~ Fieconeett (#23) Substituting for cosec? t from (4-22), we may rewrite (4-23) as .-4 tuagaey amy Substituting (4-22) and (4-24) in (4-I) we arrive at the relation p= — Ute oe ‘Simplifying, (425)CHAPTER 5 ELEMENTS OF DIFFERENTIAL GEOMETRY AND CLASSIFICATION OF SHELLS In this chapter, it is proposed to review some concepts of differential geometry as a preliminary to the classification of shells. Because of its clegance and brevity, vector analysis is employed in the treatment. We begin with the clementary operations of vector algebra 5-1 Vecter Addition, Subtraction, and Multiplication A vector may be defined as a quantity which has both a magnitude and. a direction. Displacement, velocity, and force are familiar examples. ‘A vector a can therefore be represented by a directed line segment AB (Fig. 5-1), the length of the Tine representing the magnitude and the aiiimiaaatt ns Fic. 5-1 Fic. 5-2 direction of the line indicating the direction of the vector. A scalar quantity has only magnitude but no direction. ‘The mass of a body is an example. The magnitude of a vector is usually indicated by | al. Consider a right-handed system of cartesian coordinates x, y, and = (Fig. 5-2). Let i, j, and k be unit vectors directed along the x, y, und LJHlemwaaes af Differential Gesmetry oid Clamifleation of Shells St directions. Any other vector can now be represented in terms of the base vectors i, j, and k as follows: aeagitai+ak (1) i saloons ofthe set i and > It is easily verified that |a| = va," plieastey Nala lh oN a a [Lat them be expressed in terms of the wait base vectors a8. asad tai +ak and Ba + AG + Ok Clearly, a+b =(0,4+6)1+,+5))+.+8)E 2) ‘Vector addition is diagrammatically illusteated in Fig. $-3 a+b =PQ+QR = PR is the familiar parallelogram law of addition used in physics for forces. A simple physical explanation of vector addition may bbe given as follows: If a proceeds from P to and thence ‘to R, the net result is that be goes from the initial point P to the terminal point R. Vector sub- traction a — b may be thought of a8 equivalent to the vector addition a + (—b) = (—b + a) The Fro. $4 directed line segment PS stands for b. Hence the directed line segment SP stands for (—b). ‘The vector @ a represented by the directed line segment BQ. Hence (—b +a) = SP + PQ = SQ. It is also easily seen that ab (a, — 5) + (a, = 6)) + la — be 3) ‘There are (wo kinds of vector multiplication—sealar multiplication resulting in what is called a det product and vector multiplication resulting 8 crom product. The dot product of two vectors a and b, written as a *b, is, by definition, the product of the length of one of the vectors and the scalar projection of the other un it. ‘The result is a salar, and its magnitude is given by |a||b| cos @ where @ in the angle between the two wectars. It is casily verified that52 Rackground Mathematics a-b=b-a. If the vectors a and b are perpendicular to cach other cond = Oand hence ab = 0. It is easily weer that (i i) = (ji) = (ek) = | and (i - j) = Gk) =k = GW) =(k- =O "These i results enable the dot products of two vectors, whose: cartesian n down. Observing, morcover, ir eaultiplication, we may write components are known, to be wi that the distributive law holds for se: ab = (ai tai tak) (hi + bi +p = (ab, + ad, + a/b) (34) “The cross product of two vectors a and'b is a vector ¢ which is normal to the plane on which a and b lie and is $0 directed that the vectors a, b, and e form o right-handed aystem, The magnitude of the vector « the angle @ between the two vectors. ‘The area of the shaded parallelo- gram in Fig. 5-4 represents the magnitude of the vector e. By applying the distributive law, in can be shown that a x b may be writien in determinant form as ijk a ay be by by = (ad. = ahi + (ah, — abd) + (aby abd (5-5) axb For a more detailed treatment of vector analysis, the reader may consult reference 9. 5-2 Parametric Representation of a Surface A surface may he defined as the locus of a point whose position vector may be expressed as a ftinction of two variables. ‘A surface may thus be defined by the following three parametric equations in a cartesian system: aoe (5-6) Fo. (S66) ssfixy) (ec) x and y are known as the curvilinear coordinates of a point on the surface. The position vector r may be written as resi +s + ok (1) y' ja| |b | sin @, where sin @ is the absolute magnitude of the sine ofElements of Differential Geametry ond Classificetion of Sihettn 5% 5-3 The First Quadratic Form ‘Consider two adjacent points P and Q on the surface with position vectors and r + dr, respectively (Fig. 5-5). Or ae w=Get ge (sa) Let the arc length PQ be equal to ds. dit = de de Fe. $4 Using relation ($-8) and noting shai the distributive law holds good for scalar products, or or or or oe or dt a Eat 2 ded te ot But E-i+fe and ‘Substituting these values in the expression for ds, we arrive at the relation de = [i+ (Bor 22Sae s+ Ele 69 We may rewrite this expression mare compactly by using Monge’s54 Background Mathematics notation for the derivatives of x with respect to x and y. According to this notation, a, eh nt = Using this notation (5-9) may be recast as bd = (1+ pip dat 4 pg de dy + (1 + gdp (5-10) Relation (5-10), which enables the elemental arc length to be calculated, is known as the first quadratic form of the surface. In differential geometry, this relation is more usually written in the form dt Bat de dy + Gay (Sly In the cartesian system E=((+P) Fam ad Ge(l+¢) E,F,and G are known as the fundamental magnitudes of the surface. If the parametric curves are orthogonal, F = 0. 54 Equation of the Normal to a Surface ‘The equation of the unit normal to the surface may be written as oe cd - lEXsl I «ore! aries area” Ol 5-5 The Second Quadratic Form Being the vector product of rj and @e/2y, m is at right angles to both of them. Hence a-Ze0 (S14) oo lie add ‘Bao (315) 9 Differentiating (5-14) with respect to x, eR ay ie 22 =-t (5-16)Efements of Differential’ Geometry amd Ciwssificwtion of Sheth 5% ‘Sinnilarly, & se--* ee--™ (17) Differentiating (5-15) with respect to y, on or vr ae eo (1) We also know that the unit tangent vector is given by er ds oe S-E-+EE GI) A new definition will now be introduced. A normal section at a point on tt surface it defined as the plane curve obtained by cutting the surface by a plane containing the normal to the srface at that point, “The principal normals to such curves will be parallel to the normal a to the surface. Let us set up am expression for the curvature of one such curve. The Mirvaers 8 acres! seatien oa palit © Seow 6 tie seal curvature. Let it be denoted by <,. An expression for x, may he derived by differentiating relation (5-19). We may also note that ps Sa,-m — (Frenet-Seret formula) (3-20) This is because @r/és, the unit tangent vector, and its derivative @x/s* have to be at right angles. Hence 6r/ér! will be directed along the unit normal. Differentiating (5-19) and making use of (5-20), fen-s0= (Ee) 2S SS (ENS +z a we te 621) find «, we form the dot product of the two vectors dr/dy" and m to may au (aild) to Sy (s22) ‘The last two terms in (5-21) di bot yiek! anything, oe _ aE o1h achgroend Methementer ‘Equation (3-22) may be more compactly recast 23. ae (S) + 2M EE) + (SY Laat 2M ds dy 4 Nyt Lids + 2M de dy + Ny? “Ede | iPdedy + Ody ‘The aumerator of this expression ia known as the second fumdemental form. One may easily verify that (523) , ; “vitesse “VTE TE and ‘ “Tie Hence pdt + Bs de mm aevitpse oa 56 Principal Curvatures, Gauss Curvature, and Lines of Curvature We may rewrite (5-23) as (L— Ba) det 1M — Fedde dy + (N — Gas)? =O (5-25) we Gea (EY +a ~ Fa) +(L— Be) —0 (5-26) Equation (5-26) being « quadratic, there are in general two directions ing to a given x,. If there is to be only one direction corresponding to a given «,, the quadratic must have repeated roots, ‘The condition for this to haj 4M — Fxg)? — AL — Beg ~ Gey) = 0 (ez (F* = BG) x, + (GL + BN —2MP)x, + (M?—LN)=@ (5-28) ‘This gives two values of x, known as the principal curvatures at that point. The product of the two principal curvatures is definedHlements of Oifferentiol Geometry and Clomificouan of Shells 57 as the Gaus cervature at the point. Its value is easily sen to be (LN — M%(EG — F*) It is clear that Gauss curvature will be positive, Zero, or negative according 1 LN — AsO (+2) ‘This condition is also equivalent to n-#E0 6-30) The surface is called symelustic, developable, or anticlasti¢ at a point according as the Gauss curvature is positive, zero, or negative at that point quadratic equation ($-25) has repeated roots, =e £--$28) em and é& (WF oOo my « ee Hence (N — Gj) dy + UM — Fag) de = 0 (5-33) Ce cee (S34) Eliminating «4 from (5-33) and ($-¥4), the two directions satisfy the relation (EM — FL) dst 4 (EN = GL) dx dy 4 (FN — GM) dy = 0 (5-35) “These two directions are knawn as the principal directions, "The normal curvatures in these directions are known as the principal curvatures at that point, ‘They are also the directions in which the sormal curvatures at the point are a inaximasm and minimum. Surface curves the tangents to which at any point coincide with one of ‘the principal directions are knawn as diner af curvature, ‘The curvature of a line of curvature is not a principal curvature, since the line of curvature necd not be a normal curve. Two conditions are to be satisfied for the parametric curves to be lines of curvature, (1, Thar hers to be echo We have already seen that this is 50 (ii) Let us suppose that we move along the parametric curve for which © constant, Hence dr = 0. From Equation (5-35), it is seenSB Background Methematics that this will be so if FN = GM. Similarly along the parametric curve y = constant, dy = 0. Hence EM = Fi. It is to be noted that (EN — GL) # 0. Multiplying the first relation by and the second by NV, we get ALN = GMI. (5-26) ENM = FLN (3) From (5-36) and ($-37), (M(EN — GL) — Noting that (EN — GE) #0, M—0. Hence F ~ 0 and M = 0 are the two conditions to be satisfied if the parametric curves are to be lines of curvature 57 Choice of Curvilinear Coordinates It is mot necessary always to choose x and y as the curvilinear co- ordinates, We might as well have chasen a and v so that r= flee) - y= hde) a= feu.) Relations derived in the previous articles can easily be modified for this choice of curvilinear coordinates. “This will be illustrated with the aid of examples later, The choice of x and y as curvilincar coordinates does not result in any loss of generality. 5.8 Surfaces of Revolution secure of revolution i obtained by rotating x plane curve called the meridian shout an axis lying in the plane of the curve. This plane is known as the meridian plane. “The concepts developed in the previous articles will now be applied to find the principal curvatures of a aurface of revolution. Referring to Fig. 5-6, we may write the coordinates of the surface, noting that 7, = f(z), x = fla)om (S-Ba) = fa) sin (5-388) a= (5-38) v and @ ure obviously the curvilinear coordinates employed to describeements of Differential Geometry ond Clarsificetion of Sheile 37 the surface, “The position vector F of & point Pon the surface may be written as £ = f(z) cos 61 +f{z) sin 8 j + ak (3-39) Be am =f sin 84 + fla) con 8 j SE = Fa) condi + f(e)sind i +| | 5B = (Aayiheint 4 (Ula cont # = Uteny FE rete + Vereen re or oy we Hence =a FPe@ and Go [1+ Ofte a 1 w*El i ik oe . x En] flabsing slayene 0 eee Sujet Foye | =H) 00s #i + ls) sin i — fle) 10) k [S| = Cars cerca =f VT OOF Hence oo cos in — Ss “oer Vorer vivger o z — fhe) cos 8 — faa) sin 85 a rs vie er or 7 . Fe Sa) om bi + (esi P< ee Te Vi +a fh: @r/28 as is zero; hence M = 0. We may now substitute the values of E, G, iL, and N in (5-28) to get Font+ ene — Say Hs a sae (eal)Elements of Differemtio! Geometry end Clouificstion of Shetty 6 "The two principal curvatures are the two roots of this quadratic equation We may observe that F = M — 0. This means that the parametric curves are the lines af curvature for a surface of revolution. constant gives circles which are known as parallels of latitude and 8 = constant gives meridians, Solving (5-41), the two roots are ton ay and L ene = i; is easily identified ax the curvature l/r, of the generating plane curve. Referring to Fig, $-6, we know that = nll + PR =f + PET 1 1 UC . ‘This is equal toc, found in (5-43), Hence 1 ay (5-44) 5-9 Some Definitions Before we cx: classify shell surfaces, we need a few mare definitions. ‘A ruled surface may be defined as 2 surface formed by the motion of a straight line which is known as the generator or ruling, A surface is said to be singly ruted if at every point only a single straight line can be ruled and doubly ruled if at every point two straight lines can be ruled. Conical shells, conoids, and cylinders are examples of singly ruled surfaces; the hyperbolic paraboloid and the hyperboloid of revolution of une sheet are examples of doubly ruled surfaces (Fig. 5-7), Ruled surfaces have the practical advantage that they may be cast om straight forms. A surface of tranulation is generated by the motion of a plane curve parallel to itscif ‘over anether curve, the planes containing the two curves being at right angles to cach other. One of the curves may be a straight line as in a cjlinder. ‘The clliptic paraboloid, generated by 2 convex parabols moving over another convex parabola or by # cancave parabola moviig($1 Background Mathemetics ower another concave parabola, is a surface of translation (Fig. 5-8). A special case of this is the paraboloid of revolution for which both the Parabolas involved are identical. If a convex parabola maves over # ‘concave parabola or vice versa, a hyperbolic paraboloid is generated. Porn! of vmeaiten Fro, $8 ‘The equation of 4 translation surface can always be written in the form # = file) + fly) G43) 5-10 Classification of Shell Surfaces Shell surfaces may be broadly classified as singly curoed and doubly cureed. Cylinders and cones are examples of singly curved surfaces Singly curved surfaces are developable, ‘Thus a cylinder can be developedeased an oe ae = 3 pl oS i | !