Tillage

Physical Manipulation of soil with tools and implements for obtaining conditions ideal for better seed germination,
seedling establishment and growth of plants is called tillage.
Objectives of tillage for crop production

To facilitate adequate soil aeration for gaseous exchange in the seed and root zone
Adequate seed-soil contact to permit water flow to seed and seedling roots
A non-crusted soil to permit seedling emergence
A low density soil that permits root elongation and proliferation
To create an environment that provides adequate light to the seedling (weed free environment).
To create pest and pathogen free environment
To mix the applied manures and fertilizers with the soil
To remove the hardpan, if any to increase the soil depth for water absorption

Types of Tillage
Tillage operations are broadly grouped into two types based on the time

Types of Primary Tillage

Depending upon the purpose or necessity, different types of tillage are carried out. They are deep ploughing, sub
soiling and year-round tillage.
Deep Tillage
Deep ploughing turns out large sized clods, which are baked by the hot sun when it is done in summer. These clods
crumble due to alternate heating and cooling and due to occasional summer showers. This process of gradual
disintegration of clods improves soil structure. The rhizomes and tubers of perennial weeds (world's problematic
weedsviz., Cynodon dactylon and Cyperus rotundus) die due to exposure to hot sun. Summer deep ploughing kills
pests due to exposure of pupae to hot sun.
A deep tillage of 25-30 cm depth is necessary for deep rooted crop like pigeonpea while moderate deep tillage of 15-

20 cm is required for maize.

Deep tillage also improves soil moisture content. However the advantage of deep tillage in dry farming condition
depends on rainfall pattern and crop.
It is advisable to go for deep ploughing only for long duration, deep rooted crops. Depth of ploughing should be
related to the amount of rainfall that it can wet.
Sub soiling
Hard pans may be present in the soil which restrict root growth of crops. These may be silt pans, iron or aluminium
pans, clay pans or -man-made pans. Man-made pans are tillage pans induced by repeated tillage at the same depth.
Root growth of crops is confined to top few centimetres of soil where deep penetration of roots is inhibited by hard
pans.
For example, cotton roots grow to a depth of 2 m in deep alluvial soil without any pans. When hard pans are present,
they grow only up to hard pan, say 15-20 cm. Similarly, vertical root growth of sugarcane is restricted due to hard
pans and it is not compensated by horizontal spread. Subsoiling is breaking the hard pan without inversion and with
less disturbance of top soil. A narrow cut is made in the top soil while share of the subsoiler shatters hard pans. Chisel
ploughs are also used to break hard pans present even at 60-70 cm. The effect of subsoiling does not last long. To
avoid closing of subsoil furrow, vertical mulching is adopted.

Year-round Tillage
Tillage operations carried out throughout the year are known as year-round tillage. In dry farming regions, field
preparation is initiated with the help of summer showers. Repeated tillage operations are carried out until sowing of
the crop. Even after harvest of the crop, the field is repeatedly ploughed or harrowed to avoid weed growth in the off
season.
Secondary Tillage
Lighter or finer operations performed on the soil after primary tillage are known as secondary tillage. After ploughing,
the fields are left with large clods with some weeds and stubbles partially uprooted.
Harrowing is done to a shallow depth to crush the clods and to uproot the remaining weeds and stubbles. Disc
harrows, cultivators, blade harrows etc., are used for this purpose.

Planking is done to crush the hard clods to smoothen the soil surface and to compact the soil lightly. Thus the field is
made ready for sowing after ploughing by harrowing and planking. Generally sowing operations are also included in
secondary tillage.
Layout of Seedbed and Sowing
After the seedbed preparation, the field is laid out properly for irrigation and sowing or planting seedlings. These
operations are crop specific. For most of the crops like wheat, soybean, pearl millet, groundnut, castor etc., fIat
levelled seedbed is prepared. After the secondary tillage, these crops are sown without any land treatments. However,
growing crops during rainy season in deep black soils is a problem due to ill-drained conditions and as tillage is not
possible during the rainy season. Broadbed and furrows (BBF) are, therefore, formed before the onset of monsoon and
dry sowing is resorted to.
For some crops like maize, vegetables etc., the field has to be laid out into ridges and furrows. Sugarcane is planted in
the furrows or trenches. Crops like tobacco, tomato, chillies are planted with equal inter and intra-row spacing so as to
facilitate two-way intercultivation. After field preparation, a marker is run in both the directions. The seedlings are
transplanted at the intercepts.

Layout of Seedbed
AFTER CULTIVATION
The tillage operations that are carried out in the standing crop are called after tillage. It includes drilling or side
dressing of fertilisers, earthing up and intercultivation.
Earthing up is an operation carried out with country plough or ridge plough so as to form ridges at the base of the
crop. It is done either to provide extra support against lodging as in sugarcane or to provide more soil volume for
better growth of tubers as in potato or to facilitate irrigation as in vegetables.
Intercultivation is working blade harrows, rotary hoes etc., in between the crop rows so as to control weeds.
Intercultivation may also serve as moisture conservation measure by closing deep cracks in black soils.
Tillage implements are broadly categorized into several groups depending on the purpose for which they are use:
Primary Tillage implements
Implements used for opening and loosening of the soil are known as ploughs. Ploughs are used for primary tillage.
Ploughs are of three types: wooden ploughs, iron or inversion ploughs and special purpose ploughs.
Wooden plough or Indigenous plough
Indigenous plough is an implement which is made of wood with an iron share point. It consists of body, shaft pole,
share and handle. It is drawn with bullocks. It cuts a V shaped furrow and opens the soil but there is no inversion.
Ploughing operation is also not perfect because some unploughed strip is always left between furrows. This is reduced
by cross ploughing, but even then small squares remain unploughed.

Soil Turning Ploughs

Soil turning ploughs are made of iron and drawn by a pair of bullocks or two depending on the type of soil. These are
also drawn by tractors.
Mouldboard Plough
The parts of mouldboard plough are frog or body, mouldboard or wing, share, landside, connecting, rod, bracket and
handle. This type of plough leaves no unploughed land as the furrow slices are cut clean and inverted to one side
resulting in better pulverisation. The animal drawn mouldboard plough is small, ploughs to a depth of 15 cm, while
two mouldboard ploughs which are bigger in size are attached to the tractor and ploughed to a depth of 25 to 30 cm.
Mouldboard ploughs are used where soil inversion is necessary. Victory plough is an animal drawn mouldboard
plough with a short shaft.

Disc Plough
The disc plough bears little resemblance to the common mouldboardplough. A large, revolving, concave steel disc
replaces the share and the mouldboard. The disc turns the furrow slice to one side with a scooping action. The usual
size of the disc is 60 cm in diameter and this turns a 35 to 30 cm furrow slice. The disc plough is more suitable for
land in which there is much fibrous growth of weeds as the disc cuts and incorporates the weeds. The disc plough
works well in soils free from stones. No harrowing is necessary to break the clods of the upturned soil as in a
mouldboard plough.

Turn-wrest or Reversible or One-way Plough

The plough bottom in this plough is hinged to the beam such that the mouldboard and the share can be reversed to the
left or to the right side of the beam. This adjustment saves the trouble of turning the plough in hilly tracts, but yet
facilitates inversion of the furrow slice to one side only.

SPECIAL PLOUGHS
Subsoil Plough:
Subsoil plough is designed to break up hard layers or pans without bringing them to the surface. The body of the
subsoil plough is wedge shaped and narrow while the share is wide so as to shatter the hard pan and making only a
slot on the top layers.

Chisel Plough:
Chisel plough is used for breaking hard pans and for deep ploughing (60-70 cm) with less disturbance to the top
layers. Its body is thin with replaceable cutting edge so as to have minimum disturbance to the top layers. It contains a
replaceable share to shatter the lower layers.

Ridge Plough:
Ridge plough has two mould boards, one for turning the soil to the right and another to the left. The share is common
for both the mould boards i.e. double winged. These mould boards are mounted on a common body. The, ridge plough
is used to split the field into ridges and furrows and for earthing up of crops. Ridge ploughs are used to make broad
bed and furrows by attaching two ridge ploughs on a frame at 150em spacing between them.

Rotary Plough or Rotary Hoes:

Rotary plough cuts the soil and pulverizes it. The cutting of soil is done by either blades or tynes. The blade types are
widely used. The depth of cut is up to 12 to 15 cm. It is suitable for light soils.
Basin Lister:

Basin lister is a heavy implement with one or two mouldboards or shovels. These shovels are mounted on a special
type of frame on which they act alternately. This implement is used to form listed furrows (broken furrows with small
dams and basins) to prevent free runoff of rainfall and blowing off the soil in low rainfall areas.
Secondary Tillage Implements
Different types of implements like cultivators, harrows, planks and rollers are used for secondary tillage.
Tractor Drawn Cultivator:
Cultivator is an implement used for finer operations like breaking clods and working the soil to a fine tilth in the
preparation of seedbed. Cultivator is also known as tiller or tooth harrow. It is used to further loosen the previously
ploughed land before sowing. It is also used to destroy weeds that germinate after ploughing. Cultivator has two rows
of tynes attached to its frame in staggered form. The main object of providing two rows and staggering the position of
tynes is to provide clearance between tynes so that clods and plant residues can freely pass through without blocking.
Provision is also made in the frame by drilling holes so that tynes can be set close or apart as desirect. The number of
tynes ranges from 7 to 13. The shares of the tynes can be replaced when they are worn out.

Sweep Cultivator
In stubble-mulch farming, it is difficult to prepare the land with ordinary implements due to clogging. Sweep
cultivator is the implements useful under this condition. It consists of large inverted V shaped blades attached to a
cultivator frame. These blades run parallel to soil surface at a depth of 10 to IS cm. They are armged in two rows and
staggered. Sweep cultivator is used to cut up to 12 to 15cm depth of soil during first operation after harvest and
shallower during subsequent operations. It is worked frequently to control weeds. It can also be used for harvesting
groundnut.
Harrows
Harrows are used for shallow cultivation in operations such as preparation of seedbed, covering seeds and destroying
weed seedlings. Harrows a~ of two types: disc harrow and blade harrow. '
Disc Harrow
The disc harrow consists of a number of concave discs of 45 to 55 cm in diameter. These discs are smaller in size than
disc plough, but more number of discs are arranged on a frame. These discs are fitted 15cm apart on axles. Two sets of
discs are mounted on two axles. All the discs revolve together with axles. The discs cut through the soil and
effectively pulverise the clods.

Blade Harrow
Blade harrows are used for different purposes like removal of weeds and stubbles, crushing of clods working of soil to
shallow depth, covering the seeds, intercutivation and harvesting of groundnut etc. The blade harrows useful for
intercultivation are discussed later. Blade harrows are two types viz. indigenous and improved.
Indigenous Blade Harrows
The general design of an indigenous blade harrow which is known as guntaka consists of a beam to which two pegs
are attached at the ends. A blade is attached to these two pegs. Two shaft poles and' a handle are the other parts
of guntaka. Depending on the beam length and weight, the are known by different names and used for- different
purposes.
Plank and Roller

Plank is a very simple implement and consists of a heavy wooden beam of 2 m in length. In addition, shafts and handle
are fixed to the beams. When it is worked most of the clods are crushed due to its weight. It also helps in micro
levelling and slight compaction necessary after sowing. Rollers are used mainly, to crush the hard clods and to
compact the soil in seed rows.
Implements for Layout of seedbed
Country plough
Ridge plough
Bund former
Country plough and ridge plough are used for laying out the field into ridges and furrows or to layout irrigation
channels.
Ridge ploughs, when attached to a frame can be used for making broad-bed furrows.
Bunds for irrigation in the garden lands are made usually by manual labour using spades. Bunds are also formed
across the contours in the low rainfall regions to conserve soil moisture. The bund farmer is designed to form these
bunds replacing manual labour. This implement consists of a pair of iron mould boards fixed in opposite direction
facing each other with the front end opening outwards and rear and closing in to form bunds.

Marker is used to mark intercepts for transplanting seedlings by square planting method. It consists of a beam to
which 3 or 4 wooden tyres are fixed, the spacing of which depends on the spacing the crop. When it is run in two
directions, very shallow furrow markings are formed in two directions. Seedlings are transplanted at the intercepts.
Implements for sowing
Plough
The seeds are dropped by hand in the furrow formed by the country plough. The seeds faIl at uneven depths due to
falling at random in furrow slice. To avoid this problem Akkadiis used. Akkadi is a hollow bamboo tube which is
sharpened at one end and with wide hopper at another end. It is tied to country plough with the help of a rope and
seeds dropped in the akkadi' s hopper. Seeds pass through the tube and fall in the furrow opened by the plough.
Seed Drill
Seed drill consists of a wooden beam to which 3 to 6 tynes are fixed. These tynes open the furrows into which the
seeds are dropped. Holes are made into these tynes and into these holes, the bottom ends of bamboo or metal seed
tubes are fitted. These seed tubes are connected at the top to a wooden seed receptacle called hopper. The seeds are fed
at a uniform rate 'into this hopper by skilled labour walking behind the seed drill.

Ferti-cum-Seed Drill
Fertilisers are placed at a depth of 5 cm and 5 cm away from seed rows for effective utilisation of fertilisers. Both
operations viz. drilling seeds and fertilizers are done simultaneously by ferti-cum-seed drill. It is similar to seed drill,
but with extra tynes and hopper for drilling fertilizers.
Mechanical Seed Drill
The seed drill consists of a seed drum with holes in the bottom plate corresponding to the number of seed tubes for
passing the seed into the seed tubes. A rotating disc has holes in a circular path and it is kept over a bottom plate.

When the holes of rotating disc and bottom plate coincide, seed falls into the tube on its way into the soil. The distance
between two holes in rotating disc is proportional to the inter-row spacing of crop. For sowing seeds of different sizes,
rotating discs with different sized holes are used. There is provision for altering the distance between the rows by
changing distance between the tynes. Inter-row spacing can be changed by using rotating discs with more space
between the holes. Seed drills with different mechanisms for automatic drilling of seed are also available.
Implements for intercultivation
Wooden plough
Small blade harrow
Weeders Rotary weeders
Country plough and ridge ploughs are used for earthing sugarcane, potato etc. Country plough is run to a shallow
depth to control weeds in widely spaced crops and fruit trees.
Small sized blade harrows are widely used for intercultivation. Several of them are designed by local artisans to suit
special purposes and are given local names. These are simple in design, easy to make, cheap and serve the purpose
excellently.
Intercultivation in close growing crops is done with danthi and each danthi covers one row only. A number
of danthis are attached to a yoke for covering more area. The length of the blade of pilla guntaka ranges from 30 to
45cm. Depending on the inter-row spacing of the crop, the blade length is 10cm less than the inter-row spacing of the
crop.
Tobacco blade harrow has longer blade than its beam so as to scrape the weeds on the soil without damaging the brittle
petioles of tobacco.
Star weeder is a small implement pushed by manual labour. It consists of a long wooden or iron vertical rod with a
small horizontal rod for holding the implement. To the other end, two star like wheels and a small blade of 10 cm are
attached. The pointed teeth of rotating wheels loosen the soil and help in easy mobility of the implement while the
blade helps in cutting the weeds. It is useful to control small weeds in close growing crops like groundnut, foxtail
millet etc.

Rotary Weeder
Modern concepts of Tillage
In conventional tillage, energy is often wasted and sometimes, soil structure is destroyed. Recently considerable changes has
taken place in tillage practices and several new concepts have been introduced namely, minimum tillage, zero tillage, stubble
mulch tillage.
The immediate cause for introducing minimum tillage was high cost of tillage due to steep rise in oil prices. In addition there are
problems associated with conventional tillage. Repeated use of heavy machinery, destroys structure, causes soil pans and leads to
erosion.
The needs of planting zone (row zone) and water management zone (inter row zone) are different. In row crops, it is sufficient to
provide fine tilth in the row zone for creating conditions optimal for sowing and conducive to rapid and complete germination and
seedling establishment. In the inter-row zone, secondary tillage is not done and it should be rough and cloddy where soil structure
is coarse and open so that weeds may not germinate and more water infiltrates into the soil. The important object of tillage is weed
control which can be done by herbicides.
The Practice of inverting the top soil in order to bury manures and crop residues becomes less important object of tillage in
modem field management as the use of animal and green manure is rather uncommon. Crop residues can and in many cases
should be left over the surface as stubble mulch to protect against evaporation and erosion losses. Research has shown that
frequent tillage is rarely beneficial and often detrimental. All these reasons led to the development and practice of minimum
tillage, zero tillage and stubble mulch farming etc.

Minimum Tillage
It involves considerable soil disturbance, though to a much lesser extent than that associated with conventional tillage. Minimum
tillage is aimed at reducing tillage to the minimum necessary for ensuring a good seedbed, rapid germination, a satisfactory stand
and favourable growing conditions.
Tillage can be reduced in two ways:
by omitting operation which do not give much benefit when compared to the cost.
by combining agricultural operations like seeding and fertilizer application.
Advantages of minimum tillage
Improved soil conditions due to decomposition of plant residues in situ;
Higher infiltration caused by the vegetation present on the soil and channels formed by the decomposition of dead roots;
Less resistance to root growth due to improved structure;
Less soil compaction by the reduced movement of heavy tillage vehicles and less soil erosion compared to conventional tillage.
Note: These advantages are evident on coarse and medium textured soils and appear after two to three years of practicing
minimum tillage.
Disadvantages of minimum tillage
Seed germination is lower with minimum tillage.
In minimum tillage, more nitrogen has to be added as rate of decomposition of organic matter is slow.
Nodulation is affected in some leguminous crops like peas and broad beans.
Sowing operations are difficult with ordinary equipment.
Continuous use of herbicides cause pollution problems and dominance of perennial problematic weeds.
Different methods of minimum tillage practiced
Row Zone Tillage
After primary tillage with mould board plough, secondary tillage operations like disking and harrowing are reduced. The
secondary tillage is done in the row zone only.
Plough-plant Tillage
After the soil is ploughed, a special planter is used and in one run over the field, the row zone is' pulverised and seeds are sown.
Wheel Track Planting
Ploughing is done as usual. Tractor is used for sowing and the wheels of the tractor pulverise the row zone.
Zero Tillage
Zero tillage is also called as no till. Zero tillage is an extreme form of minimum tillage. Primary tillage is completely avoided and
secondary tillage is restricted to seedbed preparation in the row zone only.
Till planting is one method of practicing zero tillage. The machinery accomplishes four task in one operation: clean a narrow strip
over the crop row, open the soil for seed insertion, place the seed and cover the seed properly. A wide sweep and trash bars clear a
strip over the previous crop row and planter-shoe opens a narrow strip into which seeds are planted and covered.
In zero tillage, herbicide functions are extended. Before sowing, the vegetation present has to be destroyed for which broad
spectrum, nonselective herbicides with relatively short residual effect (Paraquat, Glyphosate etc.,) are used.

Till planting
Stubble mulch Tillage

Conventional method of tillage results in soil erosion. Stubble mulch tillage or stubble mulch farming a new approach was
developed for keeping soil protected at all times whether by growing a crop or by crop residues left on the surface during fallow
periods. It is a year round system of managing plant residue with implements that undercut residue, loosen the soil and kill weeds.
Sweeps or blades are generally used to cut the soil up to 12 to 15cm depth in the first operation after harvest and the depth of cut
reduced during subsequent operations. When unusually large amount of residues are present, a disc type implement is used for the
first operation to incorporate some of the residues into the soil. This hastens decomposition, but still keeps enough residues on the
soil.
Two methods are adopted for sowing crops in stubble mulch farming:
1. Similar to zero tillage, a wide sweep and trash-bars are used to clear a strip and a narrow planter-shoe opens a narrow furrow
into which seeds are placed.
2. A narrow chisel of 5 to 10 cm width is worked through the soil at a depth of 15 to 30 cm leaving all plant residues on the
surface.
The chisel shatters tillage pans and surface crusts. Planting is done through residues with special planters.
TILLAGE OPERATION FOR FIELD CROPS
RICE (Oryza sativa L.)
Transplanted Puddled Lowland Rice
Wet nursery
Forming Seedbeds
Mark plots of 2.5m breadth with channels 30cm wide all around the seedbeds.
Length of the seed bed may vary from 8 to 10m according to soil and slope of the land.
Collect the puddled soil from the channel and spread on the seedbeds or drag a heavy stone along the channel to lower it, so that
the seed bed is at a higher level.
Level the surface of the seedbed, so that the water drains into the channel.
Dry nursery
Dry ploughed field with fine tilth is required.
Nursery area with sand and loamy soil status is more suitable for this type of nursery.
Area 20cents.
Plots of 1 to 1.5 m width of beds and channels may be formed. Length may be according to the slope and soil. Raised beds are
more ideal if the soil is clayey in nature.
Main Field Management
Land preparation

Plough the land during summer to economize the water requirement for initial preparation of land.
Flood the field 1 or 2days before ploughing and allow water to soak in. Keep the surface of the field covered with
water.
Keep water to a depth of 2.5cm at the time of puddling.

Special technologies for problem soils:

For fluffy paddy soils: compact the soil by passing 400kg stone roller or oil-drum with stones inside, eight times at
proper moisture level (moisture level at friable condition of soil which is approximately 13 to18%) once in three
years, to prevent the sinking of draught animals and workers during puddling.
For sodic soils with pH values of more than 8.5, plough at optimum moisture regime, apply gypsum at 50% gypsum
requirement uniformly, impound water, provide drainage for leaching out soluble salts and apply green leaf manure at
5 t/ha, 10 to 15 days before transplanting. Mix 37.5 kg of zinc sulphate per ha with sand to make a total quantity of 75
kg and spread the mixture uniformly on the leveled field. Do not incorporate the mixture in the soil. Rice under sodic
soil responds well to these practices.
For saline soils with EC values of more than 4 dS/m, provide lateral and main drainage channels (60cm deep and
45cm wide), apply green leaf manure at 5 t/ha at 10 to 15 days before transplanting and 25% extra dose of nitrogen in
addition to recommended P and K and ZnSO 4 at 37.5 kg/ha at planting.
For acid soils apply lime based on the soil analysis for obtaining normal rice yields. Lime is applied 2.5 t/ha before
last ploughing. Apply lime at this rate to each crop up to the 5th crop.

Keep water to a depth of 2.5cm at the time of puddling

SYSTEM OF RICE INTENSIFICATION (SRI)
Mat nursery preparation
Preparation of nursery area: Prepare 100 m2 nurseries to plant 1 ha. Select a level area near the water source. Spread a plastic
sheet or used polythene gunny bags on the shallow raised bed to prevent roots growing deep into soil.
Main field preparation
Puddled lowland prepared as described in transplanted section
Perfect leveling is a pre-requisite for the water management proposed hereunder
WET SEEDED PUDDLED LOWLAND RICE
Wet Seeded Rice
On receipt of showers during the months of May - July repeated ploughing should be carried out so as to conserve the moisture,
destroy the weeds and break the clods.
After inundation puddling is to be done as per transplanting. More care should be taken to level the field to zero level.
Stagnation of water in patches during germination and early establishment of the crop leads to uneven crop stand.
Land leveling has say over efficient weed and water management practices.
Provision of shallow trenches (15cm width) at an interval of 3m all along the field will facilitate the draining of excess water at
the early growth stage.

Land levelling
DRY SEEDED RAINFED UN-PUDDLED LOWLAND RICE
Dry plough to get fine tilth taking advantage of rains and soil moisture availability.
Apply gypsum at 1 t/ha basally wherever soil crusting and soil hardening problem exist.
Perfect land leveling for efficient weed and water management.

Provide shallow trenches (15 cm width) at an interval of 3m all along the field to facilitate draining excess water at the early
growth stage.
DRY SEEDED RAINFED UN-PUDDLED LOWLAND RICE WITH
SUPPLEMENTAL IRRIGATION
Dry plough to get fine tilth taking advantage of rains and soil moisture availability.
Apply gypsum at 1 t/ha basally wherever soil crusting and soil hardening problem exist.
Perfect land leveling for efficient weed and water management.
Provide shallow trenches (15 cm width) at an interval of 3m all along the field to facilitate draining excess water at the early
growth stage.
Pre-monsoon sowing is advocated for uniform germination.
DRY SEEDED IRRIGATED UN-PUDDLED LOWLAND RICE
Dry plough to get fine tilth taking advantage of rains and soil moisture availability.
Apply gypsum at 1 t/ha basally wherever soil crusting and soil hardening problem exist.
Perfect land leveling for efficient weed and water management.
Provide shallow trenches (15 cm width) at an interval of 3m all along the field to facilitate draining excess water at the early
growth stage.
MILLETS
SORGHUM (Sorghum bicolor)
Nursery Preparation
For raising seedlings to plant one hectare, select 7.5 cents (300 m2) near a water source where water will not stagnate.
Laying The Nursery
i. Provide three separate units of size 2 m x 1.5 m with 30 cm space in between the plots and all around the unit for irrigation.
ii. Excavate the soil from the inter-space and all around to a depth of 15 cm to form channels and spread the soil removed on the
bed and level.
Main Field Preparation for Irrigated Crop
Ploughing
Plough the field with an iron plough once (or) twice. Sorghum does not require fine tilth since it adversely affects germination and
yield in the case of direct sown crop.
To overcome the subsoil hard pan in Alfisols (deep red soils) chiselling the field at 0.5 m intervals to a depth of 40 cm on both the
directions of the field followed by disc ploughing once and cultivator ploughing twice help to increase the yield of sorghum and
the succeeding blackgram also. This was true with Sorghum followed by Groundnut also.
Application of FYM and 100% of recommended N can also be followed. In soils with sub-soil hard pan, chiselling should be done
every year at the start of the cropping sequence to create a favourable physical environment.
Formation of Ridges and Furrows
i. Form ridges and furrows using a ridger at 6 m long and 45 cm apart
ii. Form irrigation channels across the furrows
iii. Alternatively, form beds of size 10 m2 and 20 m2 depending on the availability of water.

RATOON SORGHUM CROP

RAINFED SORGHUM

Field Preparation
Test the soil and apply fertilizers based on soil test recommendations.
Field has to be prepared well in advance taking advantage of early showers. FYM application should be done @ 12.5 t / ha and
well incorporated at the time of ploughing.
Chiseling for soils with hard pan Chisel the soils having hard pan formation at shallow depths with chisel plough at 0.5 M interval,
first in one direction and then in the direction perpendicular to the previous one once in three years. Apply 12.5 t FYM or
composted Coir pith/ha besides chiseling to get an additional yield of about 30% over control.
To conserve the soil moisture sow the seeds in flat beds and form furrows between crop rows during inter cultivation or during
third week after sowing.
CUMBU (Pennisetum glaucum (L) R. Br. )
Preparation of Land
For raising seedlings to plant one ha select 7.5 cents near a water source. Water should not stagnate.
Plough the land and bring it to the fine tilth.
PREPARATION OF MAIN FIELD
Field Preparation
Plough with an iron plough twice and with country plough twice. Bring the soil into fine tilth.
CHISELING FOR SOILS WITH HARD PAN: Chisel the soils having hard pan formation at shallow depths with chisel plough at
0.5m interval, first in one direction then in the direction perpendicular to the previous one, once in three years.
Forming Ridges and Furrows/Beds
Form ridges and furrows (using 3 ridges) 6 m long and 45 cm apart. If pulses is intercropped, form ridges and furrows 6 m long
and 30 cm apart.

If ridge planting is not followed, form beds of the size 10 m2 or 30 m2 depending upon water availability.

Form irrigation channels.

To conserve soil moisture under rainfed condition, sow the seeds in flat and form furrows between crop rows during
intercultivation on third week after sowing.

RAGI (Eleusine coracana)

IRRIGATED
Preparation of Nursery (Irrigated Transplanted Crop)
Preparation of Land
For raising seedlings to plant one ha of main field, select 12.5 cents (500 m2) of nursery area near a water source, where water
does not stagnate.

Mix 37.5 kg of super phosphate with 500 kg of FYM or compost and spread the mixture evenly on the nursery area.

Plough two or three times with a mould board plough or five times with a country plough.

Forming Raised Bed

Mark units of 6 plots each of size 3 m x 1.5 m. Provide 30 cm space between plots for irrigation.

Excavate the soil from the interspace and all around to a depth of 15 cm to form channels and spread the soil removed from the
channels on the bed and level.
Preparation of Main Field
Ploughing the Field
Plough twice with mould board plough or thrice with wooden plough till a good tilth is obtained.
Forming Beds and Channels
Form beds of size 10 m2 to 20 m2 according to topography of the field.

Provide suitable irrigation channels.

RAGI : RAINFED
Tillage
Fall ploughing is advantageous for moisture conservation. In the month of April or May, one deep ploughing with mould
board plough followed by ploughing with wooden plough twice is necessary. Before sowing secondary tillage with cultivator and
multiple tooth hoe to prepare smooth seed bed is necessary.
MAIZE (Zea mays L.)
IRRIGATED MAIZE
Field Preparation
Plough the field with disc plough once followed by cultivator ploughing twice, after spreading FYM or compost till a fine tilth is
obtained.
Forming Ridges and Furrows or Beds
Form ridges and furrows providing sufficient irrigation channels. The ridges should be

6 m long and 60 cm apart.

If ridges and furrows are not made, form beds of size 10 m2 or 20 m2 depending on the availability of water.

Use a bund former or ridge plough to economise cost of production.

RAINFED MAIZE
Field Preparation
Chisel the soil having hard pan formation at shallow depths with chisel plough at 0.5 M interval first in one direction and then in
the direction perpendicular to the previous one once in three years. Apply 12.5 t/ha of FYM or compost or composted coir pith
besides chiselling, to get an additional yield of about 30% over control.
SMALL MILLETS
Tenai
Field preparation

: Plough the field thoroughly using a small iron

plough or country plough to fine tilth.

Samai
Field preparation

: Plough the field thoroughly 2 or 3 times using a small iron plough or country plough to fine
tilth.

Varagu
Field preparation

: Plough the field thoroughly using a small iron plough or country plough to fine tilth.

WHEAT (Triticum aestivum.)

Field Preparation
Plough twice with an iron plough and two to three times with cultivator and prepare the land to a fine tilth.
Forming Beds and Channel
Form beds of size 10 m2 or 20 m2. The irrigation channels are to be provided sufficiently.
PULSES
REDGRAM ( Cajanus cajan (L.) Millsp. )
Management of Field Operation
Preparation of the Land
Prepare the land to fine tilth and apply 12.5 t FYM/ha or composted coir pith at the time of last ploughing and form ridges and
furrows
BLACKGRAM ( Vigna mungo L.)
Prepare the land to fine tilth and form beds and channels.
GREENGRAM ( Vigna radiata L. )
Prepare the land to get fine tilth and form beds and channels.
Amendments for soil surface crusting: To tide over the soil surface crusting apply lime at the rate of 2 t/ha along with FYM at 12.5
t/ha or composted coir pith at 12.5 t/ha to get an additional yield of about 15 - 20%.
COWPEA ( Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp.aggreg.)
Prepare the land to fine tilth and form beds and channels.
HORSEGRAM ( Macrotyloma uniflorum )
Prepare the land to a fine tilth.
BENGALGRAM ( Cicer arietinum L.)
Prepare the land to fine tilth and apply 12.5 t FYM/ha
GARDEN LAB LAB (AVARAI)
(Lab lab purpureus (L.) var. typicus. )
Prepare the land to fine tilth. Form beds and channels for bushy types.
FIELD LAB-LAB (MOCHAI)
( Lab lab purpureus (L.) var. lignosus )
Management of Field Operations

Prepare the land to fine tilth.

SOYBEAN ( Glycine max (L.) Merr.)
Management of Field Operations
Prepare the land to get fine tilth and form beds and channels.
RAINFED SOYABEAN
If herbicide spray is not given, two hand weeding on 20 and 35th day after sowing.
SWORD BEAN ( Canavalia gladiata L.)
OILSEEDS
GROUNDNUT (Arachis hypogaea )
I. Rainfed
Field Preparation
Plough with tractor using a disc followed by harrow, once or twice with iron plough or
3 - 4 times with country plough till all the clods are broken and a fine tilth is obtained.

Chiselling for soils with hard pan: Chisel the soils having hard pan formation at shallow depth with chisel plough first at 0.5 m
interval in one direction and then in the direction perpendicular to the previous one, once in three years. Apply 12.5 t/ha of FYM
or composted coir pith besides chiselling.

Amendments for soil surface crusting: a) To tide over the surface crusting, apply lime @ 2 t/ha along with FYM or composted
coir pith @ 12.5 t/ha. b) Coir pith at 12.5 t/ha converted to compost by inoculating with Pleurotus and applied serves as a good
source of nutrients.
Forming Beds
Form beds of size 10 m2 to 20 m2 depending upon the slope of the land and type of soil.
Wherever tractor is engaged, bed former may be used.
Earthing Up
Accomplish earthing up during second hand weeding/late hand weeding (in herbicide application).
NOTE:
Earthing up provides medium for the peg development

Use the improved hoe with long handle which can be worked more efficiently in a standing position.

Do not disturb the soil after 45th day of sowing as it will affect pod formation adversely.
Irrigated
Field Preparation
Plough with tractor using a disc followed by harrow, once or twice with iron plough or
3 - 4 times with country plough till all the clods are broken and a fine tilth is obtained.

Chiselling for soils with hard pan: Chisel the soils having hard pan formation at shallow depth with chisel plough first at 0.5 m
interval in one direction and then in the direction perpendicular to the previous one, once in three years. Apply 12.5 t/ha FYM or

composted coir pith besides chiselling.

Amendments for soil surface crusting: a) To tide over the surface crusting, apply lime @ 2 t/ha along with FYM or composted
coir pith @ 12.5 t/ha. b) When coir pith at 12.5 t/ha is converted into compost by inoculating with Pleurotus and applied, it serves
as a good source of nutrient.

Forming Beds
Form beds of size 10 m2 to 20 m2 depending upon the availability of water, slope of the land and type of soil.
Wherever tractor is engaged, bed former may be used.
Earthing up:
Accomplish earthing up during second hand weeding/late hand weeding (in herbicide application).
NOTE: i) Earthing up provides medium for the peg development. ii) Use the improved hoe with long handle which can be
worked more efficiently in a standing position. iii) Do not disturb the soil after the 45th day of sowing as it will affect pod
formation adversely.
SESAME (Sesamum indicum)
Field Preparation

Plough the field with tractor twice or with mould board plough thrice or five times with a country plough.
Break the clods in between ploughings and bring the soil to a fine tilth to facilitate quick germination as the seeds are
small.
Chiselling for soils with hard pan: Chisel the soils having hard pan formation at shallow depth with chisel plough first
at 0.5 m interval in one direction and then in the direction perpendicular to the previous one once in three years. Apply
12.5t FYM/composted coir pith besides chiselling.
For irrigated gingelly, form beds of size 10 m2 or 20 m2 depending upon the availability, inflow of water and slope of
the land. Level the beds perfectly without any depressions to prevent water stagnation, which will affect the
germination adversely.
In rice fallows, field is ploughed once with optimum moisture, seeds are sown immediately and covered with one
more ploughing.
CASTOR (Ricinus communis)
Preparation of the Field
Plough two-three times with country or mould board plough.
SAFFLOWER (Carthamus tinctorius)
Preparation of the Field
Field Preparation
Plough with tractor 2-3 times with a mould board plough or 5 times with a country plough.

Break the clods in between the ploughings and bring the soil to a fine tilth.
SUNFLOWER ( Helianthus annuus )
Field Preparation

Plough once with tractor or twice with iron-plough or three to four times with country-plough till all the clods are broken and a
fine tilth is obtained.
Forming Ridges and Furrows
Form ridges and furrows 6 m long.
Use bund-former or ridge plough to economise and
Form irrigation channels across and ridges according to the topography of the field.
OILPALM
NIGER (Guizotia abyssinica)
Preparation of the Field
Field Preparation
Plough with tractor 2-3 times with a mould board plough or 5 times with a country plough.

Break the clods in between the ploughings and bring the soil to a fine tilth.
COTTON
Preparation of Field for Irrigated Cotton Crop
Preparation of The Field

Prepare the field to get a fine tilth.

Chiselling for soils with hard pan: Chisel the soils having hard pan formation at shallow depths with chisel plough at
0.5 M interval, first in one direction and then in the direction perpendicular to the previous one, once in three years.
Apply 12.5 t farm yard manure or composted coir pith/ha besides chiselling to get increased yield
If intercropping of Greengram/Soyabean is proposed, prepare the main field, so as to provide ridges and furrows to
take up sowing 20 days prior to cotton sowing.
Formation of Ridges and Furrows
Form ridges and furrows 10 m long with appropriate spacing depending upon the variety.
Use ridge plough or bund former to form ridges so as to economise on cost of cultivation.
In fields with ragi stubbles, just dibble cotton seeds at the specified spacings.
Adopt the following spacing between ridges for different varieties/hybrids.
Rectification of Ridges and Furrows
Reform the ridges and furrows after first top dressing in such a way that the plants are on the top of the ridges and well supported
by soil.
RICE FALLOW COTTON
Preparation of the Field
If the soil is in waxy condition, instead of Zero tillage, the seed rows may be tilled and the seed dibbled in Virudhunagar district.

If the soil is dry and not in condition to take up sowing, let in water and then allow the soil to dry till soil comes to waxy
condition.

At the lower level of the field dig a trench 15 cm wide and connect this trench to the outside channel to drain off the excess water.
Formation of Ridges
Old delta
If soil is in condition, give a hoeing with mammutti and form ridges and incorporate the fertilizer in the soil around the plants
between 30th to 35th day of sowing.
If soil is not in condition, give one hoeing and weeding and cover the fertilizers.
Form long ridges and furrows from one end of the field to the other without forming any separate channels for carrying water to
prevent excessive soaking of water.
Form ridges and furrows on alternate rows of plants. Skip furrow method of irrigation to prevent excessive irrigation
New delta
Give a hoeing with mummutti and form ridges and incorporate the fertiliser in the soil around the plants on the 40th day of
sowing.
If soil is not in condition give one hoeing and weeding and cover the fertilizers.
Form long ridges & furrows on alternate rows of plants to adopt skip furrow irrigation.
Note: In case of zinc deficient soils, apply 50 kg ZnSo4 /ha
RAINFED COTTON
Preparation of The Field
Start preparation of the land immediately after harvest of the previous crop.
Adopt permanent broad ridges system.
JUTE ( Corchorus olitorius & Corchorus capsularis )
Land Preparation: Fine tilth is required since the seeds are very small.
AGAVE CULTIVATION

Main field planting: Pits of size 30 cm3 should be dug at spacing of 2 x 2 m.

SUGARCANE (Saccharum officinarum )

Preparation of the Field
a) Wetland (Heavy soils): In wetlands, preparatory cultivation by ploughing the land and bringing the soil to fine tilth could not
be done.
After harvest of the paddy crop, form irrigation and drainage channels of 40 cm depth and 30 cm width at intervals of 6 m across
the field and along the field borders.

Form ridges and furrows with a spacing of 80 cm between rows with spade.

Stir the furrows with hand hoes and allow the soil to weather for 4 to 5 days.
b) Problem soils with excessive soil moisture:

In problem soils, with excessive moisture where it is difficult to drain water, form raised beds at 30 cm intervals with Length - 5
m, Width - 80 cm, and Height -15 cm.
Garden lands with medium and light soils:
In medium and light soil irrigated by flow or lift irrigation adopt the following:
Plough deep with tractor drawn disc plough or victory plough. Use junior hoe to break the clods and get a fine tilth free of weeds
and stubbles.
Level the field for proper irrigation.
Open ridges and furrows at 80 cm apart with the help of victory plough or tractor drawn ridger. The depth of furrow must be 20
cm.
Open irrigation channels at 10 m intervals.
Earthing Up
After application of 3rd dose fertilizer (90 days), work victory plough along the ridges for efficient and economical earthing up. At
150 days after planting, earthing up may be done with spade.
SWEET SORGHUM (Sorghum bicolor)
Farm Land Preparation
Form ridges and furrows at a spacing of 45 cm apart
TROPICAL SUGARBEET
Field preparation
Well drained sandy loam and clayey loam soils having medium depth (45 cm) with fairly good organic status are suitable.
Tropical sugarbeet require deep ploughing (45 cm) and followed by 2 3 ploughing to obtain a good soil tilth condition for
favorable seed germination. Ridges and furrows are formed at 50 cm apart.
FORAGE CROPS
FODDER CHOLAM
IRRIGATED CHOLAM
Ploughing
Plough with an iron plough once and with a country plough twice.
Forming Ridges and Furrows
Form ridges and furrows of 6 m long and 60 cm apart and plant on either side of the ridge
FODDER CUMBU
Preparatory Cultivation
Plough with an iron plough once and with a country plough twice.
FODDER MAIZE
Ploughing
Plough the field twice with an iron plough and three or four times with country plough.
Forming Ridges and Furrows

Form ridges and furrows using a ridger, 30 cm apart are form beds of size 10 m2 or 20 m2 depending on the availability of water
and slope of the land.
NEELAKOLUKATTAI (BLUE BUFFEL GRASS) - (Cenchrus glaucus)
Ploughing
Plough the field twice or thrice with an iron plough to ensure good tilth.
GUINEA GRASS (Panicum maximum)
Preparatory Cultivation
Plough 2 to 3 times to obtain a good tilth and form ridges and furrows at 50 cm spacing.
DEENANATH GRASS (Pennisetum pedicellatum)
Preparatory Cultivation
Plough 2-3 times to obtain good tilth and form beds and channels.
CUMBU - NAPIER HYBRIDS
Ploughing
Plough with an iron plough two to three times to obtain good tilth.
LUCERNE KUDIRAI MASAL (Medicago sativa)
Ploughing
Plough three or four times with country plough to obtain good tilth.
Forming Beds
Form beds of size 10 m2 or 20 m2 depending on the availability of water and slope of land.
HEDGE LUCERNE - VELIMASAL ( Desmanthus virgatus )
Ploughing
Plough two to three times with an iron plough to obtain good tilth.
Forming Ridges and Furrows
Form ridges and furrows 50 cm apart using ridger and irrigation channels across furrows.
FODDER COWPEA
Ploughing
Plough twice with an iron plough and three or four times with country plough to obtain good tilth.
Forming Ridges and Furrows
Form ridges and furrows of 6 m length and 30 cm apart.
If ridges and furrows are not made, form beds of size 20 m2 depending on the availability of water
Preparatory Cultivation
Ploughing
Plough the field two to three times to obtain good tilth.
Forming Beds
Form beds of size 10 m2 or 20 m2
LEUCAENA SOUNDAL ( Leucaena leucocephala )

Ploughing
Plough twice with an iron plough and 3 or 4 times with country plough to obtain good tilth.
Forming Ridges and Furrows
Form ridges and furrows (using a ridger) 6 m along and 1 m apart and irrigation channels across the furrows