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TQM 1 - 5 Units Notes PDF
TQM 1 - 5 Units Notes PDF
Vision Statement:
It is a short declaration of what an organization aspires to be tomorrow. It is the ideal state that might
never reached but which you continuously strive to achieve.
Example : We will be the preferred provider of safe, reliable, and cost-effective products and services that
satisfy the electric-related needs of all customer segments.
FLORIDA POWER & LIGHT COMPANY
Mission Statement :
The mission statements answers the following questions :
Who we are ? Who are the customers ? What we do ? and How we do it ?
It is the usually a one paragraph statement which describes the function of the organization. It provides a
clear statement of purpose for employees, customers and suppliers.
Example : To meet customers transportation and distribution needs by being the best at moving their
goods on time, safely and damage free.
CANADIAN NATIONAL RAILWAYS
Quality Policy:
The Quality Policy is a guide for everyone in the organization as to how they should provide products and
service to the customers. The common characteristics are
Quality is first among equals.
Meet the needs of the internal and external customers.
Equal or exceed the competition.
Continually improve the quality.
Include business and production practices.
Utilize the entire work force
Customer perception of quality
Before 1988 Performance, Prize and service
After 1989 Performance, service and prize
ASQ American Society for Quality
1. Performance availability (ready for use), reliability (free from failure), maintainability
2. Features psychological and technical. Added feature along with main usage
3. Service intangible, made up of many small things
4. Warranty Vs guarantee. Customer feels comfortable with this
5. Price value for money, ready to pay at the same time comparative study to be done
6. Reputation Branding merges with quality. Good exp reaches 6 bad reaches 15
Service Quality
Shift in focus from manufacturing industry to service industry and the services involved in manufacturing
organization.
Customer service is the set of activities an organization uses to win, attract and retain customers. It can be
provided before, during and after the sale of the product.
Elements of customer service
Organization
1. Identify each segment where the organization needs to concentrate on quality
2. Write down requirement Proper documentation of quality policy in the form of a handbook
3. Communicate requirements Inform its importance to all levels in the organisation
4. Organize process create a systematic process as it is ongoing and never ending process
5. Organize physical spaces aesthetics, atmosphere, room space, recreation, wifi etc
Customer Care Henry Ford The boss just handles the cash it is the customer who pays your
salary
1. Meet the customers expectation treat all customers alike, respond quickly
2. Get the customers point of view think in the point of view of a customer
3. Deliver what is promised keep up promise at any cost
4. Make the customer feel valued customer must feel that due respect and importance is given to him
5. Respond to all complaints minimize complaints and eradicate similar and repeated complaints
Pareto analysis is a formal technique useful where many possible courses of action are competing for
your attention. In essence, the problem-solver estimates the benefit delivered by each action, then selects
a number of the most effective actions that deliver a total benefit reasonably close to the maximal possible
one. Use of Pareto principle in prioritizing or ranking a range of items which have different levels of
significance. Its objective is to separate the 'vital few' from the 'useful many.'
Steps to identify the important causes using Pareto analysis
Step 1: Form a table listing the causes and their frequency as a percentage.
Step 2: Arrange the rows in the decreasing order of importance of the causes (i.e, the most
important cause first)
Step 3: Add a cumulative percentage column to the table
Step 4: Plot with causes on x- and cumulative percentage on y-axis
Step 5: Join the above points to form a curve
Step 6: Plot (on the same graph) a bar graph with causes on x- and percent frequency on y-axis
Step 7: Draw line at 80% on y-axis parallel to x-axis. Then drop the line at the point of
intersection with the curve on x-axis. This point on the x-axis separates the important causes (on
the left) and trivial causes (on the right)
Step 3: Brain-storming. The team members generate ideas as to what is causing the effect.
Step 4: This step could be combined with step 3. Identify, for each main cause, its related sub-causes
that might affect our quality concern or problem (our Effect). Always check to see if all the factors
contributing to the problem have been identified. Start by asking why the problem exists.
Step 5: Focus on one or two causes for which an improvement action(s) can be developed using other
quality tools such as Pareto charts, check sheets, and other gathering and analysis tools.
Conclusion: Improvement requires knowledge. The more information we have about our processes the
better we are at improving them. Cause-and-effect diagrams are one quality tool that is simple yet very
powerful in helping us better understand our processes
Ten Principles of Customer/Supplier Relationship
1. Customer and supplier fully responsible for quality control
2. Customer and supplier must be independent and interdependent
3. The customer must provide clear information to the supplier
4. Proper understanding in quality, quantity, price, delivery and payments
5. Supplier must satisfy the customer need
6. Both must accept the evaluation in terms of quality and service
7. Contracts must be signed so the disputes can be settled amicably
8. Both must have exchange of information to improve quality and service
9. Both should strive for mutual satisfaction and good relationship
10. Both should think in the shoes of the end user.
Partnering
Benefits
1. Improved Quality
2. Increase efficiency
3. Lower cost
4. Increase the opportunity for innovation
5. Continuous improvement of product and service
Key Elements in Partnering
1. Long-term commitment
2. Trust
3. Shared vision
CONTRIBUTIONS OF CROSBY:
Crosby's approach to quality was unambiguous. In his view, good, bad, high, and low quality are
meaningless concepts in the abstract; the meaning of quality is "conformance to requirements."
What that means is that a product should conform to the requirements that the company has
itselfestablished based on its customers' needs. He also believed, that the prime responsibility
for poor quality lies with management, not with the workers. Management sets the tone for thequality
initiative from the top.
Nonconforming products are ones that management has failed to specify or control. The cost of
nonconformance equals the cost of not doing it right first time, and not rooting out any defects in
processes.
"Zero defects" does not mean that people never make mistakes, but that companies should notbegin with
"allowances" or substandard targets with mistakes as an inbuilt expectation. Instead,work should be seen
as a series of activities or processes, defined by clear requirements andcarried out to produce identified
outcomes. Systems that allow things to go wrong and thatresult in those things having to be done again
can cost organizations between 20% and 35% of their revenues, in Crosby's estimation.
His seminal approach to quality was set out in Quality is Free, and is often summarized as the
"Fourteen Steps."
1. Management commitment it: the need for quality improvement must be recognized and
accepted by management, who then draw up a quality improvement program with an emphasis
on the need for defect prevention. Quality improvement equates to profit improvement. A quality
policy is needed which states that "...each individual is expected to perform exactly like the
requirement or cause the requirement to be officially changed to what we and the customer
really need."
2. The quality improvement team: representatives from each department or function should
be brought together to form a quality improvement team. Its members should be people who
have sufficient authority to commit the area they represent to action.
3. Quality measurement: the status of quality should be determined throughout the
company. This means establishing and recording quality measures for each area of activity in
order to show where improvement is possible and where corrective action is necessary. Crosbyadvocated
delegation of this task to the people who actually do the job, thus setting the stagefor defect prevention on
the job, where it really counts.
4. The cost of quality evaluation: the cost of quality is not an absolute performance
measurement, but an indication of where the action necessary to correct a defect will result in
greater profitability.
5. Quality awareness: this involves making employees aware of the cost to the company of
defects, through training and information, and the provision of visible evidence of the results of a concern
for quality improvement. Crosby stresses that this sharing process is a key, or even the key, step in the
progress of an organization toward quality.
6. Corrective action: discussion of problems will result in the finding of solutions and also
bring to light other elements that are in need of improvement. People need to see that problems
are regularly being resolved. Corrective action should then become a habit.
7. Establishing an ad hoc committee for the zero defects program: zero defects is not a
motivation program: its purpose is to communicate and instill the notion that everyone should do things
right first time.
8. Supervisor training: all managers should undergo formal training on the Fourteen Steps
before they are implemented. Managers should understand each of the Fourteen Steps well
enough to be able to explain them to their people.
9. Zero defects day: it is important that the commitment to zero defects as the performance
standard of the company makes an impact, and that everyone gets the same message in the
same way. Zero defects day, when supervisors explain the program to their people, should
make a lasting impression as a "new attitude" day.
10. Goal setting: all supervisors ask their people to establish specific, measurable goals that
they can strive for. Usually, these comprise 30-, 60-, and 90-day goals.
11. Error cause removal: employees are asked to describe, on a simple, one-page form, any
problems that prevent them from carrying out error-free work. Problems should be
acknowledged and begin to be addressed within 24 hours by the function or unit to which th
begin to grow more confident that their problems will be attended to and dealt with.
12. Recognition: it is important to recognize those who meet their goals or perform
outstanding acts with a prize or award, although this should not be in financial form. The act of
recognition itself is what is important.
13. Quality councils: the quality professionals and team leaders should meet regularly to
discuss improvements and upgrades to the quality program.
14. Doing it over again: during the course of a typical program lasting from 12 to 18 months,
turnover and change will dissipate much of the educational process. It is important to set up a
new team of representatives and begin the program again from the beginning, starting with zero defects
day. This "starting over again" helps quality to become ingrained in the organization
CROSBYS four absolutes of quality:
1. The definition of quality is conformance to requirements.
2. The system of quality is prevention.
3. The performance standard is zero defects.
4. The measurement of quality is the price of nonconformance
CONTRIBUTIONS OF MASAAKI IMAI:
Masaaki Imai is Founder of KAIZEN Institute (KI), which was established in Switzerland (1985) to help
companies introduce KAIZEN concepts, systems, and tools. KI (also now known as KAIZEN Institute
Consulting Group- KICG) has offices in over 30 countries around the globe. Over the last 30+ years, Mr.
Imai has held lectures on KAIZEN, Lean and other related management subjects, as well as having
consulted with global companies (outside of Japan) and assisting them in their process of introducing
change and continual improvement. KAIZEN Institute dispatches both local and global consultants, who
are corporate managers and academics and considered experts in the various technicalities of KAIZEN, to
various assignments to work closely with the local KAIZEN consultants. Mr. Imais role has been oneof
integrating various KAIZEN management practices, such as Just-in-time, TQM, and TPM,into the
cultural environment of client companies. KAIZEN Institute regularly sponsors KAIZEN Tours, within
Japan, Europe and other strategic locations where best practices can be found. .
Kaizen is defined as making continuous improvement - slow, incremental but constant. Western way
of pragmatic approach why-fix-it-if-it-aint-broke Kaizen extends a more optimistic philosophical
view: Everythingeven if it aint brokecan be made better! "kai > Means "change" or "the action to
correct" "zen > means "good Importance is given to the process not the results, as Japanese believe that
good process will deliver good results.
CONTRIBUTION OF FEIGENBAUM:
Armand Vallin Feigenbaum (born 1922) is an American quality control expert and businessman. He
devised the concept of Total Quality Control, later known as Total Quality Management (TQM).
Feigenbaum received a bachelor's degree from Union College, and his master's degree and Ph.D. from
MIT. He was Director of Manufacturing Operations at General Electric (1958-1968), and is now
President and CEO of General Systems Company of Pittsfield, Massachusetts, an engineering firm that
designs and installs operational systems. Feigenbaum wrote several books and served as President of the
American Society for Quality (1961-1963).
His contributions to the quality body of knowledge include:
"Total quality control is an effective system for integrating the quality development, quality
maintenance, and quality improvement efforts of the various groups in an organization so as to
enable production and service at the most economical levels which allow full customer
satisfaction."
The concept of a "hidden" plantthe idea that so much extra work is performed in correcting
mistakes that there is effectively a hidden plant within any factory.
Accountability for quality: Because quality is everybody's job, it may become nobody's jobthe
idea that quality must be actively managed and have visibility at the highest levels of
management.
The concept of quality costs
TAGUCHIS CONTRIBUTION:
Genichi Taguchi is a Japanese quality expert, known for the Quality Loss Function and for methodologies
to optimise quality at the design stage robust design. Taguchi received formal recognition for his
work including Deming Prizes and Awards.
Genichi Taguchi considers quality loss all the way through to the customer, including cost of scrap,
rework, downtime, warranty claims and ultimately reduced market share.
Genichi Taguchi's Quality Loss Function
The Quality Loss Function gives a financial value for customers' increasing dissatisfaction as the
product
performance
goes
below
the
desired
target
performance.
Equally, it gives a financial value for increasing costs as product performance goes above the desired
target performance. Determining the target performance is an educated guess, often based on customer
surveys and feedback.
The quality loss function allows financial decisions to be made at the design stage regarding the cost of
achieving the target performance.
Quality through Robust Design Methodology
Taguchi methods emphasised quality through robust design, not quality through inspection. Taguchi
breaks the design process into three stages:
1. System design - involves creating a working prototype
2. Parameter design - involves experimenting to find which factors influence product performance
most
3. Tolerance design - involves setting tight tolerance limits for the critical factors and looser
tolerance limits for less important factors.
Taguchis Robust Design methodologies allow the designer through experiments to determine which
factors most affect product performance and which factors are unimportant.
The designer can focus on reducing variation on the important or critical factors. Unimportant or
uncontrollable noise factors have negligible impact on the product performance and can be ignored.
Robust Design of Cookies
This is easier explained by example. If your business makes cookies from raw ingredients, there are many
possible factors that could influence the quality of the cookie - amount of flour, number of eggs,
temperature of butter, heat of oven, cooking time, baking tray material etc.
With Genichi Taguchis Robust Design methodologies you would set up experiments that would test a
range of combinations of factors - for example, high and low oven temperature, with long and short
cooking time, 1 or 2 eggs, etc. The cookies resulting from each of these trials would be assessed for
quality.
A statistical analysis of results would tell you which the most important factors are, for example oven
temperature
affects
cookie
quality
more
than
the
number
of
eggs.
With this knowledge you would design a process that ensures the oven maintains the optimal temperature
and you would be able to consistently produce good cookies.
5S PRINCIPLES:
The 5S framework was originally developed by just-in-time expert and international consultant Hiroyuki
Hirano. The 5S framework is an extension of Hirano's earlier works on just-in-time production systems.
The 5Ss represent a simple "good housekeeping" approach to improving the work environment consistent
with the tenets of Lean Manufacturing System.
It promotes daily activity for continuous improvement. It fosters efficiency and productivity while
improving work flow. It encourages a proactive approach that prevents problems and waste before they
occur. It provides a practical method for dealing with the real problems that workers face every day. And
it fits with a facility's other efforts, such as total preventive maintenance, just-in-time manufacturing,
pollution prevention, safety initiatives, and lean manufacturing efforts.
SEIRI / SORT / CLEANUP:
The first step of the "5S" process, Seiri, refers to the act of throwing away all unwanted, unnecessary, and
unrelated materials in the workplace. People involved in Seiri must not feel sorry about having to throw
away things. The idea is to ensure that everything left in the workplace is related to work. Even the
number of necessary items in the workplace must be kept to its absolute minimum.
There are two main objectives of Seiri; first is the simplification of tasks and effective use of space.
In performing Seiri, this simple guideline is a must:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
2. Investigating the causes of dirtiness and implement a plan to eliminate the sources of dirt.
3. Cover around cords, legs of machines and tables such that dirt can be easily and quickly removed.
4. Operators clean their own equipment and working area and perform basic preventive
maintenance.
5. Keep everything clean for a constant state of readiness.
SEIKETSU / SYSTEMIZE / DISCIPLINE:
The fourth step of "5S", or seiketsu, more or less translates to 'standardized clean-up'. It consists of
defining the standards by which personnel must measure and maintain 'cleanliness'. Seiketsu
encompasses both personal and environmental cleanliness. Personnel must therefore practice 'seiketsu'
starting with their personal tidiness. Visual management is an important ingredient of seiketsu. Colorcoding and standardized coloration of surroundings are used for easier visual identification of anomalies
in the surroundings. Personnel are trained to detect abnormalities using their five senses and to correct
such abnormalities immediately.
The guidelines include:
1. Removing used, broken, or surplus items from the work area
2. Making safety a prime requirement by paying attention to noise, fumes, lighting, cables, spills,
and other aspects of the workplace environment
3. Checking that items are where they should be
4. Listening to the "voice" of the process and being alert to things such as unusual noises
5. Ensuring that there is a place for everything and that everything is in its place
6. Wearing safe working apparel and using safe equipment
7. Minimizing all waste and the use of valuable resources such as oil, air, steam, water, and
electricity
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
A steering committee: This is at the top of the structure. It is headed by a senior executive
and includes representatives from the top management personnel and human resources
development people. It establishes policy, plans and directs the program and meets
usually once in a month.
Co-ordinator: He may be a Personnel or Administrative officer who co-ordinates and
supervises the work of the facilitators and administers the programme.
Facilitator: He may be a senior supervisory officer. He co-ordiates the works of several
quality circles through the Circle leaders.
Circle leader: Leaders may be from lowest level workers or Supervisors. A Circle leader
organises and conducts Circle activities.
Circle members : They may be staff workers. Without circle members the porgramme
cannot exist. They are the lifeblood of quality circles. They should attend all meetings as
far as possible, offer suggestions and ideas, participate actively in group process, take
training seriously with a receptive attitude.The roles of Steering Committee, Co0rdinator, Facilitator, Circle leader and Circle members are well defined.
The Quality Circles also are expected to develop internal leadership, reinforce worker morale and
motivation, and encourage a strong sense of teamwork in an organisation.
A variety of benefits have been attributed to Quality Circles, including higher quality, improved
productivity, greater upward flow of information, broader improved worker attitudes, job enrichment, and
greater teamwork.
Problem quality circles often suffer from unrealistic expectations for fast results, lock of management
commitment and support, resistance by middle management, resentment by non participants, inadequate
training, lack of clear objectives and failure to get solutions implemented
8D Methodology
8D is a problem-solving methodology for product and process improvement. It is structured into eight
disciplines, emphasizing team synergy. The team as whole is better and smarter than the quality sum of
the individuals. Each discipline is supported by a checklist of assessment questions, such as "what is
wrong with what", "what, when, where, how much
1. Use Team Approach
Establish a small group of people with the knowledge, time, authority and skill to solve the problem and
implement corrective actions. The group must select a team leader.
2. Describe the Problem
Describe the problem in measurable terms. Specify the internal or external customer problem by
describing it in specific terms.
3. Implement and Verify Short-Term Corrective Actions
Define and implement those intermediate actions that will protect the customer from the problem until
permanent corrective action is implemented. Verify with data the effectiveness of these actions.
4. Define and Verify Root Causes
Identify all potential causes which could explain why the problem occurred. Test each potential cause
against the problem description and data. Identify alternative corrective actions to eliminate root cause.
5. Verify Corrective Actions
Confirm that the selected corrective actions will resolve the problem for the customer and will not cause
undesirable side effects. Define other actions, if necessary, based on potential severity of problem.
6. Implement Permanent Corrective Actions
Define and implement the permanent corrective actions needed. Choose on-going controls to insure the
root cause is eliminated. Once in production, monitor the long-term effects and implement additional
controls as necessary.
7. Prevent Recurrence
Modify specifications, update training, review work flow, improve practices and procedures to prevent
recurrence of this and all similar problems.
8. Congratulate Your Team
UNIT-3(STATISTICAL PROCESS CONTROL AND PROCESS CAPABILITY)
Definition of Statistical Process Control (SPC) :
A method of monitoring, controlling and, ideally, improving a process through statistical analysis. Its
four basic steps include measuring the process, eliminating variances in the process to make it consistent,
monitoring the process, and improving the process to its best target value.
Control Charts:
Control charts, also known as Shewhart charts or process-behaviour charts, in statistical process
control are tools used to determine whether or not a manufacturing or business process is in a state of
statistical control.
A control chart is a statistical tool used to distinguish between variation in a process resulting from
common causes and variation resulting from special causes. It presents a graphic display of process
stability or instability over time. Every process has variation. Some variation may be the result of causes
which are not normally present in the process. This could be special cause variation. Some variation is
simply the result of numerous, ever-present differences in the process. This is common cause variation.
Control Charts differentiate between these two types of variation.
One goal of using a Control Chart is to achieve and maintain process stability. Process stability is
defined as a state in which a process has displayed a certain degree of consistency in the past and is
expected to continue to do so in the future.
.
There are two main categories of Control Charts, those that display attribute data, and those that display
variables data.
Attribute Data: This category of Control Chart displays data that result from counting the number of
occurrences or items in a single category of similar items or occurrences. These count data may be
expressed as pass/fail, yes/no, or presence/absence of a defect.
Variables Data: This category of Control Chart displays values resulting from the measurement of a
continuous variable. Examples of variables data are elapsed time, temperature, and radiation dose.
A control chart consists of:
Types of charts
Chart
and R
chart
and s
chart
p-chart
np-chart
c-chart
u-chart
Process observation
Quality characteristic measurement
within one subgroup
Quality characteristic measurement
within one subgroup
Fraction nonconforming within one
subgroup
Number nonconforming within one
subgroup
Number of nonconformances within one
subgroup
Nonconformances per unit within one
subgroup
Process observations
relationships
Process observations
type
Independent
Variables
Independent
Variables
Independent
Attributes
Independent
Attributes
Independent
Attributes
Independent
Attributes
Step 4 - Calculate and enter the range for each subgroup. Use the following formula to calculate the
range (R) for each subgroup.
Step 5 - Calculate the grand mean of the subgroups average. The grand mean of the subgroups
average (X-Bar) becomes the centerline for the upper plot.
Step 6 - Calculate average of subgroup ranges
Step 7 - Calculate UCL and LCL for subgroup averages
Step 8 - Calculate UCL for ranges
Step 9 - Select scales and plot
Step 10 - Document the chart
Control Charts for attributes
When the quality controls have to focus on a quality characteristic hard or expensive to measure on a
numerical scale, the control chart for attributes are a useful alternative.
Attributes concern quality characteristics which are able to be classified in two types, conform
and not conform to specifications. What is called nonconforming means that the unit controlled is not
conformed to standard on one or more of examined quality characteristics.
The goal of control charts for variable is still to control mean and variability of a process but here,
we focus of number of nonconforming units or nonconformities in a population. Three types of charts
exist. Their use depends on the production (which quality characteristic to control, how many to
examine), the characteristic of controls (constant or variable sample size):
The p-chart: it is a control chart for fraction nonconforming
The c-chart: it is a control chart for number of defects or nonconformities
The u-chart: it is a control chart for number of nonconformities per unit
It is so to choose the best adapted control chart to the production.
The p-chart: Control chart for fraction nonconforming
The focus of the chart is the ratio of the number of nonconforming units in a population over the
total number of units in this population. This fraction is called p.
^
pi
Di
ni
Di
n
The central line and control limits are computed as shown bellow:
^
pi
Central line
i 1
pi
Limits
UCL p 3
p (1 p)
LCL p 3
p (1 p )
n
Einstein College of Engineering
To construct the p-chart, we plot the fraction nonconforming for each sample.
The c-chart: Control chart for number of nonconformities observed
The focus of the chart is the number of nonconformities in a population. This number is called c
and is directly plotted on a c-chart. In this case again, m samples of n units are controlled and the sample
size can be constant or not.
For a constant sample size
Mathematical notions
The central line and control limits are computed as shown bellow:
Central
line
i 1
UCL c 3 c
Limits
LCL c 3 c
The u- chart is often used for controls where the sample size is variable. It consists plotting the
number of nonconformities per unit tested.
ui
xi
ni
Mathematical notions
Here are formulas for control chart characteristics:
_
Central line
i 1
i m
i 1
xi
ni
Limits
UCL u 3
u
ni
_
LCL u 3
u
ni
Process Capability:
Process capability can be defined as the ability of a process to produce more uniform products with little
variations.
Process capability compares the output of an in-control process to the specification limits by using
capability indices. The comparison is made by forming the ratio of the spread between the process
specifications (the specification "width") to the spread of the process values, as measured by 6 process
standard deviation units (the process "width").
Six Sigma concepts:
Six Sigma has evolved over the last two decades and so has its definition. Six Sigma has literal,
conceptual, and practical definitions.
Features that set Six Sigma apart from previous quality improvement initiatives include
A clear focus on achieving measurable and quantifiable financial returns from any project.
An increased emphasis on strong and passionate management leadership and support.
A special infrastructure of "Champions," "Master Black Belts," "Black Belts," etc. to lead and
implement the Six Sigma approach.
A clear commitment to making decisions on the basis of verifiable data, rather than assumptions and
guesswork.
At Motorola University, we think about Six Sigma at three different levels:
As a metric
As a methodology
As a management system
Essentially, Six Sigma is all three at the same time.
Six Sigma as a Metric
The term "Sigma" is often used as a scale for levels of "goodness" or quality. Using this scale, "Six
Sigma" equates to 3.4 Defects Per Million Opportunities (DPMO). Six Sigma started as a defect reduction
effort in manufacturing and then applied to other business processes for the same purpose.
Taking the 1.5 sigma shift into account, short-term sigma levels correspond to the following long-term
DPMO values (one-sided):
One Sigma = 690,000 DPMO => efficiency 31%
Two Sigma = 308,000 DPMO => efficiency 69.2%
Three Sigma = 66,800 DPMO => efficiency 93.32%
Four Sigma = 6,210 DPMO => efficiency 99.379%
Five Sigma = 230 DPMO => efficiency 99.977%
Six Sigma = 3.4 DPMO => efficiency 99.9997%
Six Sigma as a Methodology
As Six Sigma has evolved, there has been less emphasis on the literal definition of 3.4 DPMO, or
counting defects in products and processes. Six Sigma is a business improvement methodology that
focuses an organization on:
Understanding and managing customer requirements
Aligning key business processes to achieve those require][plkvcments
Utilizing rigorous data analysis to minimize variation in those processes
Driving rapid and sustainable improvement to business processes
At the heart of the methodology is the DMAIC model for process improvement. DMAIC is commonly
used by Six Sigma project teams and is an acronym for:
DMAIC - The basic methodology consists of the following five steps:
Define process improvement goals that are consistent with customer demands and the enterprise
strategy.
Measure key aspects of the current process and collect relevant data.
Analyze the data to verify cause-and-effect relationships. Determine what the relationships are,
and attempt to ensure that all factors have been considered.
Improve or optimize the process based upon data analysis using techniques like Design of
Experiments.
Control to ensure that any deviations from target are corrected before they result in defects. Set
up pilot runs to establish process capability, move on to production, set up control mechanisms
and continuously monitor the process.
Quality Function Deployment (QFD) is a way of making the 'voice of the customer' heard throughout
an organization. It is a systematic process for capturing customer requirements and translating these
into requirements that must be met throughout the 'supply chain'. The result is a new set of target
values for designers, production people, and even suppliers to aim at in order to produce the output
desired by customers.
QFD is particularly valuable when design trade-offs are necessary to achieve the best overall solution,
e.g. because some requirements conflict with others. QFD also enables a great deal of information to
be summarized in the form of one or more charts. These charts capture customer and product data
gleaned from many sources, as well as the design parameters chosen for the new product. In this way
they provide a solid foundation for further improvement in subsequent design cycles.
QFD is sometimes referred to by other 'nicknames' - the voice of the customer (from its use as a way
of communicating customer needs), or the House of Quality (from the characteristic house shape of a
QFD chart).
History
The creation of QFD is generally attributed to Mitsubishi's Kobe shipyard in Japan. The original
approach, conceived in the late 1960's, was adopted and developed by other Japanese companies,
notably Toyota and its suppliers. In 1986 a study by the Japanese Union of Scientists and Engineers
(JUSE) revealed that 54% of 148 member companies surveyed were using QFD. The sectors with the
highest penetration of QFD were transportation (86%), construction (82%), electronics (63%), and
precision machinery (66%). Many of the service companies surveyed (32%) were also using QFD.
Specific design applications in Japan range from home appliances and clothing to retail outlets and
apartment layouts.
In the USA the first serious exponents of QFD were the 'big three' automotive manufacturers in the
1980's, and a few leading companies in other sectors such as electronics. However, the uptake of
QFD in the Western world appears to have been fairly slow. There has been no survey comparable to
the JUSE study regarding the spread of QFD in North America, and there are relatively few sources
of literature and case studies, compared with other methodologies such as Benchmarking.
There is also some reluctance among users of QFD to publish and share information - much more so
than with other quality-related methodologies. This may be because the data captured and the
decisions made using QFD usually relate to future product plans, and are therefore sensitive,
proprietary, and valuable to competitors.
Benefits of QFD
The main 'process' benefits of using QFD are:
improved communication and sharing of information within a cross-functional team charged with
developing a new product. This team will typically include people from a variety of functional
groups, such as marketing, sales, service, distribution, product engineering, process engineering,
procurement, and production
the identification of 'holes' in the current knowledge of the design team
the capture and display of a wide variety of important design information in one place in a compact
form
support for understanding, consensus, and decision making, especially when complex relationships
and trade-offs are involved
the creation of an informational base which is valuable for repeated cycles of product improvement
The main 'bottom line' benefits of using QFD are:
greater likelihood of product success in the marketplace, due to the precise targeting of key customer
requirements
reduced overall design cycle time, mainly due to a reduction in time-consuming design changes. This
is a powerful benefit: customer requirements are less likely to have changed since the beginning of
the design project; and more frequent design cycles mean that products can be improved more rapidly
than the competition
reduced overall cost due to reducing design changes, which are not only time consuming but very
costly, especially those which occur at a late stage.
reduced product cost by eliminating redundant features and over-design.
When to use QFD
QFD is a powerful tool that leads to significant improvements in product/process performances.
However, it is not a short-term answer to product development problems. The method on which QFD
is implemented may have a large impact on benefits derived and companies should take up QFD only
after getting the consent and commitment of the team members.
QFD provides a systematic approach to build a team perspective on what needs to be done, the best
ways to do it, the best order to accomplish the tasks proposed and the staffing and resources required
to enhance customer satisfaction. It is also a good format for capturing and recording/documenting
decision making. Applied through the Kaizen philosophy under Total Quality Control, QFD is the
most highly developed form of integrated product and process development in existence.
Strengths and weaknesses of QFD
Strengths include:
1. Enhanced customer satisfaction
Listening to the voice of the customer
Robust design
2. Shorter time to market
Reduced rework during development
Creates team consensus and commitment
3. Reduced costs
Competitive benchmarking
Concurrent Engineering
Weaknesses
Targets set based only on the House of Quality, may be unrealistic
Customer requirements are a mix of functional requirements and customer attributes
Sometimes customer influences may backfire
Success with QFD
Companies using QFD for product development have on the average, experienced:
50% reduction in costs
33% reduction in product development time
200% increase in productivity
Companies that have successfully applied QFD include Toyota, Honda, ICI, Black & Decker, Integrated
Design Control Systems and Rover.
QFD House of Quality
MEANING: The voice of the customer from the market research and various benchmarking is linked to
the technicalities of the design and process of the product both new and existing.
DEFINITION: It is kind of conceptual map that provides a means of interfunctional planning and
communication.
FEATURES:
- Concept of matrix and its correlation
- Plan as per the voice of the customer
- Focus on Customers need and technicalities
- WHAT the Customer wants and HOW to do it
- It is base tool for quality planning managers
Constructing a Histogram: The following are the steps followed in the construction of a histogram:
Data collection: To ensure good results, a minimum of 50 data points, or samples, need to be collected
Calculate the range of the sample data: The range is the difference between the largest and smallest data
points. Range = Largest point - smallest point.
Calculate the size of the class interval. The class interval is the width of each class on the X axis. It is
calculated by the following formula: Class interval = Range / Number of classes.
Calculate the number of data points (frequency) that are in each class. A tally sheet is usually used to find
the frequency of data points in each interval.
Conclusion: Histogram is simple tools that allow the user to identify and interpret the variation found in
a set of data points. It is important to remember that histograms do not give solutions to problems.
VI - Scatter Diagrams
Purpose: To identify correlations that might exist between a quality characteristic and a factor that might
be driving it.
Scatter Diagrams: A scatter diagram is a nonmathematical or graphical approach for identifying
relationships between a performance measure and factors that might be driving it. This graphical
approach is quick, easy to communicate to others, and generally easy to interpret.
Interpreting the Results: Once all the data points have been plotted onto the scatter diagram, you are
ready to determine whether their exists a relation between the two selected items or not. When a strong
relationship is present, the change in one item will automatically cause a change in the other. If no
relationship can be detected, the change in one item will not effect the other item. Their are three basic
types of relationships that can be detected to on a scatter diagram:
1. Positive relationship
2. Negative relationship
3. No relationship
Conclusion: Scatter diagrams allow the user to graphically identify correlations that could exist between
a quality characteristic and a factor that might be driving it. It is a quality tool that is simple, easy to
communicate to others, and generally easy to interpret.
VII - Control Charts
Purpose: Process is in control and to monitor process variation on a continuous basis. Identifying the
tolerance level in the variations. Control charts is one SPC tool that enables us to monitor and control
process variation. Types of variation Common and Special Cause Variation
Control charts: Developed in the mid 1920's by Walter Shewhart of Bell labs. There are two basic types
of control charts, the average and range control charts. The first deals with how close the process is to the
nominal design value, while the range chart indicates the amount of spread or variability around the
nominal design value. A control chart has basically three line: the upper control limit UCL, the center
line CL, and the lower control limit LCL. A minimum of 25 points is required for a control chart to be
accurate.
Seven New Management and Planning Tools
In 1976, the Union of Japanese Scientists and Engineers (JUSE) saw the need for tools to promote
innovation, communicate information and successfully plan major projects. A team researched and
developed the seven new quality control tools, often called the seven management and planning (MP)
tools, or simply the seven management tools. Not all the tools were new, but their collection and
promotion were.
The seven MP tools, listed in an order that moves from abstract analysis to detailed planning, are:
1. Affinity diagram: organizes a large number of ideas into their natural relationships.
2. Relations diagram: shows cause-and-effect relationships and helps you analyze the natural links
between different aspects of a complex situation.
3. Tree diagram: breaks down broad categories into finer and finer levels of detail, helping you
move your thinking step by step from generalities to specifics.
4. Matrix diagram: shows the relationship between two, three or four groups of information and can
give information about the relationship, such as its strength, the roles played by various
individuals, or measurements.
5. Matrix data analysis: a complex mathematical technique for analyzing matrices, often replaced in
this list by the similar prioritization matrix. One of the most rigorous, careful and timeconsuming of decision-making tools, a prioritization matrix is an L-shaped matrix that uses
pairwise comparisons of a list of options to a set of criteria in order to choose the best option(s).
6. Arrow diagram: shows the required order of tasks in a project or process, the best schedule for
the entire project, and potential scheduling and resource problems and their solutions.
7. Process decision program chart (PDPC): systematically identifies what might go wrong in a plan
under development.
Affinity Diagram
This tool takes large amounts of disorganized data and information and enables
one to organize it into groupings based on natural relationships. It was created in
the 1960s by Japanese anthropologist Jiro Kawakita.
Interrelationship Diagraph
This tool displays all the interrelated cause-and-effect relationships and factors
involved in a complex problem and describes desired outcomes. The process of
creating an interrelationship diagraph helps a group analyze the natural links
between different aspects of a complex situation.
Tree Diagram
This tool is used to break down broad categories into finer and finer levels of
detail. It can map levels of details of tasks that are required to accomplish a goal
or task. It can be used to break down broad general subjects into finer and finer
levels of detail. Developing the tree diagram helps one move their thinking from
generalities to specifics.
Prioritization Matrix
This tool is used to prioritize items and describe them in terms of weighted
criteria. It uses a combination of tree and matrix diagraming techniques to do a
pair-wise evalutaion of items and to narrow down options to the most desired or
most effective.
Matrix Diagram
This tool shows the relationship between items. At each intersection a
relationship is either absent or present. It then gives information about the
relationship, such as its strength, the roles played by various individuals or
measurements. Six differently shaped matrices are possible: L, T, Y, X, C and
roof-shaped, depending on how many groups must be compared.
Process Decision Program Chart (PDPC)
A useful way of planning is to break down tasks into a hierarchy, using a Tree
Diagram. The PDPC extends the tree diagram a couple of levels to identify risks
and countermeasures for the bottom level tasks. Different shaped boxes are used
to highlight risks and identify possible countermeasures (often shown as 'clouds'
to indicate their uncertain nature). The PDPC is similar to the Failure Modes and
Effects Analysis (FMEA) in that both identify risks, consequences of failure, and
contingency actions; the FMEA also rates relative risk levels for each potential
failure point.
Activity Network Diagram
This tool is used to plan the appropriate sequence or schedule for a set of tasks
and related subtasks. It is used when subtasks must occur in parallel. The
diagram enables one to determine the critical path (longest sequence of tasks).
(See also PERT diagram.)
Benchmarking is the process of measuring an organization's internal processes
then identifying, understanding, and adapting outstanding practices from other
organizations considered to be best-in-class.
"Benchmarking: A continuous, systematic process of evaluating and comparing the capability of one
organization with others normally recognized as industry leaders, for insights for optimizing the
organizations processes."
Benchmarking is the process of comparing the cost, time or quality of what one organization does
against what another organization does. The result is often a business case for making changes in order to
make improvements.
The systematic process of comparing an organizations products, services and practices against those of
competitor organizations or other industry leaders to determine what it is they do that allows them to
achieve high levels of performance. (Society for Human Resources Management)
Advantages of benchmarking
Benchmarking is a powerful management tool because it overcomes "paradigm blindness."
Benchmarking opens organizations to new methods, ideas and tools to improve their effectiveness. It
helps crack through resistance to change by demonstrating other methods.
Allows employees to visualise the improvement which can be a strong motivator for change
Helps to identify weak areas and indicates what needs to be done to improve.
The Benchmarking process
The formal 10-step benchmarking process is shown in outline below.
3. Integration. Integration is the process of using benchmark findings to set operational targets for
change. It involves careful planning to incorporate new practices in the operation and to ensure
benchmark findings are incorporated in all formal planning processes.
Steps include:
Gain operational and management acceptance of benchmark findings. Clearly and convincingly
demonstrate findings as correct and based on substantive data.
Develop action plans.
Communicate findings to all organizational levels to obtain support, commitment and ownership.
4. Action. Convert benchmark findings, and operational principles based on them, to specific actions to
be taken. Put in place a periodic measurement and assessment of achievement. Use the creative talents of
the people who actually perform work tasks to determine how the findings can be incorporated into the
work processes.
Any plan for change also should contain milestones for updating the benchmark findings, and an ongoing
reporting mechanism. Progress toward benchmark findings must be reported to all employees.
5. Maturity. Maturity will be reached when best industry practices are incorporated in all business
processes, thus ensuring superiority.
Tests for superiority:
If the now-changed process were to be made available to others, would a knowledgeable
businessperson prefer it?
Do other organizations benchmark your internal operations?
Maturity also is achieved when benchmarking becomes an ongoing, essential and self-initiated facet of
the management process. Benchmarking becomes institutionalized and is done at all appropriate levels of
the organization, not by specialists.
Types of Benchmarking
Process benchmarking - the initiating firm focuses its observation and investigation of business
processes with a goal of identifying and observing the best practices from one or more benchmark firms.
Activity analysis will be required where the objective is to benchmark cost and efficiency; increasingly
applied to back-office processes where outsourcing may be a consideration.
Financial benchmarking - performing a financial analysis and comparing the results in an effort to
assess your overall competitiveness.
Performance benchmarking - allows the initiator firm to assess their competitive position by comparing
products and services with those of target firms.
Product benchmarking - the process of designing new products or upgrades to current ones. This
process can sometimes involve reverse engineering which is taking apart competitors products to find
strengths and weaknesses.
Strategic benchmarking - involves observing how others compete. This type is usually not industry
specific meaning it is best to look at other industries.
Functional benchmarking - a company will focus its benchmarking on a single function in order to
improve the operation of that particular function. Complex functions such as Human Resources, Finance
and Accounting and Information and Communication Technology are unlikely to be directly comparable
in cost and efficiency terms and may need to be disaggregated into processes to make valid comparison
Poka-yoke is a Japanese term that means "fail-safing" or "mistake-proofing". A poka-yoke is any
mechanism in a lean manufacturing process that helps an equipment operator avoid (yokeru) mistakes
(poka).
Its purpose is to eliminate product defects by preventing, correcting, or drawing attention to human errors
as they occur. The concept was formalised, and the term adopted, by Shigeo Shingo as part of the Toyota
Production System. It was originally described as baka-yoke, but as this means "fool-proofing" (or "idiotproofing") the name was changed to the milder poka-yoke.
More broadly, the term can refer to any behavior-shaping constraint designed into a product to prevent
incorrect operation by the user.
Implementation in manufacturing
Poka-yoke can be implemented at any step of a manufacturing process where something can go wrong or
an error can be made. For example, a jig that holds pieces for processing might be modified to only allow
pieces to be held in the correct orientation, or a digital counter might track the number of spot welds on
each piece to ensure that the worker executes the correct number of welds.
Shigeo Shingo recognized three types of poka-yoke for detecting and preventing errors in a mass
production system:
1. The contact method identifies product defects by testing the product's shape, size, color, or other
physical attributes.
2. The fixed-value (or constant number) method alerts the operator if a certain number of
movements are not made.
3. The motion-step (or sequence) method determines whether the prescribed steps of the process
have been followed.
Either the operator is alerted when a mistake is about to be made, or the poka-yoke device actually
prevents the mistake from being made. In Shingo's lexicon, the former implementation would be called a
warning poka-yoke, while the latter would be referred to as a control poka-yoke.
Shingo argued that errors are inevitable in any manufacturing process, but that if appropriate poka-yokes
are implemented, then mistakes can be caught quickly and prevented from resulting in defects. By
eliminating defects at the source, the cost of mistakes within a company is reduced.
UNIT-5(QUALITY SYSTEMS ORGANIZING AND IMPLEMENTATION)
History of ISO International Organisation for Standardisation
Post World War II BS 5750
ISO founded in 1946 Switzerland, Geneva.
1987 - ISO 9000: 1987 - Three models of quality
ISO 9001: 1987 Design Development etc
ISO 9002: 1987 Production, installation, service etc
ISO 9003: 1987 Quality assurance, inspection, testing etc
ISO 9000:1994
ISO 9001: 2000 combined the three to one standard.
ISO 9000: 2008 latest with technical committee
Similar certifications
ANSI American National Standard Institute
EC European Community
ASQ 9000 American Society for Quality
DOD Department of Defence
FDA Food and Drug Administration
ISI Indian Standards Institute
BIS Hallmark Bureau of Indian Standards
Basic Requirements of ISO 9001
1. Procedure to cover all processes in the business
2. Monitoring process to ensure effectiveness
3. Keeping adequate record
4. Defect verification and appropriate correction
5. Regular review of individual processes
6. Facilitating continual improvement
that aims to provide, and continue to provide, its customers with products and services that satisfy their
needs. The culture requires quality in all aspects of the company's operations, with things being done right
first time, and defects and waste eradicated from operations.
Many companies have difficulties in implementing TQM. Surveys by consulting firms have found that
only 20-36% of companies that have undertaken TQM have achieved either significant or even tangible
improvements in quality, productivity, competitiveness or financial return. As a result many people are
sceptical about TQM. However, when you look at successful companies you find a much higher
percentage of successful TQM implementation.
Some useful messages from results of TQM implementations:
if you want to be a first-rate company, don't focus on the second-rate companies who can't handle
TQM, look at the world-class companies that have adopted it
the most effective way to spend TQM introduction funds is by training top management, people
involved in new product development, and people involved with customers
it's much easier to introduce EDM/PDM in a company with a TQM culture than in one without
TQM. People in companies that have implemented TQM are more likely to have the basic
understanding necessary for implementing EDM/PDM. For example, they are more likely to view
EDM/PDM as an information and workflow management system supporting the entire product
life cycle then as a departmental solution for the management of CAD data
Important aspects of TQM include customer-driven quality, top management leadership and commitment,
continuous improvement, fast response, actions based on facts, employee participation, and a TQM
culture.
Customer-driven quality
TQM has a customer-first orientation. The customer, not internal activities and constraints, comes first.
Customer satisfaction is seen as the company's highest priority. The company believes it will only be
successful if customers are satisfied. The TQM company is sensitive to customer requirements and
responds rapidly to them. In the TQM context, `being sensitive to customer requirements' goes beyond
defect and error reduction, and merely meeting specifications or reducing customer complaints. The
concept of requirements is expanded to take in not only product and service attributes that meet basic
requirements, but also those that enhance and differentiate them for competitive advantage.
Each part of the company is involved in Total Quality, operating as a customer to some functions and as a
supplier to others. The Engineering Department is a supplier to downstream functions such as
Manufacturing and Field Service, and has to treat these internal customers with the same sensitivity and
responsiveness as it would external customers.
TQM leadership from top management
TQM is a way of life for a company. It has to be introduced and led by top management. This is a key
point. Attempts to implement TQM often fail because top management doesn't lead and get committed instead it delegates and pays lip service. Commitment and personal involvement is required from top
management in creating and deploying clear quality values and goals consistent with the objectives of the
company, and in creating and deploying well defined systems, methods and performance measures for
achieving those goals. These systems and methods guide all quality activities and encourage participation
by all employees. The development and use of performance indicators is linked, directly or indirectly, to
customer requirements and satisfaction, and to management and employee remuneration.
Continuous improvement
Continuous improvement of all operations and activities is at the heart of TQM. Once it is recognized that
customer satisfaction can only be obtained by providing a high-quality product, continuous improvement
of the quality of the product is seen as the only way to maintain a high level of customer satisfaction. As
well as recognizing the link between product quality and customer satisfaction, TQM also recognizes that
product quality is the result of process quality. As a result, there is a focus on continuous improvement of
the company's processes. This will lead to an improvement in process quality. In turn this will lead to an
improvement in product quality, and to an increase in customer satisfaction. Improvement cycles are
encouraged for all the company's activities such as product development, use of EDM/PDM, and the way
customer relationships are managed. This implies that all activities include measurement and monitoring
of cycle time and responsiveness as a basis for seeking opportunities for improvement.
Elimination of waste is a major component of the continuous improvement approach. There is also a
strong emphasis on prevention rather than detection, and an emphasis on quality at the design stage. The
customer-driven approach helps to prevent errors and achieve defect-free production. When problems do
occur within the product development process, they are generally discovered and resolved before they can
get to the next internal customer.
Fast response
To achieve customer satisfaction, the company has to respond rapidly to customer needs. This implies
short product and service introduction cycles. These can be achieved with customer-driven and processoriented product development because the resulting simplicity and efficiency greatly reduce the time
involved. Simplicity is gained through concurrent product and process development. Efficiencies are
realized from the elimination of non-value-adding effort such as re-design. The result is a dramatic
improvement in the elapsed time from product concept to first shipment.
Actions based on facts
The statistical analysis of engineering and manufacturing facts is an important part of TQM. Facts and
analysis provide the basis for planning, review and performance tracking, improvement of operations, and
comparison of performance with competitors. The TQM approach is based on the use of objective data,
and provides a rational rather than an emotional basis for decision making. The statistical approach to
process management in both engineering and manufacturing recognizes that most problems are systemrelated, and are not caused by particular employees. In practice, data is collected and put in the hands of
the people who are in the best position to analyze it and then take the appropriate action to reduce costs
and prevent non-conformance. Usually these people are not managers but workers in the process. If the
right information is not available, then the analysis, whether it be of shop floor data, or engineering test
results, can't take place, errors can't be identified, and so errors can't be corrected.
Employee participation
A successful TQM environment requires a committed and well-trained work force that participates fully
in quality improvement activities. Such participation is reinforced by reward and recognition systems
which emphasize the achievement of quality objectives. On-going education and training of all employees
supports the drive for quality. Employees are encouraged to take more responsibility, communicate more
effectively, act creatively, and innovate. As people behave the way they are measured and remunerated,
TQM links remuneration to customer satisfaction metrics.
A TQM culture
It's not easy to introduce TQM. An open, cooperative culture has to be created by management.
Employees have to be made to feel that they are responsible for customer satisfaction. They are not going
to feel this if they are excluded from the development of visions, strategies, and plans. It's important they
participate in these activities. They are unlikely to behave in a responsible way if they see management
behaving irresponsibly - saying one thing and doing the opposite.
Product development in a TQM environment
Product development in a TQM environment is very different to product development in a non-TQM
environment. Without a TQM approach, product development is usually carried on in a conflictual
atmosphere where each department acts independently. Short-term results drive behavior so scrap,
changes, work-arounds, waste, and rework are normal practice. Management focuses on supervising
individuals, and fire-fighting is necessary and rewarded.
Product development in a TQM environment is customer-driven and focused on quality. Teams are
process-oriented, and interact with their internal customers to deliver the required results. Management's
focus is on controlling the overall process, and rewarding teamwork.
Awards for Quality achievement
The Deming Prize has been awarded annually since 1951 by the Japanese Union of Scientists and
Engineers in recognition of outstanding achievement in quality strategy, management and execution.
Since 1988 a similar award (the Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Award) has been awarded in the US.
Early winners of the Baldrige Award include AT&T (1992), IBM (1990), Milliken (1989), Motorola
(1988), Texas Instruments (1992) and Xerox (1989).
LEADERSHIP: Leadership plays a central part in understanding group behavior, for it is the leader who
usually provides the direction toward goal attainment. Therefore, a more accurate predictive capability
should be valuable in improving group performance.
We can define leadership as the ability to influence a group toward the achievement of
goals.
Six traits on which leaders tend to differ from non leaders are:
a. Ambition and energy
b. Desire to lead
c. Honesty and integrity
d. Self-confidence
e. Intelligence
f. Job-relevant knowledge.
Characteristics of Quality Leaders:
They continuously evaluate the changing customer needs.
They empower, rather than control subordinates.
They emphasize improvement rather than maintenance
They emphasize prevention.
They encourage collaboration rather than competition.
They train and coach rather than direct and supervise.
They learn from the problems.
They continuously improve communication.
They continuously committed to quality.
They choose suppliers in the basis of quality not price.
They establish organizational system to support quality effort.
They encourage and recognize team effort.
EMPLOYEE INVOLVEMENT
Employee involvement is a means to better meet the organizations goals for quality and productivity at
all levels of an organization.
Benefits of employee involvement:
Employee Involvement improves quality and increases productivity because
Employees make better decisions using their expert knowledge of the process.
Employees are more likely to implement and support decisions they had a part in making.
Employees are better able to spot and pinpoint areas for improvement.
Employees are better able to take immediate corrective action.
Employee involvement reduces labor management hassle by more effective communications and
cooperation.
Employee involvement increases morale by creating a feeling of belonging to the organization.
Employees are better able to accept change because they control the work environment.
Employees have an increased commitment to unit goals because they are involved.
EMPOWERMENT
Empowerment means invest people with authority. Its purpose is to tap the enormous reservoir of
creativity and potential contribution that lies within every worker at all levels.
Empowerment is an environment in which people have the ability, the confidence, and the commitment to
take the responsibility and ownership to improve the process and to initiate the necessary steps to satisfy
customer requirements within well-defined boundaries in order to achieve organizational values an goals.
The three conditions necessary to create the empowered environment are:
i.
Quality Council :
In order to build quality in the culture, a quality council is established to provide overall direction. It is the
driver for the TQM engine.
In a typical organization the quality council is composed of the chief executive officer (CEO); the senior
managers of the functional areas, such as design, marketing, finance, production, and quality; and a
Coordinator or consultant.
Duties of the quality council:
a) To develop the vision, mission and quality statement of the organization, with the input from all the
personnel.
b) To develop strategic long-term plan with goals and annual quality improvement program with
objectives.
c) Create a total education and training plan.
d) Determine and continuously monitor the cost of poor quality.
e) Determine the performance measures of the organization and monitor.
f) Continuously determine those projects that improves and affect external and internal customer
satisfaction.
g) Establish multifunctional project and work group teams and monitor their progress.
h) Establish and revise the recognition and reward system to account for the new way of doing business.
The typical quality council meeting agenda of a well established TQM organization :
a) Progress reports on teams
b) Customer satisfaction report
c) Progress on meeting goals
d) New project teams
e) Recognition dinner
f) Benchmarking report
Recognition is a form of employee motivation in which the organization publicly acknowledges the
positive contributions an individual or team has made to the success of the organization.
Reward is something tangible to promote desirable behavior. Recognition and reward go together to form
a system for letting people know they are valuable members of the organization.
o
o
o
To create these outputs namely the Quality Plan various tools and techniques are used. These tools and
techniques are huge topics and Quality Experts dedicate years of research on these topics. We would
briefly introduce these tools and techniques in this article.
a. Benchmarking: The proposed product standards can be decided using the existing
performance benchmarks of similar products that already exist in the market.
b. Design of Experiments: Using statistics we determine what factors influence the Quality or
features of the end product
c. Cost of Quality: This includes all the costs needed to achieve the required Quality levels. It
includes prevention costs, appraisal costs and failure costs.
d. Other tools: There are various other tools used in the Planning process such as Cause and
Effect Diagrams, System Flow Charts, Cost Benefit Analysis, etc.
All these help us to create a Quality Management Plan for the project.
2) Quality Assurance : The Input to the Quality Assurance Processes is the Quality Plan created during
Planning. Quality Audits and various other techniques are used to evaluate the performance of the project.
This helps us to ensure that the Project is following the Quality Management Plan. The tools and
techniques used in the Planning Process such as Design of Experiments, Cause and Effect Diagrams may
also be used here, as required.
3) Quality Control :
Following are the inputs to the Quality Control Process:
- Quality Management Plan.
- Quality Standards defined for the Project
- Actual Observations and Measurements of the Work done or in Progress
The Quality Control Processes use various tools to study the Work done. If the Work done is found
unsatisfactory it may be sent back to the development team for fixes. Changes to the Development
process may be done if necessary.
If the work done meets the standards defined then the work done is accepted and released to the clients.
Importance of Documentation: In all the Quality Management Processes special emphasis is put on
documentation. Many software shops fail to document the project at various levels. Consider a scenario
where the Requirements of the Software Project are not sufficiently documented. In this case it is quiet
possible that the client has a set of expectations and the tester may not know about them. Hence the
testing team would not be able test the software developed for these expectations or requirements. This
may lead to poor Software Quality as the product does not meet the expectations.
Similarly consider a scenario where the development team does not document the installation
instructions. If a different person or a team is responsible for future installations they may end up making
mistakes during installation, thereby failing to deliver as promised.
Once again consider a scenario where a tester fails to document the test results after executing the test
cases. This may lead to confusion later. If there were an error, we would not be sure at what stage the
error was introduced in the software at a component level or when integrating it with another component
or due to environment on a particular server etc. Hence documentation is the key for future analysis and
all Quality Management efforts.
Steps:
In a typical Software Development Life Cycle the following steps are necessary for Quality Management:
1) Document the Requirements
2) Define and Document Quality Standards
3) Define and Document the Scope of Work