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Structural ARES5ch14 PDF
Structural ARES5ch14 PDF
LATERAL
FORCES
EARTHQUAKES
Nomenclature
Ca
Cv
Ct
Fp
Ft
Fx
hn
hx
I
Ip
R
SA
SF
T
V
wx
W
Wp
Z
Although a great deal has been learned about earthquakes and their eects on buildings during the last
50 years, seismic design is still an inexact science. Because seismic design deals with dynamic forces rather
than static forces, and because of the many variables
involved, it is often dicult to precisely predict the performance of a building in an earthquake and provide the
best possible design to resist the resulting lateral forces.
pounds
or kips
pounds
or kips
pounds
or kips
ft
ft
sec
pounds
or kips
pounds
or kips
pounds
or kips
pounds
or kips
14-2
BASIC PRINCIPLES
The UBC provides for two methods of design for seismic forces: the static lateral force procedure and the dynamic lateral force procedure. The static method treats
the seismic loads as equivalent lateral loads acting on
the various levels of the building. The total base shear
is calculated and then distributed along the height of
the building. The dynamic method uses a computer to
mathematically model the building so the response of
the structure can be studied at each moment in time
using an actual or simulated earthquake accelerogram.
The dynamic method is very complex and its details are
not covered in the ARE The static method is reviewed
in Section 4.
The UBC is specic about which analysis method may
or must be used. In general, any structure may be, and
certain structures must be, designed using the dynamic
lateral force procedures. The static method may be
used for the following types of structures.
all structures in seismic zone 1 and in zone 2
with occupancy category 4 or 5, whether they
are regular or irregular
regular structures using one of the lateral force
resistance systems listed in Table 16-N if they
are under 240 feet in height (see Table 14.1)
irregular structures not more than 5 stories or
65 feet in height
structures with a exible upper portion supported on a rigid lower portion if all of the following
conditions are met:
when both portions are considered separately,
they can both be classied as regular
the average story stiness of the lower portion
is at least ten times the average story stiness
of the upper portion
the period of the whole structure is no more
that 1.1 times the period of the upper portion
considered as a separate structure xed at the
base
All other structures must be designed using the dynamic
method.
A. Characteristics of Earthquakes
Earthquakes are caused by the slippage of adjacent
plates of the earths crust and the subsequent release
LATERAL FORCESEARTHQUAKES
dened procedures. The scale runs from zero at the low
end and is open at the upper end, although the largest
earthquake ever recorded had a Richter magnitude of
nine.
The scale is logarithmic, each whole number value on
the scale represents a tenfold increase in amplitude. In
terms of energy released, each scale number represents
about 32 times the amount of energy below it.
The Modied Mercalli Intensity Scale is a measure of
an earthquakes intensity. It is an entirely subjective
rating based on the observed damage to structures and
other physical eects. The scale ranges from I to XII,
with the upper rating being the most severe. Each scale
includes a verbal description of the eects and damage
of an earthquake.
The Modied Mercalli Scale is imprecise because it depends on peoples observations, but it does provide information on how an earthquake aects structures and
how the same earthquake aects areas at dierent distances from the epicenter, both of which cannot be acccounted for with the Richter Scale.
Unfortunately for building design, neither scale is useful. This is because neither provides any information
on the acceleration or duration of an earthquake, both
of which are critical in the analysis and design of structures. However, they are used for risk analysis and determination of seismic zones.
Objective, quantied data useful for building design is
provided by the strong motion accelerograph. This machine measures the acceleration of the ground or a building. The UBC requires that in seismic zones 3 and 4
every building over 6 stories with an aggregate oor
area of 60,000 square feet or more, and every building over 10 stories regardless of oor area, be provided
with not less than three accelerographs. These must be
placed in the basement, midportion, and near the top
of the building. Some jurisdictions may have additional
requirements.
The records obtained by these instruments provide valuable data for research and design of similar buildings
in the same geographical area. The acceleration they
measure is usually expressed as a fraction of the acceleration of gravity, g, which is 32 feet per second per
second. Thus, an earthquake may be recorded as having an acceleration of 0.55g.
C. Seismic Zones
Based on seismic records, experience, and research,
some areas of the United States are determined to have
a greater probability of earthquakes than others, and
some areas have more severe earthquakes (areas where
two major plates abut, for example). This is taken into
14-3
equivalent
lateral load
building tends
to remain in
place due to
inertia
14-4
2B
2A
3 2B
1
0
2A
3
3
2B
3
4
3
0
1
2A
2A
2B
2A
2A
ALASKA
2B
1
2B
KAUAI
1 2A
1
0
OAHU
MAUI
2B
2B
3
4
ALEUTIAN
ISLANDS
2B
2A
HAWAII
GUAM 3
3
TUTUILA
PUERTO
RICO
c 1997,
Reproduced from the 1997 edition of the Uniform Building Code, copyright
with the permission of the publisher, the International Conference of Building Ocials.
Figure 14.2
LATERAL FORCESEARTHQUAKES
2 STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS TO RESIST
LATERAL LOADS
The UBC species the types of structural systems used
to resist seismic loads. The code requires that structural systems be classied as one of the types listed in
Table 16-N. (See Table 14.1.) In addition to outlining
the various types of structural systems, Table 16-N gives
14-5
Table 14.1
Structural Systems
HEIGHT LIMIT FOR
SEISMIC ZONES 3 AND 4
(ft)
BASIC STRUCTURAL
SYSTEM2
1. Bearing wall system
3. Moment-resisting frame
system
4. Dual systems
5. Cantilevered column
building systems
6. Shear wall-frame interaction systems
7. Undefined systems
o
5.5
4.5
2.8
2.8
65
65
4.5
4.5
2.8
2.8
2.8
2.2
160
160
65
4.4
2.8
2.8
7.0
2.2
2.2
2.2
2.8
160
65
240
6.5
5.0
2.8
2.8
65
65
5.5
5.5
2.8
2.8
240
160
5.6
5.6
5.6
2.2
2.2
2.2
160
65
6.4
2.2
240
8.5
8.5
6.5
5.5
2.8
2.8
2.8
2.8
N.L.
N.L.
160
4.5
3.5
6.5
2.8
2.8
2.8
160
240
8.5
4.2
6.5
5.5
4.2
4.2
6.0
2.8
2.8
2.8
2.8
2.8
2.8
2.8
N.L.
160
160
160
160
160
8.5
4.2
2.8
2.8
N.L.
160
304.8 for mm
6.5
4.2
6.5
4.2
2.8
2.8
2.8
2.8
N.L.
160
7.5
4.2
2.2
2.8
2.8
2.0
N.L.
160
356
1. Concrete8
5.5
2.8
160
N.L.no limit
1See Section 1630.4 for combination of structural systems.
2Basic structural systems are defined in Section 1629.6.
3Prohibited in Seismic Zones 3 and 4.
4Includes precast concrete conforming to Section 1921.2.7.
5Prohibited is Seismic Zones 3 and 4, except as permitted in Section 1634.2.
6Ordinary moment-resisting frames in Seismic Zone I meeting the requirements of Section 2211.6 may use an R value of 8.
7Total height of the building including cantilevered columns.
8Prohibited in Seismic Zones 2A, 2B, 3 and 4. See Section 1633.2.7.
14-6
Shear walls can be constructed from a variety of materials, but the most common are plywood on wood framing for residential and small commercial buildings, and
concrete for larger buildings. Reinforced masonry walls
can also be used. Shear walls may have openings in
them, but the calculations are more dicult and their
ability to resist lateral loads is reduced depending on
the percentage of open area.
B. Building Frame Systems
A building frame system is one with an essentially complete space frame that provides support for gravity loads
in which the lateral loads are resisted by shear walls or
braced frames. A braced frame is a truss system of the
concentric or eccentric type in which the lateral forces
are resisted through axial stresses in the members. Just
as with a truss, the braced frame depends on diagonal
members to provide a load path for lateral forces from
each building element to the foundation. Figure 14.4(a)
shows a simple one-story braced frame. At one end of
the building two bays are braced, and at the other end
only one bay is braced. As with Figure 14.3, this building is only braced in one direction and uses compression
braces because the diagonal member may be either in
tension or compression, depending on which way the
force is applied.
Figure 14.4(b) shows two methods of bracing a multistory building. A single diagonal compression member
in one bay can be used to brace against lateral loads
LATERAL FORCESEARTHQUAKES
14-7
tension
diagonals
compression/tension
diagonals
(b) multistory braced frame
coming from either direction. Alternately, tension diagonals can be used to accomplish the same result, but
they must be run both ways to account for the load
coming from either direction.
Braced framing can be placed on the exterior or interior
of a building, and may be placed in one structural bay
or several. In a trussed tube building, the diagonals
span between several oors of the building. Obviously,
a braced frame can present design problems for windows
and doorways, but it is a very ecient and rigid lateral
force resisting system.
A dual system is a structural system in which an essentially complete frame provides support for gravity loads,
and resistance to lateral loads is provided by a specially detailed moment-resisting frame and shear walls
or braced frames. The moment-resisting frame must be
capable of resisting at least 25 percent of the base shear,
and the two systems must be designed to resist the total lateral load in proportion to their relative rigidities.
The moment-resisting frame may be either steel or concrete, but concrete intermediate frames cannot be used
in seismic zones 3 or 4.
E. Horizontal Elements
14-8
15 kips
30 kips
90 kips
30 kips
15 kips
(a) single-story frame
30 kips
15 kips
exterior vertical
elements twice as
rigid as interior
elements
90 kips
15 kips
30 kips
(b) rigid diaphragm load distribution
Figure 14.6 Diaphragm Load Distribution
A exible diaphragm is one that has a maximum lateral deformation more than two times the average story
drift of that story. This deformation can be determined
by comparing the midpoint in-plane deection of the
diaphragm with the story drift of the adjoining vertical
resisting elements under equivalent tributary load. The
lateral load is distributed according to tributary areas
as shown in Figure 14.6(a).
With a rigid diaphragm, the shear forces transmitted
from the diaphragm to the vertical elements will be in
proporton to the relative stiness of the vertical
elements (assuming there is no torsion). See Figure
14.6(b). If the end walls in the diagram are twice as
sti as the interior walls, then one-third of the load is
distributed to each end wall and one-third to the two interior walls which is equally divided between these two.
The illustration shows symmetrically placed shear walls,
so the distribution is equal. However, if the vertical resisting elements are asymmetric, the shearing forces are
unequal.
BUILDING CONFIGURATION
LATERAL FORCESEARTHQUAKES
so it is clear which structures must be designed with the
dynamic method and which structures may be designed
using the static analysis method.
The code states that all buildings must be classied as
either regular or irregular. Whether a building is regular or not helps determine if the static method may
be used. Irregular structures generally require design
by the dynamic method (with exceptions mentioned in
Section 1), and additional detailed design requirements
are imposed depending on what type of irregularity exists.
Table 16-L (see Table 14.2) lists and denes ve types
of vertical structural irregularities along with references
to the specic code sections that give specic design
requirements. Table 16-M (see Table 14.3) lists and
denes ve types of plan structural irregularities along
with their code references. Note that the denition of
torsional irregularity (Plan Structural Irregularity Type
1 in Table 14.3) mentions diaphragms that are not exible. Flexible diaphragms are dened in Section 2E.
14-9
Table 14.2
Vertical Structural Irregularities
IRREGULARITY TYPE AND DEFINITION
REFERENCE
SECTION
Table 14.3
Plan Structural Irregularities
A. Torsion
REFERENCE
SECTION
1633.2.9, Item 6
1633.2.9,
Items 6 and 7
1633.2.9, Item 6
1630.8.2;
1633.2.9, Item 6;
2213.8
1633.1
;
;
;;
;
14-10
lateral load
resultant of
reactions
shear wall
lateral load
eccentricity
resultant of
reactions
stress concentration
ground motion
building movement
;;
;;
LATERAL FORCESEARTHQUAKES
14-11
seismic joint
movement during
earthquake
nonstructural
cladding
design strong
moment-resisting frame
14-12
to work the architectural solution around the extra columns or lower height. If height is critical, extra columns
can be added at the rst oor. Another solution is to
add extra horizontal and diagonal bracing. Finally, the
framing of the upper stories can be made the same as
the rst story. The entire structure then has a uniform stiness. Lighter, intermediate oors can be added
above the rst between the larger bays so they do not
aect the behavior of the primary structural system.
4
LATERAL FORCESEARTHQUAKES
14-13
14.3
Table 14.4
Occupancy Categories and Requirements
OCCUPANCY
CATEGORY
OCCUPANCY OR
FUNCTIONS OF
STRUCTURE
SEISMIC
IMPORTANCE
FACTOR,
I
SEISMIC WIND
IMPOR- IMPORTANCE1 TANCE
FACTOR, FACTOR,
Ip
Iw
1. Essential
facilities2
2. Hazardous facilities
3. Special
occupancy structures3
1.00
1.00
1.00
Group A, Divisions 1, 2 and 2.1
Occupancies
Buildings housing Group E, Divisions 1 and 3
Occupancies with a capacity greater than 300 students
Buildings housing Group B Occupancies used for college or adult education with a capacity greater than 500 students
Group I, Divisions 1 and 2 Occupancies with 50 or more resident incapacitated patients, but not included in Category 1
Group I, Division 3 Occupancies
All structures with an occupancy greater than 5000 persons
Structures and equipment in power-generating stations, and other public
utility facilities not included in Category 1 or Category 2 above, and
required for continued operation
4. Standard
occupancy structures3
1.00
1.00
1.00
5. Miscellaneous
structures
1.00
1.00
1.00
1The
limitation of Ip for panel connections in Section 1633.2.4 shall be 1.0 for the entire
connector.
14-14
B. Cv Factor/Ca Factor
Z = 0.4
SA
0.06
0.12
0.16
0.24
0.32Nv
SB
0.08
0.15
0.20
0.30
0.40Nv
SC
0.13
0.25
0.32
0.45
0.56Nv
SD
0.18
0.32
0.40
0.54
0.64Nv
SE
0.26
0.50
0.64
0.84
0.96Nv
See Footnote 1
SF
Table 14.7
Soil Prole Types
AVERAGE SOIL PROPERTIES FOR TOP 100
FEET (30 480 mm) OF SOIL PROFILE
Standard
Penetration Test,
N [or NCH
Shear Wave
for coheVelocity, VS
sionless
feet/second (m/s)
soil
layers]
(blows/
foot)
SOIL
PROFILE
TYPE
SOIL
PROFILE
NAME/
GENERIC
DESCRIPTION
SA
Hard Rock
> 5,000
(1,500)
SB
Rock
2,500 to 5,000
(760 to 1,500)
SC
SD
SE1
SF
Undrained
Shear
Strength, su
psf (kPa)
1,200 to 2,500
(360 to 760)
> 50
> 2,000
(100)
600 to 1,200
(180 to 360)
15 to 50
1,000 to 2,000
(50 to 100)
< 600
(180)
< 15
< 1000
(50)
1Soil Profile Type S also includes any soil profile with more than 10 feet (3048 mm) of soft
E
clay defined as a soil with a plasticity index, PI > 20, wmc 40 percent and su < 500 psf
(24 kPa). The Plasticity Index, PI, and the moisture content, wmc, shall be determined in
1Site-specific
geotechnical investigation and dynamic site response analysis shall be performed to determine seismic coefficients for Soil Profile Type SF.
Table 14.6
Seismic Coecient Ca
SEISMIC ZONE FACTOR, Z
SOIL
PROFILE
Z = 0.3
TYPE Z = 0.075 Z = 0.15 Z = 0.2
Z = 0.4
SA
0.06
0.12
0.16
0.24
0.32Na
SB
0.08
0.15
0.20
0.30
0.40Na
SC
0.09
0.18
0.24
0.33
0.40Na
SD
0.12
0.22
0.28
0.36
0.44Na
SE
0.19
0.30
0.34
0.36
0.36Na
SF
See Footnote 1
Z = 0.075
Z = 0.15
Zone 2B
Zone 3
Zone 4
Z = 0.20
Z = 0.30
Z = 0.40
D. T Factor
The UBC gives two methods of determining T : an approximate method that can be used for all buildings,
and a more complex method based on the deformational
characteristics of the resisting elements in the building.
The formula for approximating T is
3
1Site-specific
geotechnical investigation and dynamic site response analysis shall be performed to determine seismic coefficients for Soil Profile Type SF.
T = Ct (hn ) 4
C. Z Factor
The amount of seismic risk present in any given geographical location is represented by the Z factor. The
seismic zone map has six zones, with zone 0 being the
14.4
The code also gives another formula for nding the value
of Ct for structures with concrete or masonry shear
walls. Refer to Sec. 1630.2.2 of the UBC for this formula.
LATERAL FORCESEARTHQUAKES
14-15
E. R Factor
The R factor reects the energy-absorbing capabilities of various types of structural systems. Notice that
systems with high ductility, such as steel special
moment-resisting space frames, have a higher R value
than systems with less ductility. Because the R value is
now placed in the denominator of Equations 14.1 and
14.2, a higher value results in a lower value of V , the
design seismic force.
= 722 kips
From Equation 14.2,
Vmax =
T = Ct (hn ) 4 = (0.020)(45) 4
= 0.35 seconds
From Table 14.5, for Z = 0.075 and soil proletype SE ,
the seismic coecient, Cv = 0.26.
Therefore,
In warehouses and storage occupancies, a minimum of 25 percent of the oor live load must be
added.
F. W Factor
The W factor is the total dead load of the building.
Other applicable loads listed here must also be added:
2.5Ca I
R
Vmax =
(2.5)(0.19)(1.25)
4.5
(3500)
= 462 kips
Using Equation 14.3,
Vmin = 0.11Ca IW = (0.11)(0.19)(1.25)(3500)
= 91.4 kips
Therefore, V = 462 kips.
G. Distribution of Base Shear
Once the total base shear is known, it is used to determine the forces on the various building elements.
For single-story buildings, this is fairly straightforward.
For multistory buildings, the forces must be distributed
according to the displacement that occurs during an
earthquake. Although structural movement under seismic forces is complex, the static lateral force procedure uses the most pronounced displacement that takes
place, which results in an inverted force triangle varying
from zero at the base to the maximum at the top. See
Figure 14.13(a).
With this simplied approach, it is assumed that there
is uniform mass distribution and equal oor heights, but
the code does provide for variations as will be shown
in Equation 14.6. The sum of the loads at each level
equals the total base shear. Also note that while the
greatest force is at the top of the building, the shear
increases from zero at the top to its maximum at the
base. Each oor shear is successively added to the sum
from above. This method for the distribution of loads
is only for the design of vertical lateral load resisting
elements. There is another formula for determining the
force on the diaphragm at each level of a multistory
building.
To account for tall buildings that do not have a uniform
triangular distribution, the UBC requires that an additional force be applied at the top of the building, but
14-16
V = base shear
(a) distribution of forces using the
equivalent static load method
i=6
i=5
Wx
Fx
i=3
hi
h4
i=2
psf
psf
psf
psf
W6
i=4
15
20
18
8
W1
hx
i=1
T = Ct (hn ) 4
h1
T = 0.294 seconds
i=1
Because no soil information is given, soil type SE is assumed (conservative). From Table 14.5, Cv = 0.26.
W = 358 kips
From step 1,
The base shear is then calculated using Equation 14.1.
Cv I
(0.26)(1.0)
V =
W =
(358)
RT
(5.5)(0.294)
= 57.6 kips
i=1
Vmax =
2.5Ca I
R
W
LATERAL FORCESEARTHQUAKES
From Table 14.6, Ca = 0.19.
Therefore,
Vmax
Vmin
(2.5)(0.19)(1.0)
=
(358) = 30.9 kips
5.5
= 0.11Ca IW
14.3
= (0.11)(0.19)(1.0)(358) = 7.5 kips
2
wx
3
hx
4
wx hx
6
Fz
roof
3
2
74
142
142
36
24
12
2664
3408
1704
0.34
0.44
0.22
10.5
13.6
6.8
7776
1.00
30.9
14-17
14.7
ADDITIONAL CONSIDERATIONS
The complete and detailed design of earthquakeresistant structures is a complex procedure and beyond
the scope of this book. However, this section outlines
some additional concepts with which you should be familiar.
A. Overturning Moment
Because the inertial force created by an earthquake acts
through the center of mass of a building, there is a tendency for the moment created by this force acting above
the base to overturn the structure. This overturning
14-18
B. Drift
Drift is the lateral movement of a building under the inuence of earthquake- or wind-induced vibrations.
Story drift is the displacement of one level relative to
the level above or below. The UBC gives stringent
limitations on story drift. A static analysis shall be
used to determine the design level response displacement, S . The maximum inelastic response displacement, M , shall be computed as follows.
M = 0.7RS
Fx = dead load
Fh = earthquake
load
Fh
center of
mass
point of
rotation
Fh(h) Fx(x)
14.8
The value of R is obtained from Table 14.1. The calculated story drift using M shall not exceed 0.025 times
the story height for structures having a fundamental
period of less than 0.7 second. For structures having a
fundamental period of 0.7 second or greater, the calculated story drift shall not exceed 0.020 time the story
height.
Drift as a limiting factor is important in order to ensure
that exterior facades do not break o or crack excessively. When two buildings or portions of buildings are
isolated by a seismic joint, they must be separated by
at least the sum of the drifts to avoid pounding during
an earthquake.
x
Figure 14.14 Overturning Moment
LATERAL FORCESEARTHQUAKES
SAMPLE QUESTIONS
The answers to questions 1 through 3 can be found on
the following key list. Select only one answer for each
question.
A0
A1
A2
A3
A4
A5
A6
A7
A8
A9
accelerograph
bearing wall system
braced frame
building frame system
ductility
framed tube
irregular
modied Mercalli scale
moment-resisting space frame
natural period
B0
B1
B2
B3
B4
B5
re-entrant corner
regular
Richter scale
shear wall discontinuity
soft story
symmetric
14-19
1. A building is constructed of an ordinary momentresisting frame and is raised on columns above an open
plaza below. What is this an example of?
2. What provides information most useful for seismic
design?
3. What describes a building whose lateral forceresisting system consists of members stressed in exure.
4. A store in Seattle, Washington will have a steel, ordinary moment-resisting frame. It will be 120 feet wide,
180 feet long, and 50 feet high, with two stories. Soil
reports show sti soil with an average standard penetration test value of 40 blows/foot over the top 100
feet. The structure has a dead load of 6500 kips and
has no building irregularities in the longitudinal direction. What is the total base shear in the longitudinal
direction?
A. 257 kips
B. 1185 kips
C. 1300 kips
D. 1950 kips
5. A dynamic analysis method would be required if
which of the following conditions existed?
A. a 5-story, square hotel building with a skylighttopped atrium in the middle that comprises 55
percent of the buildings area
I.
II.
14-20
9. The distribution of base shear in a multistory building does not depend on which of the following?
A. the height of the building
B. the rigidity of the diaphragms
C. the distribution of mass
II.