AE6602

VIBRATIONS AND ELEMENTS OF AEROELASTICITY

UNIT II MULTI DEGREES OF FREEDOM SYSTEMS

UNIT 2: MULTI-DEGREE OF FREEDOM SYSTEMS

THREE DEGREES OF FREEDOM SYSTEM
Equations of Motion
A simple 3-mass 4-springs system: Newtons law:

Fig 1

mx

1 1

mx
2

k1 x1 k2 (x1
k1 (0) k2 (x2

x2 ) k3 (0) k4 (0) f1 (t)

x1 ) k3 (x2

m3 x3 k1 (0) k2 (0) k3 (x3

(2.1)

x3 ) k4 (0) f2 (t)

x 2 ) k4 x3

(2.2)

f3 (t)

(2.3)

Rearranging

m1x1 (k1

k2 )x1

k2 x2

m2 x2 k2 x1 (k2 k3 )x2
mx

3 3

0 f2 (t)

(2.4)

k 3 x3

(2.5)

0 k3 x2 (k3 k4 )x3

f2 (t)

f3 (t)

(2.6)

In the matrix form

m1

0
0 m2
0 0

0 x1

(k1 k2 )

k2

k2

mx

(k2 k3 )
k3

3 3

0 x1f1
k3

(k k ) x
3 4

(2.4)

Note the symmetry of [K] matrix, kij = kji .Eqn (2.7) can be expressed as

M x K

(2.8)

3. Free
Vibration

Then assuming a solution,

xi (t) = Xi sin t

(3.1)

xi (t) = - Xi sin t
Equation (2.7) reduces to
02 X

m 0
1

(k k
2

0 m2

X2

k2

(3.2)

0 X
2

(k2

k3

k3 )

0
1

(k k ) X

(3.3)

3 4
3
3
3
k3
0
0
Dividing each row in the present problem by the respective mass - that is, in general
case, equivalent to pre-multiplication by inversion of mass matrix we get

X
2

(k k

)/m

k2 / m2

k2 / m2
0

/m
2

(k2

0
1

k3 / m 2

k 3 ) / m2

(k2 k3 ) / m22
k
/m
3

k3 / m2
2

(k k

X
X

0
1

)/m X
4

(3.4)

k3 / m 3
(k3 k4 ) / m3 X3
k
/m
0

) / m2

(k k
1

k
1

(3.6)

0
3

Since Xis = 0 is not a desired solution, the frequency determinant should be zero.

) / m2

(k k
1

k /m
2

k
(k k
2

/m

0
2

)/m

/m

k /m
(k

(3.7)

)/m
3

This will lead to a cubical frequency equation in 2 and is not simple, in general, for manual
computation. Either computer or approximate method should be resorted to, except in
special cases.
Special Cases
There are two special cases, where one root will come out easily and hence the remaining
equation will be quadratic and solved for two remaining frequencies. They are
1) Physically symmetric case.
2) Semi-definite case.
4. Physically Symmetric System: Refer the Figures
First system: (Fig 1)
If (k1 + k2)/m1 = (k3+ k4)/m3, there will be physical symmetry.

Second system: .(Fig 2)

Fig 2
Here k4 = 0. Therefore, if (k1 + k2)/m1 = (k3)/m3, there will be physical symmetry.
Common sense will help to save time. Copying will land in problem.
Exercise: 2 Draw schematic pictures of the mode shapes of this solution.
Exercise:1(b) For the case in Exercise 1(a), find and sketch mode shapes.
Exercise: 3 System 2: (Fig 2) For the following values of k and m formulate equations of
motion.
(a) k1 = k2 = k3 = k; m1 = m; m2 = 4m; m3 = 2m
(b) k1 = k2 = k; k3 = 4k; k4 = 0; m1 = m; m2 = 4m; m3 = 2m

Fig 2
6. Case 2: Semi-definite System
An example of 3-DoF semi-definite system with 3 masses & 2 springs is shown in Fig 3

Fig 3
Using (X)i[M]{X}j = 0, i j verify orthogonality.
3-DoF DAMPED SYSTEM

Example 2

Consider k1 = k, k2 = 2k, k3 = k. m1 = m, m2 = 2m, m3 = 2m

Equation of motion:

m 0

0 2m
0

3k2k 0 x1

x1

2k

2mx

0
3

3k

(1)

As before xi = Xi sint . This leads to

m
2

0 X1 3k2k 0 X1

0 X

2m

3kk

2k

0
X

(2)

Rewriting (2)

3k m

2mX

2k

3k 2m

2k

k
2

k k

k 2m

X1

0
3

(3)

0
3

For vibration to occur Xi,s are not zero in general. Then determinant of square matrix must
be zero. Dividing by k and letting m2/k = , (3) becomes

0 X1

2
2 3 2
0

1 1 2X3

0
0

(4)

(3 - )[3 - 2 )(1- 2 ) - 1] 2[-1x0 + (1 2 ) x 2] = 0

(3 - )[3 - 2 )(1- 2 )] - (3 - ) 4(1 2 ) = 0
(3 - )[4 2 - 8 + 3] 7 + 9

=0

12 2 - 24 + 9 - 4 3 + 8 2 - 3 - 7 + 9 = 0
- 4 3 + 20 2 - 18 + 2 = 0
3 - 5 2 + 4.5 - 0.5 = 0

(5)

 = 1 is one root; hence dividing (5) by (1 - )

2 - 4 + 0.5 = 0

(6)

1, 3 =2 (22 - 0.5)0.5 = 2 (3.5)0.5

= 2 (1.871) = 0.129, 3.871
12, 32 = 0.129 k/m, 3.871 k/m

(7)
(8)

1, 2, 3 = 0.359k/m, 1.00k/m, 1.97 k/m

(9)

To find mode shapes, go to (4).

From row 1,
(3 - ) X1 2 X2 = 0
X2/ X1= (3 - )/2 = 1.5 0.5

(10)

Mode 1: = 0.129 ; Let X1 =1. X2 = (1.5 0.5 x 0.129) = 1.4436

Mode 2: = 1; X2 = (1.5 0.5 ) = 1
Mode 3: = 3.871; X2 = (1.5 0.5 x 3.871) = - 0.4355
To find X3, go to row 2
- 2 X1 + (3 2 ) X2 - X3 = 0
X3 = - 2 X1 + (3 2 ) X2

(11)

Mode 1: = 0.129 ; Let X1 = 1; X1 = 1.4436.

X3 = - 2 + (3 2 x 0.129) 1.4436 = 1.9583
Mode 2: = 1; X2 = 1;
X3 = - 2 X1 + (3 2 ) X2 = - 2 + (3 2) = - 1
Mode 3 ; = 3.871; X2 = = - 0.4355;
X3 = - 2 + (3 - 2 x 3.871) (- 0.4355) = 0.06514
(X)T1 = (1
(X)T2 = (1
(X)T3 = (1

1.4436

1.9583)
1

- 0.4355 0.06514)

- 1)

Modal Matrix [X] = 1.4436

0.4355

1.9583

(12)

0.0651

Normalization of Mode shape

This is done by dividing every component of the modal vector by [XTMX]. For this let
us compute [XTMX]1,2,3 .
This will still help to diagonalize the [M] & [K] matrices so that the equations of motion
will reduce to n single degree-of-freedom systems as before, but having the new M
matrix a unit matrix and still K matrix a diagonalized matrix having its elements directly
the frequencies.
Then it is much easier to solve the problem for forced vibrations of any degrees of
freedom systems.

MODE1
m
1 1.4436

1.9583 0
0

1 1.4436

0 1

2
m

0
0
1

1.4436
2m 1.9583

(13)

5m

(14)

1.9583 2.8872 m

3.9166
(1 4.168 7.67)m 12.838m
MODE 2
m
1 1

1 0 2m
0

01
0

2m1

MODE 3
1 0.4355

0.0651 0

2m

0
0

1
2x0.4355 m

0.4355 0.0651

(1

2x0.0651
0.3793 0.008476)m 1.3878m

The normalized mode shapes

are

1
0.4355

2m

0.0651
(15)

MODE1
1
X1

0.2787

(1/12.83m) 1.4436(1/ m) 0.4029

1.9583

0.5466
(16)

MODE 2
1
X2

(1/ 5m) 1

0.4472
1/ m) 0.4472

0.4472

MODE 3
1

0.8489

X 31/1.3878m 0.4355

(18)

1/ m 0.3697

0.0651

0.05526

The normalized Modal Matrix

0.2787
[X]

0.4472

(1/ m) 0.4029 0.4472

0.5466

0.4472

0.8489
0.3697

(19)

0.05526

{Checking: It is not necessary normally. Here we do it to first get convinced and next to
verify the correctness of our computation.
[X]T [M][X]

0.2787

0.4029

0.4472

0.4472

0.8489

0.3697

0.2787

0.4029

0.4472

0.4472

0.8489

0.3697

0.5466

m 0

0.4472 0 2m
0.05526

0 0

0.54660.2787

0.2787

0.4472

0 (1/ m) 0.4029

0.4472

0.3697

0.4472

0.05526

2m

0.5466

0.4472

0.4472 2x0.4029 2x0.4472

0.05526

2x0.5466 2x0.4472

0.8489

0.8489

2x0.3697
2x0.05526

Elements (1,1) = 0.99987363 1, (2,2) = 0.9999392

1, (3,3) = 1.00009473 1, (1,2) = 0.0087 0
Within the reasonable approximation level the diagonal
elements =1 and other elements are zero, forming an identity
matrix . Hence it checks.

0.2787

0.4029

0.4472

0.4472

0.8489

0.3697

0.2787

0.54663k
0.4472 2k
0.05526

0.4029

0.54660.0303

2k

0.2787

0.4472

(1/ m) 0.4029

0.4472

0.3697

0.5466

0.4472

0.05526

0.4472

3.2861

0.4472

0.4472

0.4472 0.1047

0.8944

2.8622 (k / m)

0.8489

0.3697

0.05526 0.1437

0.8944

0.4296

0.8489

Elements (1,1) = 0.12917466 0.129; (1,2) = - 0.00389 0;

(2,2) = 0.9999392 1; (3,3) = 3.87146533 3.871. These values tally with
earlier derivations of frequencies.}
The equation of motion in the normalized form therefore is
q1

0.129

0 q1

0 3.871 q3

q
3

f
T

p(t)X

p1
(20)

(t)

p
3

0.2787

0.4029

0.5466

(t)

f2 (t) (1/ m)

0.4472

0.4472

0.4472 f2 (t)

(t)
0.8489
0.2787 f1 (t) 0.4029 f2

0.3697 0.05526
(t) 0.5466 f3 (t)

(21)

(1/ m)
0.4472 f1 (t) 0.4472 f2 (t) 0.4472 f3 (t)
0.8489 f (t) 0.3697 f
(t) 0.05526 f
(t)
1

(t)

If there is only a force F0(t) on mass 3, f1(t) & f2(t) are zero. Then

0
T

p(t)X

0.5466

0 (1/

m) 0.4472
0.05526

F t

F0 t

, (21A)

The decoupled single degree-of-freedom system of equations, considering up to 3 decimals:

q1 0.129(k
q2

/ m)q1 (1/

(k / m)q2

m)(0.546)Fo(t)

(1/ m)( 0.447)Fo(t)

q3 3.87(k / m)q3

(1/

m)(0.055)Fo(t)

(22)
(23)
(24)

Solutions for forced vibrations

(i)
Suddenly applied a constant force F0
For this solution for a single degree-of-freedom case is available.
{For example: Recall S DoF.

q1 12q P
Use Doperator .
(D2

)q1 P

q1 (P) / (D2 12 ) (P) / ( 12 )(1 D2 / 12 ) (P / ( 12 )(1 D2 / 12 ) 1 (P / (

1

)(1 D2 / 12 ........)

(P / ( 12 ) being aconst, D2 (P / ( 12 ) 0
Therefore
q1 (P / (

2
1

)}

These steps need not be done if one has properly understood the
S - DoF step force excitation.Thus the steady state solution: General case:
q = P/ 2
Total solution :
q = A sin t + B cos t + (P/ 2 )
P is suddenly applied. Hence,
Initial conditions : q(0) = 0 & v(0) = 0
q(0) = 0 = B + (P/ 12 ) B = - (P/ 12
) Differentiating, v =A cos t (B ) sin t
v(0) = A + 0 A = 0
q = (1 - cos t) (P/ 2)
For the 3-DoF system
Replacing P by (1/m) 0.546 F0 and since 12 = 0.129
k/m, q1 = (1/m 12 ) 0.546 Fo
= (1/m 0.129 k/m) 0.546 Fo = m 4.23 F0 /k
Therefore the solutions in principal coordinates are:

q1 = m 4.23(Fo/k) (1 - cos 1t)

Since 12 = 0.129 k/m (see previous
section), 1 = 0.359k/m; 22 = 1.00 k/m, 2 = k/m;
32 =3.87 k/m 3 = 1.97k/m.
Corresponding to Eqns (22), (23) & (24), the solutions are

q1 = m 4.23(F0 /k) (1 - cos 0.359k/m t)

(25)

q2 = - m 0.447(F0 /k) (1 cos k/m t)

(26)

q3 = m 0.0142(F0 /k) (1 - cos 1.97k/m t)

(27)

Now the solution in original physical coordinates x1, x2 & x3 is required.

Recall {x} = [G] {q}. In the case on hand [G] is normalized to Modal matrix
[X]. Therefore

[X] (1/ m)

0.2787

0.4472

0.4029

0.4472

0.8489
0.3697

0.4472 0.05526
0.5466
Considering approximation to3 decimals
x
0.279
0.447 0.849 q
1

x
3

(1/ m) 0.403

0.447

0.547

0.447

0.370 q

0.055

x1 = (1/m) (0.279 q1 + 0.447q2 + 0.849q3)

Since q,s have m), (see 25, 26 & 27), in the next result m gets cancelled.
x1 = (F0 /k) [(0.279 x 4.23 (1 - cos 0.359k/m t)

- 0.447 x 0.447(1 cos k/m t)

+ 0.849 x 0.0142 (1 - cos 1.97k/m t)]
x1 = (F0 /k) [1.180 1.180 cos 0.359k/m t)
- 0.200 + 0.200 cos k/m t)
+ 0.012 - 0.012 cos 1.97k/m t)]
x1 = (F0 /k) [0.992 1.180 cos 0.359k/m t)
+ 0.200 cos k/m t)
- 0.012 cos 1.97k/m t)]
x2 = (1/m) (0.403 q1 + 0.447q2 - 0.370q3)
x2 = (F0 /k) [0.403 x 4.23 (1 - cos 0.359k/m t)
- 0.447 x 0.447(1 cos k/m t)
- 0.370 x 0.0142 (1 - cos 1.97k/m t)]
x2 = (F0 /k) [1.705 1.705cos 0.359k/m
t) - 0.2 + 0.2 cos k/m t)

(28)

- 0.0053 + 0.0053 cos 1.97k/m t)]

x2 = (F0 /k) [1.5 1.705cos 0.359k/m t)
+0.2 cos k/m t)
+ 0.0053 cos 1.97k/m t)]
x3 = (1/m) (0.547 q1 - 0.447q2 + 0.055q3)
x3 = (F0 /k) [0.547 x 4.23(1 cos 0.359k/m t)
+ 0.447 x 0.447(1 cos k/m t)
+ 0.055 x 0.0142 (1 - cos 1.97k/m t)]
x3 = (F0 /k) [2.314 2.314 cos 0.359k/m t)
+ 0.2 0.2 cos k/m t)
+ 0.0008 -0.0008 cos 1.97k/m t)]
x3 = (F0 /k) [2.513 2.314 cos 0.359k/m t)
0.2 cos k/m t)
- 0.0008 cos 1.97k/m t)]
NOTE: In Kelleys answers, there are some sign errors.
(ii) Sinusoidal excitation force F0 sint:
q1 0.129(k
q2

/ m)q1 (1/

(k / m)q2

m)(0.546)Fosin t

(22A)

(1/ m)( 0.447)Fosin t

q3 3.87(k / m)q3

(1/

(23A)

m)(0.055)Fo sin t

(24A)

The steady state responses are ,

for 12 = 0.129 k/m, 22 = 1.00 k/m and 32 = 3.87 k/m,
q1 = m 4.23(F0) sint /(0.129k/m - 2 )

(25A)

q2 = - m 0.447(F0) sint /(k/m - 2 )

(26A)

q3 = m 0.0142(F0) sint /(3.87 k/m - 2 )

(27A)

0.2787
[X]

(1/ m) 0.4029
0.5466

0.279

0.4472

0.8489

0.4472 0.3697
0.4472 0.05526
0.447 0.849 q
1

x
2

x
3

(1/ m)

0.403
0.547

x1 = (0.279 q1 + 0.447q2 + 0.849q3)

0.4470.370
0.447 0.055 q3

q
2

(28)

x2 = (1/m) (0.403 q1 + 0.447q2 - 0.370q3)

x3 = (1/m) (0.547 q1 - 0.447q2 + 0.055q3) Since
q,s have m, in the next result m gets cancelled.

x1 = 0.279 x 4.23(F0) sint /(0.129k/m - 2 )

+ 0.447 x (- 0.447(F0) sint /(k/m - 2 ) )
2

+ 0.849 x 0.0142(F0) sint /(3.87 k/m - )

x1 =( F0)[1.18 sint /(0.129k/m - 2 )

- 0.2 sint /(k/m - 2 )
2

+ 0.12 sint /(3.87 k/m - )]

x2 = (0.403x 4.23(F0) sint /(0.129k/m - 2 )

+ 0.447 x (- 0.447(F0) sint /(k/m - 2 ) )
- 0.370 x 0.0142(F0) sint /(3.87 k/m - 2
) x2 = (F0)[(1.7 sint /(0.129k/m - 2 )
- 0.2 sint /(k/m - 2 )
- 0.0053 sint /(3.87 k/m - 2 )]
x3 = (F0 [( (0.547 x 4.23 sint /(0.129k/m - 2 )
- 0.447 x (- 0.447 sint /(k/m - 2 ) )
+ 0.055 x 0.0142 sint /(3.87 k/m - 2 )]
x3 = (F0 [2.31 sint /(0.129k/m - 2 )

+ 0.2 sint /(k/m - 2 ) )

+ 0.0008 sint /(3.87 k/m - 2 )]
3 DoF - DAMPED - HARMONICALLY FORCED VIBRATION
(Example 6.31: Kelly)
Given: m1 = 30, m2 =60, m3 = 30 kg
k1 = 2x105 , k2 = 1x105 , k3 = 3x105 N/m
c1 = 2000 , c2 = 1000 , c3 = 3000 N-s/m

30 0
[M ]

60 0

Equations of motion

30

3
5

[K ] 10

1 0
1 43
0 3 3

[C] 10 1 4
0 3

3 (1)
3

m1

m2

0 0
(k k
)
1

k2

x1

(c1 c2 )

c2

c2

(c2 c3 )

0
0x

c3
f

m x

3 3

k
(k2

c
3

c x 33
(2)

k3 ) k3

k3

x0 x1

If xi = Xi sint, the accelerations & displacements will have sint term; but the velocity
will have cost term; they are at 90o apart. A different approach is needed as below.
In this problem f1 = f2 = 0and f3 = 200 sin50t
Let the harmonic force in general be,
F(t) = R sint + S cost (3) In this problem, however,
S is zero.

{R}

{S} 0

(4)

200

And = 50 rad/s and 2 = 2500

The steady state solution of equation (2) is
x(t) = U sint + V cost

(5)

Let the unknowns U & V be

Ui = Xi cosi

Vi = - Xi sini

(6)

Then (5) becomes

xi(t) = Xi sint cosi - Xi cost sini = Xi sin(t - i)

(7)

From (6), the amplitude of vibration of the 3 masses are

Xi = (Ui2 + Vi2)

(8)

and
tan i = -Vi / Ui, i = 1,2,3

(9)

In the new approach,

U and V are solutions of
(-2 M + K)U - CV = R
CU + (-2 M + K)V = S

(10)
(11)

Substituting the numerical values in (10) & (11)

3x105 0.75x105
1x105
0
3x103
50 1x103
0

1x105
0
4x105 1.5x105
3x105
3x105
3x105 0.75x105
1x103
4x103
3x103

0
V 0
3
3x10 3
0
V
3
V
3x10

U1
U

2
3

(10 A)
200

3x103
50 1x103
0

1x103
4x103
3x103

0U1
3x10 U 2
3
3x10 U

3x105 0.75x105
1x105
0

1x105
0
V
5
5
5
4x10 1.5x10
3x10
V
5
5
5
3x10
3x10 0.75x10 V

0
0

(11A)

Now there are 6 unknowns and 6 algebraic simultaneous equations to solve for U i and Vi,
i = 1, 2, 3
Kelly has given the answer for X3 = (U32 + V32) = 0.0168 mm
NOTE: Free Vibration is most involved. The principle is explained in 2-DoF.
SELF-EXCITED VIBRATIONS
Free vibration is started by energy supplied by either initial displacements or initial velocities or
both. The supply of energy in general is not continued. In other words no power is supplied but
only initial energy is supplied. The alternating force of vibrations thereafter is generated and
sustained within the system. The free vibration will sustain itself indefinitely, if there is no
dissipation, since the initial energy supplied is preserved alternating between kinetic and
potential energies. This is a case of response to initial energy conditions.
Forced vibration is started and sustained by continuous supply of energy, that is, supply of
power. Note the external power transmitted through external vibratory force that is the
cause of vibration. This is a case of steady state response to the externally applied
continuous vibratory force. It is a response problem.
elf-excited vibration is sustained by continuous steady supply of external energy, but not
through alternating force. The force to sustain vibration is self-generated internally. This is why it
is called self-excited or self-induced vibration. Then how is this different from free vibration?
Here there is continuous supply of energy. Theoretically self-excited vibration cannot start
unless the system is disturbed from its equilibrium position. But in practice there could be some
imperfection in the system or disturbing agent in the surrounding that will provide the necessary
condition to start the vibration. The vibration grows with time until it reaches a limit in most
cases. Hence it is a stability problem, not a response problem.

The mechanics and mechanism of transformation of the steady energy of the source to the

energy accumulation in vibration may be different for each of the variety of self-excitation
observed in practice. Table-I compares the features of these three types of vibrations
COMMON EXAMPLES
Several examples can be in nature for self-excited vibration or oscillation. Some
commonly noticed examples are illustrated here.
Flutter of a flag in wind: Grass in flowing water: Urumi melam: Windpipes and instruments:
Violin:
SOURCE AND TRANSFORMATION AGENT OF ENERGY
The way the self-excited vibration is set and sustained differs from case to case. In
most cases the dry friction is the agent. In some cases the viscous damping is responsible
for self-excitation and instability, contrary to the common belief and expectation that
damping would help attenuating vibration. In all cases however energy is added in each
cycle, suggesting a notion that damping is nullified or made negative in effect.
Shafts running in bearings and guides whirl and at times whip, having considerable
clearance with dry friction. The energy source is the kinetic energy of the shaft itself and
the agent of self-excitation is the dry friction between the shaft and the bearing.
Cutting tools chatter in turning or shaping under certain conditions of relative
characteristics of the cutting tool and its holder and the object being machined. The tool angle,
the tool position, the cutting angle, the tool tip geometry, the relative metal properties and the
speed of cutting are some of the parameters that influence the self-excitation.

Nose-wheel of an aircraft wobbles under certain conditions gets self-excited and.

Here the energy source is the kinetic energy of the moving aircraft and the agent of energy
transformation is the dry friction between the track and the wheel.
Wings of aircraft flutter when air flows past, transforming the kinetic energy of the
flying aircraft through the viscous friction between the wind and the wing.
Vehicle body, especially windows, wind screen, window shutter glass panels etc,
flutter due to high velocity wind flowing past them. The source is kinetic energy and
transformer is friction.
Over-head electrical power transmission conductors are self-excited by wind vertical transverse vibration by horizontal wind. The energy source is the kinetic energy of
the flowing wind and the agent of transformation is the viscous friction between the
conductor surface and the flowing air.
MECHANICS OF SELF-EXCITATION
Dry friction in translation contacts
The important character of Coulomb dry friction is the difference in the static and
dynamic friction coefficients. The coefficient of friction decreases slightly with the relative
velocity between the contacting bodies.
The model in Fig 1 is a simple example to demonstrate the mechanics of selfexcitation due to dry friction. A mass m is attached to a spring fixed to ground at the other
end. It rests on the surface of a flat belt running at a steady velocity V. Neglect the initial
disturbance. Consider the steady state. The mass m should take an equilibrium (static)

position determined by the friction force F and the equal and opposite spring tension. In
practice, it is not happening but the mass vibrates horizontally and becomes unstable since
it builds up amplitude, cycle after cycle.
The friction force will not be constant if the relative velocity between the belt and the mass
changes. If by a small disturbance the body is displaced from the so-called static
equilibrium position, it starts vibrating. Let the amplitude of vibration be X and assume that
the velocity of the mass is less than that of the belt. Then while moving in the direction of
the motion the relative velocity is smaller and hence the friction force F1 is higher. During
the return motion the relative velocity will be higher and the

FIG 1
friction force F2 will be lower. Assume for simplicity F 1 and F2 are constant. During forward
stroke, the spring is extended adding energy (positive work) and during the return stroke,
the spring is released reducing energy (negative work). The net work done on the mass or
energy added to the vibration system during this cycle a complete traverse X in one
direction is
E = (F1 F2) X.
If dry friction law is applied, F1 =

(1)
1m

g and F2 =

E = m g ( 1 2) X.

m g and

(2)

Thus in every cycle E is added and the vibration amplitude X grows indefinitely, until some
thing happens to limit or stop it or the spring breaks.
Another example is shown in Fig 2. Here a horizontal flat plank is symmetrically supported
on two cylindrical rollers, rotating at the same speed but in opposite directions. Normally
we expect that the plank will be maintained in equilibrium with mass center at the middle, a
distance afrom the centers of the rollers. Suppose that we displace the plank center by a
distance x to the right. Then the plank, if left alone will oscillate horizontally. How?

FIG 2

Let us analyze further. The reactions at left and right supports will be
RL = mg (a x)/2a and RR = mg (a + x)/2a

(3)

Assume for the present, the coefficient of friction is constant = o that corresponds to the
instant when the plank is at rest at its extreme and the relative velocity is the linear velocity
of the roller surface. The respective horizontal friction forces due to the vertical support
reactions are RL and RR. The net horizontal force acting on the mass is
Fx =

(RL RR) = -

mg x/a

(4)

Considering the accelerating force of the mass

Fa = m d2x/dt2

(5)

Equating the two forces in (6) and (5),

m d2x/dt2 = -

mg x /a

d2x/dt2 + ( og /a) x = 0

(6)
(6A)

This is the familiar equation of vibration of the single degree of freedom system or simple
harmonic motion and has the circular frequency
2

g/a

(7)

Note the decrease of friction coefficient with relative velocity was not considered so far. The
friction coefficient at the support of the roller that assists the motion will be higher and that
at the one that opposes will be lower. Thus in each stroke a positive work is added.
As an approximation, let the higher and lower coefficients of friction respectively be
o - . Then (4) will be modified to be
Fx = ( o + ) RL ( o - )RR

+ and

(8)

Using (3), (8) reduces to

Fx = -

mg x /a + sign(mg )

(9)

Here the word sign in (9) denotes that the force is positive for motion in positive direction and
negative for motion in opposite direction. The equation of motion (6) gets modified to be

m d2x/dt2 +

mg x /a = sign(mg )

(10)

This is a case of vibration with the natural frequency, given by (7) with an addition of
positive energy in each cycle, thus resulting in build-up of amplitude leading to selfexcitation and instability.
The addition of energy in each cycle is due to the sign force in (10) for forward and
return strokes, traversing a distance of 4X and is given by
E = 4 mg X

(11)

The increase in amplitude of vibration in each cycle X can now be estimated approximately,
using E and the maximum kinetic energy of the vibrating plank T. For amplitudes X and X+
X, the corresponding maximum kinetic energies are
2

T = (1/2) m

X2

(12)

T1 = (1/2) m

(X+ X) 2

(13)

= (1/2) m

[(X) 2 +2 X X+( X) 2]

(14)

Ignoring ( X) 2as small,

E = T1 - T = m

X X

(15)

Equating (15) with (11)

X=4g

(16)

Eliminating 2from (16) using (7),

X = 4 ( / o) a

(17)

Dry friction in rolling contacts

Figure 3 shows a model that depicts the aircraft nose-wheel with a difference in that
the present relative motion is in the reverse direction and the kinetic energy is supplied by
the moving belt (track), where as there it is from the traveling aircraft.

FIG 3
This model could represent a trailer, yet with a difference in that here the energy supply
from the track, not from the truck. When the track speed is gradually increased, a stage is
reached when the wheel starts wobbling violently. This behavior is seen in trolleys. The
speed at which, such violent wobbling occurs depend on the relative stiffness of the
supporting structure and the wheel. The camber angle and the sense of motion, that is,
whether the wheel is pulled or pushed, have significant influence on this self-excitation.
This could also explain the wobbling of aircraft wheels.
Dry friction in rotational contacts
A pendulum, like a connecting rod is hinged on a rotating shaft (Fig 4). Its amplitude will
grow from cycle to cycle because the principle is similar to the one where a mass resting
on the belt gets self-excited. Here the source of energy is the rotational kinetic energy of
the shaft.

FIG4
The whirling and whipping of the shaft rotating in a clearance bearing already mentioned
needs some elaboration. What is the difference between whirling and whipping? Whirling
normally means the planetary motion of the shaft center as in the case of whirling in the
critical speed of the shaft as a standing wave. Even if it whirls in second or third mode of
the critical speed the planetary motion will be a standing wave growing in amplitude from
cycle to cycle. But a whipping will be a traveling wave, having different amplitude at the
same location from cycle to cycle.

GUIDE

Friction
force

FIG 5
Fig 5 shows a rotating shaft inside a clearance bearing. In practice it is noticed that the
machine runs smoothly as long as the shaft remains straight and does not touch the guide.
If by some chance the shaft touches the guide, a violent whirling is set up. The dry friction
at the contact point of the shaft and the guide causes a force that makes the shaft, while
rotating in its intentioned direction, roll on the interior of the clearance circle in the opposite
direction, taking the shaft center in a planetary orbit, which is the whirling. Since in whirling
there is no to-and-fro motion, the addition of energy through the dry friction force is positive
and continuous. The contact is maintained by the centrifugal force of the bent shaft. This
causes build up of amplitude and consequent instability reflecting in violent whirling.
The speed of whirling will be in one of the critical speeds, even though the shaft rotates at
different speed as intentioned. In running the shaft at its critical speed and getting a
whirling comes under forced vibration and resonant instability. But this whirling started by
dry friction contact of a rotating shaft at different speeds falls under self-excited whirling.
Fluid excited vibration

Among numerous cases of fluid induced vibration are there in real world, we can see three
cases here: aircraft wing flutter, transmission line vibration and suspension bridge. All these
three are wind-excited cases. Steady flow of liquid could excite vibrations in pipes,
conduits, valves, taps etc. Hydraulic and thermal power installations have experienced
severe vibrations and noise due to unmindful designs or careless installations.

FIG 6(a)

6(b)

6(c)

The phenomenon of fluid-excited oscillations is attributed to a principle called Von Karman

effect.(Fig 6 a). When a horizontal transverse flow of fluid passes over a cylinder, normally we
expect a horizontal displacement. In practice however the cylinder is self-excited to vibrate in a
vertical direction. This is due to unavoidable disturbance that causes the nucleus for further
vibration. This initiation may have root in unsteady wind, lack of straightness of cylinder as in
the case of a taut power conductor, lack of smooth continuity and uniformity as in the case of a
suspension bridge. If a blunt body is placed on the path of steadily flowing stream of wind and
the body is slightly disturbed to move upward, there is a pressure drop in the boundary at the
leading edge that is here above the body. However if it is constrained by spring, then it attains
equilibrium and returns. When it travels downward the same thing happens. On the downstream
it is reflected in a phenomenon called vortex shedding. This vortex shedding process adds
energy to the system taking the supply from the wind energy continuously. The vibration builds
up to a point when damping inherent in the system comes into play to limit the amplitude.
Otherwise the system fails due to instability. Fig 6b shows a scheme of a laboratory model to
demonstrate this phenomenon.

Flutter of the aircraft wing

One practical problem experienced is the flutter of the aircraft wing, which is the entire
carrier of the load. This is a coupled self-excited vibration with transverse translationtorsion coupling. The aerofoil shape is very favorable for coupled self-excited vibration.
Enormous work had been done to design safer wings eliminating vibrations, discomfort and
failure. But in the Tacoma bridge it is the thin shape was responsible for the coupling.

Tacoma Narrows Suspension Bridge

One of the striking cases is the failure of the Tacoma Narrows Suspension Bridge (Fig 7) in
Washington State on November7, 1940, within a few months after it was open for traffic on
July 1, 1940, having taken two years to construct. This was a classic wind-induced selfexcited vibration in low frequency but with very high amplitudes of coupled bending-torsion
mode. This coupling is characteristic of thin panels.
The bridge very well depicts a thin and long (nearly 1.8 km) panel Normally about 20 to 30
feet (7 to 10 m) deep trusses are used as part of the depth of such bridges. But in this
bridge a solid girder of 8 feet (3 m) depth was used, providing a favorable blunt body for
vortex generation and resulting self-excitation of galloping vibration at a windstorm of about
67 km/hr. Because of this, this bridge was nicknamed as Galloping Gertie. The transverse
vibration was at about 30 Hz and the torsional vibration at 14 Hz., approximating a traveling
wave condition. At the highest level of the bridge, one side of the bridge rose 20 feet (7 m)
above the other, due to torsion. . The peak noticed was 28 feet (9 m). A single piece of
about 600 feet (200 m) broke off. The bridge oscillated for about 90 minutes permitting
Professor Burt Farquharson of University of Washington to go home to bring his team with
movie cameras to film it for the benefit of the future generation. Bob Elliot and Harbine
Monroe filmed the movie.

FIG 7
Later it was found that this bridge was designed based only on transverse deflection under
traffic load. No consideration was given for the aerodynamic force, especially on thin decks,
which pose an aerofoil-like section. Only after thorough investigation and understanding the
wind effect, a new bridge was built 10 years later. (Some portion of this splendid movie is
available in the NET under the name Galloping Gertie, Tacoma Narrows Bridge)

Transmission line vibrations

Electric power transmission lines experience three major types of wind-induced vibrations. The
first is swaying in the direction of wind that does not come under self-excitation. The second is
galloping, a violent self-excited vibration of an elliptical path of the center of the conductor
cross-section, with major axis inclined forward from the vertical. Mostly it occurs in cold weather,
when ice sleets are formed on the conductor, which provide a favorable aerofoil-like cross
section for easy self-excitation. In a span of about 400 m, the amplitude of galloping in the midspan could be as high as 10 m. The oscillation is in first mode mostly and in frequencies in the
order of one cycle per second (1Hz). Its damaging effect is not fatigue failure of conductor. But it
causes damages more to the towers supporting the lines

and any structure nearby and at times breakage of line itself. It may result in outage of
power supply in the least case and catastrophic effect on material and human life. The third
and most common one is the Aeolian vibration, self-excited by vortex shedding at very high
modes in frequencies in the order of 100 200 Hz. The amplitude of the transverse
vibration is limited by the inherent self-damping capacity of the line. When the amplitude is
higher even after limited by the self-damping, external damping is applied through vibration
dampers. One such famous damper is Stockbridge damper.