Welding Introduction

Welding is the most efficient and flexible of all methods used to join metals. Most metallic products and
components associated with industry are welded. In fact, the efficiency and economy of industrial plant
used in power generation, steel production, oil drilling and refining, fertiliser manufacturing, etc. depend
largely on the correct application of welding.
Welding is a joining process of two materials, where weld is defined as coalescence of metals or alloys
produced by application of heat with or without application of pressure. Filler material may or may not be
used. Welding, in combination with allied process like thermal cutting, brazing, braze welding and metal
spraying has provided ample freedom to designer to develop metallic products in which optimum
mechanical properties, lightness and aesthetics are harmoniously blended.
Weldability is the capacity of a metal to be welded under the fabrication condition imposed, into a specific,
suitable designed structure, and to perform satisfactorily in the intended service". This definition
underlines the fact that Weldability is not an intrinsic property of the a metal like density or hardness, but
is determined by several extraneous factors. Also a metal can have several degrees of Weldability
depending on the process, procedure and service conditions. For examples Aluminium is not easily
weldable if SMAW is used but is readily weldable by TIG welding. Cast Iron is considered weldable if the
given purpose is repair a crack but is non-weldable if the purpose is to fabricate a pressure vessel out of
it. Carbon Steel is normally considered to have excellent weldability but is not suitable for sub zero
applications in the welded form, because of its low notch toughness at low temperatures.
A large number of welding and allied processes have come into industrial use in the last 30 years.
Variations and extensions of these processes are being developed to put practical use from time to time.
The wide range and variety of these processes enables the engineer to join almost all commercial metals
and alloys in many different shapes and sizes and in thickness ranging from a fraction of a millimetre to
over 500 mm.
Plain carbon steel, low-alloy steels, stainless and heat-resisting steel, and many non-ferrous metals and
their alloys (such as Aluminium, Nickel, Titanium etc.) are welded extensively. Modern industrial products
such as automobiles, pipelines, pressure vessels, storage tanks, machinery, power generation equipment,
offshore platforms, oil refineries and fertiliser plants, owe their development and efficient performance to
welding.
Welding processes that use an electric arc are the most widely used in industry. The arc may be
established between an electrode and base metal, as in Shielded metal arc welding and Gas metal arc
welding, or the arc may occur with in welding heat source, as in Plasma arc welding. Furthermore, an inert
gas, granulated flux, or gaseous slag products of a consumable electrode are protect the arc and molten
metal.

Welding Processes
Major arc welding processes are:

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)

Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW)
Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW)
Submerged Arc Welding (SAW)
Flux Cored Arc Welding (FCAW)
Electroslag / Electro-gas Welding (ESW/EGW)

7. Plasma Arc Welding (PAW)

Out of the above, SMAW & GTAW are most commnly used for mainteannce purposes. Hence only these
two are discussed in detail. However, brief description of other welding processes are also given

SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING (SMAW):

Shielded metal arc welding is an arc welding process in
which coalescence of metal is produced by heat from an
electric arc that is maintained between the tip of a
coated electrode and the surface of base metal in the
joint being welded.
Arc shielding is obtained from the gases that form as a
result of the decomposition of certain ingredients of
electrode coating. The shielding employed, along with
the core wire, largely controls the mechanical properties,
chemical composition and metallurgical structure of the
weld metal.

However the main functions of electrode coating are:

#
#
#
#
#

Provides a gas to shield the arc.

Provides de-oxidizers and fluxing agents that prevent excessive grain growth.
Establishes the electrical characteristics of the electrode.
Provides a slag blanket to protect the hot weld metal from the air.
Increase the ionization potential.

Besides these functions, some times some alloying elements are also present in the electrode coating to
change the mechanical properties of weld metal.

Types of flux/Electrode
Arc stability, depth of penetration, metal deposition rate and positional capability are greatly influenced by
the chemical composition of the flux coating on the electrode. Electrodes can be divided into three main
groups:
a. Cellulosic
b. Rutile
c. Basic

Cellulosic electrodes

contain a high proportion of cellulose in the coating and are

characterised by a deeply penetrating arc and a rapid burn-off rate giving high welding speeds. Weld
deposit can be coarse and with fluid slag, deslagging can be difficult. These electrodes are easy to use in
any position and are noted for their use in the 'stovepipe' welding technique.
Features
* Deep penetration in all positions
* Suitability for vertical down welding
* Reasonably good mechanical properties
* High level of hydrogen generated - risk of cracking in the heat affected zone (HAZ)

Rutile electrodes

contain a high proportion of titanium oxide (rutile) in the coating.

Titanium oxide promotes easy arc ignition, smooth arc operation and low spatter. These electrodes are
general purpose electrodes with good welding properties. They can be used with AC and DC power sources
and in all positions. The electrodes are especially suitable for welding fillet joints in the horizontal/vertical
(H/V) position.
Features
* Moderate weld metal mechanical properties
* Good bead profile produced through the viscous slag
* Positional welding possible with a fluid slag (containing fluoride)

* Easily removable slag

Basic electrodes

contain a high proportion of calcium carbonate (limestone) and calcium

fluoride (fluorspar) in the coating. This makes their slag coating more fluid than rutile coatings - this is
also fast-freezing which assists welding in the vertical and overhead position. These electrodes are used
for welding medium and heavy section fabrications where higher weld quality, good mechanical properties
and resistance to cracking (due to high restraint) are required.

Features
low weld metal produces hydrogen
requires high welding currents/speeds
poor bead profile (convex and coarse surface profile)
slag removal difficult
Process Scope of SMAW
The shielded metal arc welding is used in joining and surfacing application on a variety of base metals.
The suitability of the process for any specific base metal depends on the availability of a covered
electrode, whose weld metal has the required composition and properties. Electrodes are available for the
following base metals.
# Carbon steels
# Low alloy steels
# Corrosion resisting stainless steels
# Cast Irons
# Aluminum & Aluminum alloys
# Copper & Copper alloys
# Nickel & Nickel alloys
# Cobalt & Cobalt alloys
The Shielded metal arc welding is adaptable to any material thickness within certain practical and
economical limitations. For material thickness less than 2 mm, the base metal will melt through and
molten metal will fall away before weld can be established. Because of limited deposition rate, it is
economically not advisable to go beyond 38 mm (1.5"). Most of the Shielded metal arc welding
applications is on thickness between 3 to 38 mm. One of the major advantages of Shielded metal arc
welding is that welding can be done in any position on most of materials for which this process is suitable.
Therefore, it is useful on joints that can not be placed in flat position.
Classification of SMAW Electrodes:
American Welding Society has classified the Shielded Metal Arc Welding Electrodes for different materials.
A numbering system has been devised for electrodes of different materials.
AWS A5.1-81 "Specification for Carbon Steel Covered Arc Welding Electrodes"
This coding system starts with the prefix E, which designates an electrode. Then the next two-digit
number is 60 or 70. The number 60 indicates tensile strength of at least 60 ksi of the weld deposit.
Similarly, 70 means minimum weld metal tensile strength of 70 ksi.
The third digit indicates the position in which the electrode can be used satisfactorily, as follows:
1 F, V, OH, H
2 F, H-fillet
4 F, OH, H, V-down
the last two digits (third & fourth) taken together indicates current condition (type of current) and the
type of coating. Following table shows the complete classification, as also the significance of the last two
digits.

Type of covering
AWS
Classification

Weld Metal
Strength

Welding
position

Type of
current

High cellulose sodium>

E6010

60 ksi

F, V, OH, H

D+

High titania potassium

E6013

60 ksi

E6020

60 ksi

E7018

70 ksi

F, V, OH, H

D+, A

H-fillet

D-. A

F, V, OH, H

D+, A

F, OH, H, Vdown

D+, A

High iron oxide

E7048

70 ksi

Low hydrogen potassium

iron powder
Low hydrogen potassium
iron powder

AWS A5.5-81, "Low alloy steel covered arc welding electrodes"

This classification system is the same as for carbon steel electrodes, i.e., the prefix E designates the
electrode; the first two digits (or three of a five digit number) designate the minimum tensile strength of
the weld in ksi.
The third digit (or fourth digit of a five digit number) indicates the welding position. The last two digits,
taken together, indicate the current condition as well as the coating type exactly as in the carbon steel
electrode classification. In addition, a letter suffix such as A1, B1, C2, etc., designates the chemistry of
deposited metal.
AWS A5.4-81, "Specification for corrosion resisting chromium and chromium-nickel steel covered welding
electrodes
This is a very exhaustive standard covering 38 classes with chromium in the weld deposit ranging from 4.0
to 32% and nickel from nil to 37%.
In this standard, the electrodes are classified on the basis of the chemistry and mechanical property
requirements of the weld metal. The classification system consists of suffix letter E (to indicate an
electrode) followed by various combination of digits and letters to indicate the chemical composition of
weld metal , which is further followed by -15 or -16 to indicate position of welding and type of current.
In stainless steel electrode, the core wire chemistry and weld metal chemistry need not necessarily be
identical. For example, an E308 Mo electrode or an E310 electrode may have 304 SS type core wire and
flux covering alloyed with requisite proportions of Cr, Ni or Mo (if necessary). Hence it would be incorrect
to verify an electrode class by analysing its core wire. One must get at un diluted all weld metal and
determine its core wire chemistry.
In designation -15 and -16, 1 indicates that the electrode (in size 4 mm and lower) can be used in all
positions. The last digit 5 means that the electrode works only on DC+; 6 means the electrode works
either on AC or DC+.
A few classes carry suffix L, which indicates that the carbon content in the deposits is restricted to 0.04 %
maximum, in order to obtain resistance to intergranular corrosion caused by carbide precipitation, which
can occur when the carbon content is higher and welded joint is exposed to corrosive media in service.
Where suffix ?H?, it indicate high carbon content. These are meant for the welding of high alloy, heat and
corrosion resistant castings of same general composition.
Power source
Electrodes can be operated with AC and DC power supplies. Not all DC electrodes can be operated on AC
power sources, however AC electrodes are normally used on DC.
GAS TUNGDTEN ARC WELDING (GTAW):

Gas tungsten arc welding is a welding process

wherein coalescence of metals is produced by
heating them with an electric arc between a tungsten
(non-consumable) electrode and the work. Shielding
of electrode, the arc, and weld zone is obtained from
a inert gas or mixer of inert gases. Filler material
may or may not be added.
Gas tungsten arc welding is very good for joining
thin base metals because of excellent control of heat
input. The process itself leads to high quality
welding. In very critical service application, for very
expensive metals or parts, the materials should be
carefully cleaned off surface dirt, grease and oxides
in preparation for welding.

However the limitations of the process are:

1.
2.
3.

Slower process than consumable electrodes.

Tungsten contamination
Higher equipment and welding cost than other processes.

Process Scope of GTAW

This process is being applied increasingly to industrial pipe welding and it is extensively used on almost all
of the ferrous and non-ferrous piping materials. The root passes of substantial quantities of carbon steel
piping, especially those for critical application, are welded with Gas tungsten arc welding process. For pipe
wall thickness more than 1/4", it is economical to complete the pipe weld with other welding process such
as Shielded metal arc welding or Gas metal arc welding, after the gas tungsten arc root pass has been
made. Root run by GTAW is also preferred where flushing of the lines after welding is not possible.
Virtually all the tube to tube sheet welding is done with automated gas tungsten arc welding equipment,
with or without the addition of filler material.
Tungsten Electrodes (Non-consumable)
Electrodes for gas tungsten arc welding are classified as pure Tungsten, Tungsten with one or two percent
Thoria, Tungsten with 0.15 to 0.4 percent Zirconia. These tungsten electrodes are generally available in
diameters ranging from 0.25 to 6.4 mm.
Tungsten electrodes of 99.5 % purity are less expensive and are generally used in less critical operation. A
pure Tungsten electrode has a relatively low current carrying capacity with A.C power and has a low
resistance to contamination.
Tungsten electrodes with 1 or 2 % Thoria are superior to pure Tungsten electrode in several respects.
They have higher electron emmissivity, better current carrying capacity, higher life and greater resistance
to contamination.
Tungsten electrodes that contain some Zirconia have properties that generally fall between those of pure
and Thoria containing Tungsten electrodes.
GAS METAL ARC WELDING (GMAW):

Gas metal arc welding is an electric arc welding

process, which produces coalescence of metals by
heating them with an arc established between a
continuous filler (consumable) electrode and the
work. Shielding of arc and molten weld pool is
obtained entirely from an externally supplied gas or
gas mixture.
All commercially important metals such as carbon
steel, stainless steel, aluminium, and copper can be
welded with this process in all positions by choosing
appropriate shielding gas, electrode and welding
conditions. The vast majority of gas metal arc
welding applications requires the use of direct
current reverse polarity (electrode positive). This
type of electric connection yields a stable arc,
smooth metal transfer, relatively low spatter loss and
good weld bead characteristics for the entire range of
welding current used.
GMAW is operated in semiautomatic, machine and automatic modes. It is utilised particularly in high
production welding.

SUBMERGED ARC WELDING (SAW):

Submerged arc welding produces
coalescence of metal by heating them
in an arc (or arcs) maintained between
a bare metal electrode (or electrodes)
and the work. A blanket of granular,
fusible material placed over the welding
area shields the arc. Filler metal is
obtained from the electrode and some
times from a supplementary welding
rod or other metallic addition.
The feature that distinguishes
submerged arc welding from other arc
welding processes is the granular
material that covers the welding area.
In common use of this material is
termed as flux although it performs
several important functions in addition
to those strictly associated with a
fluxing agent.
SAW is used extensively in ship and
barge building, railroad car fabrication,
pipe manufacturing, and the fabrication
of structural members where long
welds are required.

FLUX CORED ARC WELDING (FCAW):

Flux cored arc welding is an arc welding process which produces coalescence of metal by heating them
with an arc between a continuous filler metal (tubular and consumable) electrode and the work. Shielding
is provided by a flux contained within the tubular electrode and may be supplemented by an externally
supplied gas.
The feature that distinguishes the flux cored arc welding process from other arc welding process is the
enclosure of fluxing ingredients within a continuously fed electrode. The benefit of flux cored arc welding
are achieved by combining two general features.
1.
2.

The productivity of continuous welding.

Metallurgical benefits that can be achieved from a flux.

FCAW has found wide application in shop fabrication, maintenance and field erection work.
ELECTROSLAG / ELECTRO-GAS WELDING (ESW/EGW):
Electroslag welding is a welding process
producing coalescence of metal with
molten slag, which melts the filler
metal, and the surface of the work to
be welded. The molten slag shields the
molten weld pool, which move along
the full cross- section of the joint as
welding progresses.
The process is initiated by starting an
electric arc between the electrode and
joint bottom. Granulated flux is then
added and melted by the heat of arc. As
soon as a sufficient thick layer of
molten slag is formed, all arc action
stops and the welding current passes
from the electrode through the slag by
electrical conduction.
Welding is started in a sump or on a starting tab to allow the process to stabilise before the welding
reaches the work. Heat generated by the resistance of molten slag, to the passage of welding current, is
sufficient to fuse the edge of the work piece and the welding electrode.
The flux is a major part in successful operation of the Electroslag welding process. Flux composition is of
at most importance since its characteristics determines how well the process operates. During the welding
process, the flux is melted into slag that transforms the electrical energy into thermal energy to melt the
filler metal and base metal.
This welding process is extensively used for welding of thicker sections. Process is used in structural, ship,
pressure vessels and castings welding.
PLASMA ARC WELDING (PAW):

Plasma arc welding is an arc welding process where

coalescence of metals is produced by heating with a
constricted arc between an electrode and the work piece
(transferred arc) or between the electrode and
constricting nozzle (non-transferred arc). Shielding is
generally obtained from the ionised gas issuing from the
orifice of the constricting nozzle.
Low-current plasma arc welding applications are:
1. Thin wire mesh screen filters.
2. Small wire butt welds.
3. Relay case fabrication.
4.

Bellows assemblies.

High-current plasma arc welding applications are:

1.
2.
3.

Stainless steel and titanium tubing (longitudinal welds).

Girth joints in pipe fabrication.
Missile tankages.

4.

Turbine engine components.

Welding of Carbon Steel

Carbon steel represents a broad range of steel that contain 1.0 % Carbon (maximum), 1.65 % Manganese
(maximum) and 0.6 % Silicon (maximum). These steels do not contain alloying elements like Chromium, Nickel
or Molybdenum. Carbon steels are sub-divided into four categories based on their carbon content. Typical use
and their weldability of these steels are as follows:

Common
Name

Carbon
content
(%)

Typical Use

Weldability

Low
Carbon
Steel

0.15
maximum

Special plates
and shapes,
sheet, strip,

Excellent

Mild Steel

0.15 0.30

Structural
shapes, plates
and bar

Good

Medium
Carbon
Steel

0.30 0.50

Machine part
and tools

Fair (preheat and

post weld heat is
normally required)

High
Carbon
Steel

0.50 - 1.0

Spring, dies,
rails

Poor (preheat post

weld heat and low
hydrogen welding
process is required)

Main problems that are associated with welding of carbon steel are:
a.

b.

c.

d.

Martensite transformation:
Martensite transformation is more predominant in steels where carbon percentage is more than 0.35
%. Martensite is the supersaturated solution of carbon in alpha iron. It is very hard and brittle.
Martensite formation from austenite is accompanied by increase in specific volume (about 3 percent)
This is the main reason why larger stresses are set up in weldment and crack can occur.
To avoid, this preheating is done prior to welding and post welding heat treatment is also done.
Hot Cracking:
The other problem in plain carbon steel is due to presence of sulphur in steel. In steel sulphur easily
forms iron sulphide, which has a very low melting point, which remains liquid even when whole
structure is solidified.
To avoid this we add Mn so that sulphur will form MnS because thermodynamically the formation of
MnS is more favourable than FeS. However in absence of Mn the maximum allowable sulphur is 0.04
%. Phosphorous has also similar effect as sulphur. But it if both sulphur and phosphorous are present
we use high oxide (FeO) electrodes. These electrodes have oxygen percentage of 0.2 %.
Hydrogen Induced Cracking:
Such cracking is also known as under bead cracking or delayed cracking. It generally occurs at
temperature below 100 0C immediately upon cooling or after a period of several hours. The time
depends on type of steel, magnitude of welding stress and hydrogen content of weld and Heat
Affected Zone (HAZ). Hydrogen induced cracking in welded joints may be caused by stresses
developed from transformation hardening or by excessive stresses imposed upon the joint. Such
cracking is associated with the combined presence of three conditions,
1. Presence of Hydrogen in Steel.
2. A Susceptable microstructure, that is partly or wholly martensitic.
3. A Tensile Stress at the sensitive location
Hydrogen induced cracking will not take place if any one of these conditions is absent or at low level.
Strain Ageing:
At certain position in solid's, nitrogen atoms diffuse to dislocations and cause segregation. This
segregation of nitrogen atoms block the movement of dislocation, preventing the plastic deformation
and leading to embrittlement. This phenomenon occurs at 250 0C. Strain ageing is avoided by heating
the weld at 6000C.
Although carbon is the most significant alloying element affecting weldability, the effects of other
elements can be estimated by equating them to an equivalent amount of carbon. Thus, the effect of
total content can be expressed in terms of a carbon equivalent.

CE = %C + (%Mn + %Si)
4
SELECTION OF ELECTRODE & FILLER WIRE
Selection of welding electrode (or filler wire) is based on compatibility between base metal to be joined and
service requirement of the weldment. Carbon steel can be welded with essentially any classification of covered
carbon steel electrodes within certain limitation and service requirement. These limitations are the carbon and
strength level of the base metal and the restrain condition. The essential factors in selection of electrodes for
carbon steels are:
a. Mechanical Property
b. Material Composition
c. Cost
a.

Mechanical Property:
Carbon steel electrodes classified in the type E60xx series may be used for welding lower carbon
content steel. Where higher strengths are required, electrodes possessing higher weld metal deposits
strength i.e. E70xx series, are used. For full penetration welds, an electrode must be selected to
ensure compatibility with the minimum strength level of the base metal. For fillet welds, the matching

b.

c.

of minimum strength properties may be compromised to the extent of modifying the weld size.
Material Composition:
Carbon steel which posses less than 0.3 % Carbon are readily weldable with any class of Low Carbon
Steel electrode. Steels which posses a Carbon content on the range of 0.3 % to 0.6 % Carbon have
restriction in the applied welding procedure and electrode selection. In this range, low Hydrogen
electrodes are necessary. Preheating may be required depending on carbon content, condition of
restraint and service temperature. Post weld heat treatment may be required depending upon service
requirement. With Carbon content above 0.6 %, the welding procedure requires the same precautions,
but uses higher preheat temperature. Carbon steels containing over 0.05 % Silicon require low
Hydrogen electrode.
Cost:
The principal factors when considering welding cost is deposition rate. This influences overall welding
cost in two areas: cost of labour and productivity. The higher the deposition rate, the greater the
number of inches of weld that can be produced per unit of time. Deposition rate, however, with its
effect upon welding travel speed should not exceed the maximum travel speed capability required to
maintain quality welds.

QUALITY OF CARBON STEEL WELDS:

The welds in plain carbon steel can be divided into two groups depending upon their tensile strength.
1.

2.

Welds of high yield and ultimate tensile strengths.

This type of welds are produced by coated electrode or Oxy-Acetylene welding because these
processes have high rate of cooling thus having fine grain size which lead to high yield strength and
high ultimate tensile strength.
Welds of low yield and ultimate tensile strength.
These types of welds are produced by submerged arc welding. In submerged arc welding whole weld
metal is submerged in flux blanket. So heat dissipation is low leading to low cooling rate and thus
large grain size, low yield and ultimate tensile strength of the.

Welding of Alloy Steels

Alloy steels of these family contain 0.5 to 9.0 % of Chromium and 0.5 or 1 % Molybdenum. The carbon
content is normally less than 0.20 % for good weldability, but the alloys have high hardenability. The
chromium provides improved oxidation and corrosion resistance and molybdenum increases strength at
elevated temperatures. Chromium-Molybdenum (Cr-Mo) Steels are widely used in petroleum industries
and in steam power generation and elevated temperature application.
The Cr-Mo steels are readily joined by arc welding and brazing processes commonly used for carbon
steels. The combined carbon and alloy content of these steels is sufficient to promote the formation of
Martensite from austenite on rapid cooling which may be hard and brittle. Steels in this group are also
very sensitive to hydrogen induced cracking. Therefore, the welding process and procedures should
minimise the presence of hydrogen during welding as well as the formation of Martensite. To avoid these
problems preheating and post weld heat treatment are done. Extent of preheat and post weld heating is
decided by "Carbon Equivalent" in the particular steel.
CARBON EQUIVALENT:

Although Carbon is the most significant alloying element affecting weldability. The effects of other
elements can be estimated by equating them to an equivalent amount of carbon. Thus the effect of total
alloy content can be expressed in terms of carbon equivalency (CE)

CE = %C + %Mn
6

{%Cr+%Mo+%V}
5

{%Si + %Ni + %Cu}

15

Steels having CE less than 0.35 usually require no preheating and post heating. Steels having CE between
0.35 and 0.55 usually require preheating, and steels with CE more than 0.55 require both preheating and
post heating. Because the carbon equivalent is calculated from base metal composition and includes no
other variable, it is only an approximate measure of weldability or susceptibility to weld cracking. Section
thickness or weldment restraints are of equal or greater importance.
Three major steps are invloved in the welding of the Low Alloy Steels. These are:

a.

Preheating
Preheating is required in most cases to prevent hardening and cracking. Recommended minimum
preheat and inter pass temperatures for various thickness of Cr-Mo steels are given bellows.

Base Metal Group

Nominal Wall Thickness (mm)

Minimum
Preheat &
Interpass
Temperature
(0C)

Alloy Steel Cr <0.5%

<12.7 mm
>12.7 mm

10
80

Alloy Steel
0.5% < <>

All

150

Alloy Steel
2.25% < 10%<>

All

175

b.

The method of heating should be one that will provide a uniform temperature along the entire
joint length before welding is started. Also the width of the heated area should be sufficient to
ensure that the temperature is nearly uniform through out the thickness.

c.

Selection of Electrode/Filler Material

The filler metal should have the same nominal composition as the base metal, except for the
carbon content. Normally the carbon content is lower than that of the base metal. Suggested
welding consumables are given below.

Electrode for SMAW *

Electrode for GTAW #

E80XX-B1

ER80X-B2L

E80XX-B2
E80XX-B2L

ER80X-B2
ER80X-B2L

E90XX-B3
E90XX-B3L

ER90X-B3
ER90X-B3L

3Cr-1Mo

E90XX-B3
E502-XX

ER90X-B3
ER502

5Cr-1Mo

E502-XX

ER502

7Cr- /2Mo

E7Cr-XX

ER502

Alloy Steel
1

/2Cr - 1/2Mo

1Cr -1/2Mo,
11/4Cr -1/2Mo
2Cr -1/2Mo,
21/4Cr - 1Mo

ER505
9Cr-1Mo

E505-XX

ER505

d.

* Shielded Metal Arc Welding Electrodes from AWS Specification A5.4-78 or A5.5-81.
# Welding Rod or Filler material from AWS Specification A5.9-77 or A5.28-79.

e.

Post Weld Heat Treatment

A stress relief heat treatment is used to reduce welding stresses and also to increase the ductility
and toughness of the weld metal and heat affected zone (HAZ). The welded joint or the entire
weldment is heated to some temperature below the temperature at which the steel will begin
transformation to austenite. Recommended temperature and holding time for alloy steels are
given below:

Base Metal
Group

Nominal Wall
thickness (mm)

Recommended
Temperature
Range

Holding Time
(hr/Inch of wall
Thk)

Minimum
Holding Time

Alloy Steel
Cr

1/2 %

Alloy Steel
1
/2% < <>
Alloy Steel
21/4<CR<10%<
td>

<19

None
595-720 OC

None
1

None
1

>12.7

<12.7

None
705-745 OC

None
1

None
2

All

705 OC

>19

Common Welding Defects

In Welding, the main objective is to obtain sound, defect-free welded joints, but this is not always easy to
attain. It has to be admitted that perfect welds are almost impossible to obtain on a production scale.
Normal welds always contain minute slag inclusions or porosity as revealed in non-destructive testing.
Such small imperfections, which cause some variation in the normal average properties of the weld-metal,
are called discontinuities. When a discontinuity is large enough to affect the function of the joint, it is
termed a defect. Defects are caused by substandard welding consumables, inadequate welding
procedures, insufficient workmanship, lack of cleanliness, unfavourable properties of the base metal, and
extraneous agencies such as low ambient temperature and atmosphere. Even when all these factors are
taken care of, imperfections can and do occur and they may be allowed or removed and repaired as
dictated by the nature of the fabrication and its intended service.
Having realised that consistent production of radiographically perfect welded joints is an expensive
exercise and gouging out and repairing internal welding defects increases fabrication costs considerably,
standard codes do permit limited levels of imperfections based on fracture mechanics approach, taking
into consideration the service conditions of the fabrication. Different types of welding Defects are:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Lack of Penetration
Lack of Fusion
Undercut
Slag Inclusion
Porosity
Crack
Faulty Weld Size & Profile

8. Distortion

1.

Lack of Penetration:
This defect occurs at the root of the joint when the weld-metal fails to reach it or the weld-metal
fails to fuse completely with the root faces of the joint. As a result, a void remains at the root
zone, which may contain slag inclusions. In a fillet weld, poor penetration at the root zone can
give rise to cracking. Incomplete penetration is caused by incorrect size of electrode in relation to
the form of joint, low welding current or inaccurate joint preparation and fit-up. It occurs more
often in vertical and overhead positions. The figure shown below are depicts the various types of
Lack of penetration caused by different parameters.

d
a) Excessively thick root face
b) Too small a root gap
c) Misplaced welds
d) Power input too low
e) Arc (heat) input too low

2.

In a butt weld where access is possible only from one side, adequate root penetration is ensured
by using a temporary or permanent backing and depositing the first pass with a sufficiently high
current. When a butt joint is to be welded from both sides, care must be taken to chip out or
flame gouge the back of the first run before depositing the back run from the second side of the
joint. The groove formed after chipping or gouging must reach the sound metal and be wide
enough to permit proper manipulation of the electrode and ensure full penetration of the weldmetal while the backing run is being deposited.
In a fillet weld, adequate root penetration is ensured by using the correct size of electrode (4 or
5 mm diameter) and sufficiently high current, and directing the arc towards the root during
deposition of the root pass. The use of a small electrode (3.15 or 2.5 mm diameter) at relatively
low current does not necessarily mean improved penetration.
Rectification of this defect is a very costly proposition, because it requires removal of the entire
thickness of the weld and rewelding. Care must be taken that after removing the defective metal,
a sufficiently wide groove remains, in which the electrode can be correctly manipulated.

3.

Lack of Side Wall Fusion:

Lack of fusion is defined as a condition where boundaries of unfused metal exist between the
weld-metal and base metal or between adjacent layers of weld-metal. The term should not be
confused with lack of penetration.
This defect is caused by the presence of scale, dirt, oxide, slag and
other non-metallic substances, which prevent the underlying metal
from reaching the melting temperature. Improper deslagging of a
weld pass also causes it, before an adjacent or overlapping pass is
deposited. When individual passes are badly placed or their
surfaces are rough, thorough deslagging becomes difficult. In such
cases, the weld should be chipped or gouged before the next pass
is deposited. One typical example of lack side wall to weld metal
pool fusion is shown here.

s
4.

To prevent the occurrence of this defect, the following steps should be taken:

a. Keep Joint surfaces free

b. Use adequate welding current

c. Deslag each weld pass throughly

d. Place weld passes correclty next to each other.

5.

Undercut:
This defect appears as a continuous or discontinuous groove at the toes of a weld pass and is
located on the base metal or in the fusion face of a multipass weld. It occurs prominently on the
edge of a fillet weld deposited in the horizontal position.
It is usually caused by excessive welding current. It may also result from too high a speed of arc
travel, wrong electrode angle or excessive side manipulation. In special cases, it is caused by
damp or improperly formulated electrodes.
The defect is rectified by filling up the undercut groove with a weld pass. If undercut is deep and
contains slag, it should be chipped away before rewelding. If the rectification is being carried out
on thick joints and on high-tensile steels, the welding procedure including preheating should
correspond to the recommended procedure for the particular steel.

6.

Slag Inclusion:
Non-metallic particles of comparatively large size entrapped in the weld-metal are termed as slag
inclusion. The term should not be confused with non-metallic inclusions, which result from the
metal-slag reactions in the molten weld pool and are finely dispersed throughout the weld. Slag
inclusions are detected by the normal non-destructive testing methods, while non-metallic
inclusions are observed in the weld microstructure at high magnification.
Slag inclusion usually occurs in multipass welds due to imperfect cleaning of the slag between the
deposition of successive passes. Heavy mill scale, loose rust, dirt, grit and other substances
present on the surface of the base metal or bare electrode may also cause it. Typical slag
inclusions are shown below

7.

Slag in between the passes

Typical rediograph showing slag inclusion
To prevent slag inclusion, following steps are taken:
a. Use proper welding consumables .

b. Keep joint surfaces (especially gas cut surfaces) and bare filler wires Perfectly clean .
c. Avoid undercuts and gaps between deposited passes .
d. Clean the slag thoroughly between weld passes.
To rectify this defect, the portions of weld-metal, which contain slag inclusions, must be removed
and then filled with sound weld-metal.

8.

Porosity:
The presence of a group of gas pores in a weld caused by the
entrapment of gas during solidification is termed as porosity. The
pores are in the form of small spherical cavities, either clustered
locally or scattered throughout the weld deposit. Sometimes the
entrapped gas gives rise to a single large cavity, which is termed
as a blowhole. In some rarer cases, elongated or tubular gas
cavities are presented. These are referred to as piping or
wormholes.

9.

Porosity is caused by:

# Chemically imperfect welding consumables, for example, deficient in deoxidisers.

# Faulty composition of the base metal or electrode wire, for example, high sulphur content.
# Oil, grease, moisture and mill scale on the joint surface .
# Excessive moisture in the electrode coating or submerged-arc flux .
# Inadequate gas shielding or impure gas in a gas-shielded process .

# Low welding current or too long an arc.

# Quick freezing of the weld deposit.
Presence of small, finely dispersed porosity is normally not expected to affect the static and even
dynamic properties of a welded joint. However, excessive porosity, blowholes or piping must be
guarded against, as they seriously impair these properties. Their presence is detected by the
conventional NDT methods. The defective portions must be removed and rewelded.

10. Crack:
Crack is defined as a discontinuity caused by the tearing of the metal while in a plastic condition
(hot crack), or by fracturing of the metal when cold (cold crack). It represents a failure under
stress of a metal when it is behaving in a brittle manner, i.e. it is inclines to fracture without
deformation.
Cracking can occur in the weld-metal, at the fusion line or in the base metal. Cracks may be
classified according to location and direction of line and they may range in size from large cracks
which can be seen by the naked eye (called macrocracks), to extremely small fissures which are
detected with the aid of a microscope (called microcracks).
Hot Cracks

These cracks occur at temperatures above 540 C

and when observed under the microscope, are to
have travelled across the boundaries between the
grains (intergranular). If the crack has extended to
the surface, the fractured surface is found to be
coated with blue scale or possibly black scale.
A typical example is FeS (iron sulphide). In a
solidifying steel rich in sulphur, the last trace of the
liquid containing FeS will not solidify until about 980
C. Such hot shortness caused by sulphur can be
avoided by having enough Mn in the steel, because
sulphur has higher affinity for this element than for
Fe.
11. Hot cracks can also occur in the HAZ of the base metal when it contains complex carbides or
intermetallic compounds of lower melting points. Such cracks have been reported in the welding
of Cr-Mo steel tubing having the following composition: 0.35 % C, 1.0 % Cr and 0.20 % Mo.
Cold Cracks

These cracks usually occur in the HAZ of the base

metal, when this zone becomes hard and brittle due
to its rapid cooling after the weld-metal has been
deposited, and sufficient hydrogen has been
absorbed by the weld-metal from the arc
atmosphere. Joint restraint also contributes to its
occurrence. Cold cracking is also referred to as
hydrogen-induced cracking. Cold cracking can be
prevented by using
# A steel of lower carbon equivalent
# Higher heat input during welding
# Preheating
# Low hydrogen welding consumables.

12. Crater Crack

This crack tends to occur in the crater formed at the end of a weld bead, because the crater cools
at a faster rate than the rest of the bead, and because the crater solidifies from all sides towards
the centre. Hence it is a form of shrinkage cracking. Crater cracking is encouraged by elements

like C, S and Cb, which are prone to segregation. To reduce the possibility of its occurrence, the
crater must be filled up properly with the weld-metal and the electrode withdrawn gradually.

13. Faulty Weld Size and Profile:

A weld, which is otherwise correctly deposited and formed, is termed faulty when it is different in
shape and/or size from that specified.
A butt weld is considered faulty if it has lack of reinforcement, excessive reinforcement or
irregular profile. When the face of a weld lies below the parent plate surface, the weld is said to
have lack of reinforcement. On the other hand, when the weld-metal is deposited in excess of the
reinforcement required or specified, the weld is considered as having excessive reinforcement.
All these faults arise from the use of an incorrect welding procedure and will not occur if the
following factors are correctly specified and follow:
# joint preparation and fit-up;
# electrode size and welding current;
# number and locations of runs and
# welding speed or length of run per electrode.
In the case of a fillet weld, faulty weld size refers to undersize weld or weld of variable size as
measured by the minimum leg length. Faulty profile refers to excessive concavity or convexity,
unequal leg lengths and irregular weld face.
Excessive concavity or convexity may be caused by an incorrectly formulated electrode, or by use
of incorrect welding current.

14. Distortion:

Because a weldment is locally heated (by most welding processes), the temperature distribution
in the weldment is not uniform and changes take place as welding processes. Typically, the weld
metal and the base metal heat-affected zone immediately adjacent to it are at a temperature
substantially above that of the unaffected base metal. As the molten pool solidifies and shrinks, it
begins to exert shrinkage stresses on the surrounding weld metal and heat-affected zone area.
When it first solidifies, this weld metal is hot, relatively weak, and can exert little stress. As it
cools to ambient temperature, however, the shrinkage of the weld metal exerts increasing stress
on the weld area and eventually reaches the yield point of the base metal and the heat-affected
zone.
Residual stresses in weldments have two major effects. First, they produce distortion, and
second, they may be the cause of premature failure in weldments. Distortion is caused when the
heated weld region contracts nonuniformly, causing shrinkage in one part of the weld to exert
eccentric forces on the weld cross section.
The distortion may appear in butt joints as both longitudinal and transverse shrinkage or
contraction, and as angular change (rotation) when the face of the weld shrinks more than the
root.
Distortion in fillet welds is similar to that in butt welds: transverse and longitudinal shrinkages as
well as angular distortion result from the unbalanced nature of the stresses in these welds.

Control of distortion can be achieved by a number of techniques. The most commonly used are
those which control the geometry of the weld joint, either before or during welding. Examples of

these techniques include prepositioning the workpieces prior to welding so that weld distortion
leaves them in the desired final geometry, or restraining the workpieces so they can not move
(and distort) during welding.

Safety in Welding
Welding is associated with several hazards to health and safety. Welders, welding operators and welding
supervisors should be aware of these safety issues.
1. The workshop environment
It must be ensured that the lighting conditions are adequate for the work undertaken. Welders
stand for long periods of time, since they must keep a very steady hand position, and this means
that they can become quite cold if the workshop is not sufficiently well heated. Conversely in hot
weather, the environment can become unbearably hot, and the welder has not got the option of
removing clothing. Both overheating and underheating can cause fall in comfort, efficiency and
productivity.
Housekeeping is extremely important to avoid slips, trips and falls, damage to equipment and
fire. One typical example Safe and Unsafe condition is shown below.

2.

3.

Unsafe Workshop Environment

Unsafe Workshop Environment

Electrical Safety
Welding supervisor needs to establish the level of competence of the electrician who is given the
task of wiring the installation, and the type of maintenance, which the installation and the
equipment will subsequently need. There should be a requirement for periodic electrical checks to
be done on power sources. The design of welding power sources themselves has gone through a
number of changes, and for each, there are different standards of safety.
Fume
Welding vaporizes metals, and anything, which is resting on the surface. This gives rise to fume,
which is condensed fine particulate material. The fume is mostly oxides of the metals, including
any alloying elements, but it also contains gases produced in the arc, such as ozone or oxides of
nitrogen, and decomposition products from any paint or coating which was on the metal surface.
The nature and quantity of this fume depends critically upon the welding process, the materials
and the welding parameters. Some is harmful to health, for instance stainless steel fume contains
chromium, and welding galvanized steel produces zinc fume. These metal fumes cause Metal

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

fume fever.
Metal fume fever is a condition in which the sufferer has influenza type symptoms - a raised
temperature, chills, aches and pains, nausea and dizziness. It is caused by exposure to the fume
of certain metals - commonly zinc. Other metals that have been reported to bring on the
symptoms of metal fume fever include copper and cadmium.
The symptoms start to appear several hours after exposure. Metal fume fever arising from
exposure to zinc fume is transient, and recovery is usually complete within a few days. However
exposure to some metal fume, such as cadmium, can cause more serious illness, or even death.
Although cadmium is not used any longer as a metal coating, it can still be found on older
installations. Exposure to cadmium fumes can occur during welding repairs/maintenance or oxygas cutting arising from decommissioning operations.
It is desirable to prevent exposure to such fume altogether by the use of efficient fume
extraction. Any surface coatings on steel must be identified before welding or cutting. Coatings of
zinc or cadmium will require special consideration, and if welding is taking place, the coating
should be removed both side of the weld and far enough back to prevent the generation of any
fumes. In some circumstances, breathing apparatus may be required.
Noise
Welding environments are frequently sufficiently noisy to be above 85dB(A). Some operations,
such as de-slagging can take the noise level in excess of 108dB(A). This means that hearing
protection is almost certain to be required, at least for some operations. Some health surveillance
may be necessary.
Optical Radiation
The welding process produces a large quantity of visible light, ultraviolet and infrared. Exposure
to the radiation from an arc causes burns to the skin, and damage to the eyes. For this reason,
welders need to wear clothing to protect their bodies and arms, regardless of the weather
conditions. They also need efficient eye protection, which is usually supplied in the form of a
protective shield. The precise choice of the shade of glass filter in these shields depends on the
type of welding operation, since they vary in their light output.
Welders assistants also need protective clothing and eye protection. Passers-by should be
protected by placing opaque or properly filtered screens around the work area.
Burns and Mechanical Hazards
Welders need good quality gloves, preferably leather gauntlets, safety boots or shoes and good
quality cap and overalls. A leather apron may also be needed. Welding produces quantities of
molten droplets of metal which are scattered in all directions. It is essential that the welder wears
clothing which will not burn or melt, and which is stout enough to provide adequate protection. In
a workshop environment, suitable safety footwear is essential.
Gas Cylinders
Gas Cylinders need to be stored to conform with the regulations, and the welders need to be
aware of the safety rules - such as the use of the correct regulator, tethering the cylinder so that
it does not fall, keeping the outlets free from contamination such as oil or grease.
Welding in difficult situations - outdoors, confined spaces
There are many work situations that add to the hazards of welding. Each must be assessed
carefully, since there may be added hazards such as falls or asphyxiation. This is particularly true
of work in confined spaces, where there is a very real risk of death, and the employer should
make a critical assessment of the work to be done, and how it may be carried out safely. There
may be statutory requirements in these situations. Guidance literature is available in most
countries.