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Grippers and Their Applications PDF
Grippers and Their Applications PDF
8 mm
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160 mm
88,5 mm
Pneumatics
Hesse Grippers and their applications
Hesse
Grippers and
their applications
English
Chinese
English
French
German
Russian
Spanish
Blue Digest
195 mm
Blue Digest
on Automation
053 435
225 mm
158,5 mm
Hesse
Grippers and their applications
Handling
Pneumatics
Stefan Hesse
Grippers and
their applications
including vacuum devices
Blue Digest
on Automation
Foreword
It has been a long held dream by man to one day be free of the drudgery
of manual labour through the use of automatic devices. Needless to say, this
vision always depends on the technical components available at the time.
The automatic production lines of the twenties used by the English company
MORRIS MOTORS had to be mechanically controlled to a large extent, which
was not very successful. Not until the sixties did a new basic technology become
established: The NC machine and the industrial robot. Both are computer-aided
and therefore freely programmable as far as movement is concerned.
The robot is an important handling machine which roughly reproduces the
human arm. In order to be effective, it also requires mechanical hands, which
are generally referred to as grippers. These are also required on pick-and-place
devices and a wide range of other automatic systems. In principle, there are
two basic designs of grippers: Those, designed in the form of fingers and those
which do not ressemble fingers in any way. Thousands of individual patents can
be found, each of which claiming to be able to solve a gripping problem more
successfully than previously known. This demonstrates that the gripper has a
key role in automatic handling.
For the user, it is becoming increasingly difficult to take in the now wide range
of gripper technology. This is the reason why this brief introduction has been
published. Above all, it is intended to provide advice and ideas to practical
users, since the selection of the right gripper is by no means a trivial task. As
with other technologies, there is a risk of making the wrong decision. Nowadays,
however, most gripper tasks can be accomplished using standard grippers.
Therefore, special grippers are only developed for exceptional cases. A sound
basic knowledge of grippers and their use is always a good investment for the
future.
Stefan Hesse
Foreword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Table of contents
Table of contents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1 Analysis of gripper functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2 Gripper applications for component production and assembly . . . . . . . . 16
3 Grippers and hand axes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
4 Construction of gripping effectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
5 Forces acting on grippers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
6 Technical properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
7 Application areas and gripper types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
8 Checklist for grippers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
9 Suction grippers abhorred by nature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
10 Suction cups for every application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
11 Suction cups in handling technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
12 List of illustrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
13 List of special terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
1
Analysis
of gripper functions
Determining the
requirement profile
Fig. 1-1:
Division of a workpiece into
gripping zone (G), clamping
zone (C) and set-down zone
(S)
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
4
5
Workpiece
Magazine
Clamping device
Gripper
Magnetic gripper
G
G
A workpiece is to be picked up and brought into a clamping position. The workpiece cannot be gripped in the area of the set-down zone S, which fits into the
magazine, since this is covered. The available gripping zone thus gives rise to
the fact that the workpiece might slip away from the desired position. We must
therefore clarify for each workpiece the question of which zones can be used for
gripping. The situation will of course change if the user selects a different axial
position in the magazine or another workpiece magazine. In our example, the
set-down and clamping zones are identical. The gripping zone must be defined
positively. The example involves external gripping. Workpieces which are hollow
or have holes or recesses can also be gripped internally, as shown in Fig. 1-2.
Fig. 1-2:
How can a workpiece
be picked up?
a) External gripping
b) Internal gripping
c) Combination of internal
and external gripping
a)
b)
c)
10
a
b
a)
b)
Is a controlled gripper
necessary at all?
Workpiece handling does not in itself create added value. Only in assembly
operations or when used to guide tools can an industrial robot add value to a
workpiece. It is therefore a welcome advantage if handling devices can be
simplified or even eliminated altogether. Example a user wishes to feed workpieces to a clamping device (Fig. 1-4).
11
Fig. 1-4:
Feeding a clamping device
1 Clamping point
2 Simplest type of gripper
(mandrel or plug gripper)
3 Supply magazine
2
1
12
There are many workpieces which can withstand the necessary gripping force
without sustaining damage. But there are other workpieces which are for
example polished, thin-walled, soft, brittle or super-finished and which can be
damaged during gripping, especially by clamp-type grippers which impose a
point loading (See Fig. 1-5).
Fig. 1-5:
Types of point loading
resulting from gripping
a)
b)
c)
d)
Area/area
Line/area
Point/area
Double line/area
a)
b)
c)
d)
Point loading is the contact force per unit gripping area which results from
clamp gripping. Deformation occurs at the point of contact. Contact force should
not, however, be assumed to be the same as the closing force of the gripper.
V-shaped grippers, for example, spread forces. Gravity may also be a factor,
depending on the orientation of the gripper, as may the coefficient of friction .
Excessive point loadings may produce clamping marks on workpieces
and dents in hollow workpieces.
In the case of grippers with plain-bearing guides, oscillations of the overall
system may produces transient effects on the coefficients of static and sliding
friction. This means that during a motion (subject to vibration), contact force
may increase due to the fact that sliding friction becomes effective for a short
time, reducing the friction in the guides which diminishes the gripper force.
This phenomenon occurs hardly at all with roller-bearing jaw guides.
When it comes to the fine positioning of objects, the average person relies on
eye/hand coordination and manages without difficulty, for example, to thread
a needle. Mechanical gripping must be just as precise and trouble-free.
Problems can occur in 3 situations:
When picking up a workpiece
When aligning this in the gripper device
When setting the workpiece down in the desired position.
13
a)
b)
Workpieces are not aligned to the gripping centre, since the gripper closes in an
arc and operates with workpieces of different diameters. The gripping centre,
also known as the tool centre point (TCP), is however the value entered in the
programming of the handling machine. Deviations of this kind may causes
problems with close-tolerance assembly operations. This type of problem is
shown in Fig. 1-7 [1]. This effect is not encountered with parallel-jaw grippers.
Fig. 1-7:
Gripper devices which close in
an arc may cause a shift of the
gripping centre
1
1
2
a) Scissors-type gripper
with 2 different workpieces 1 and 2
b) Parallel-jaw gripper
x
a)
b)
14
Summary
Publications
15
2
Gripper applications
for component production and assembly
The choice of gripper type is always determined by the properties of the object
to be gripped and the purpose of the handling operation concerned. Classic
applications include production of components (feed) and assembly (handling
of components for assembly). New applications have, however, also emerged,
with different parameters from those in production. These applications include
packaging (requiring high speeds) and commissioning (with an undefined initial
object position). It is thus necessary to adapt grippers constantly for new and
important applications.
Standard grippers have reached a high level of development and can be used
for many applications, not just the classic applications. There are also gripper
systems for special applications. Rails and adapter plates can be used, for
example, to create double grippers, multi-position grippers and multi-workpiece
grippers. We will illustrate this with a few selected examples.
Workpiece handling
with standard grippers
3-point grippers are the preferred type for handling cylindrical workpieces.
These grippers give both good centring and a high degree of reliability [1]. Careful design of the gripper fingers can provide a certain measure of adaptability
to different workpiece dimensions. Fig. 2-1 shows an example, using hardened
gripper pins for the internal gripping of small workpieces. These pins can if
desired be repositioned in other bores provided in the gripper fingers. The result
is an enhanced gripper range, albeit with the need for manual resetting. The
gripper pins need not be used concentrically it may be better to arrange them
at gripping points in accordance with the internal contours of the workpiece,
for example in order to grip a housing with a rectangular aperture (Fig. 2-1c).
It is also possible to grip into hole patterns extremely effectively using gripper
pins.
Fig. 2-1:
Using a 3-point gripper
a) Adjustable gripper pins
b) Concentric internal
gripping of a flange ring
c) Non-concentric internal
gripping of a housing
a)
b)
c)
The minimum effective length of the pins should be 5 mm. This also applies to
mechanical gripper fingers.
16
For workpieces with a length of 200 mm and more, it is better to use multi-point
grippers. The best way to produce grippers of this kind is by combining two
standard grippers. This is shown in Fig. 2-2, taking the example of the gripping
of a sheet-metal profile. For this purpose, the grippers are mounted on an
adapter rail. The required gripping force per gripper is of course halved and the
problematic torque forces which may result from high-speed manipulation can
be absorbed more easily.
Fig. 2-2:
Multi-point gripper
for long workpieces
The centre of gravity of the workpiece should be placed at the exact midpoint
between the grippers. When single grippers are used, the centre of gravity
should be as close as possible to the gripping point.
Frequent use is made of modified gripper systems based on standard grippers.
One example of this is in-line arrays of grippers used to pick up workpieces
from pallets row by row or to set down rows of workpieces on pallets, in crates,
etc. In this case, too, the grippers are mounted on a rail and then act as multiworkpiece grippers. This is illustrated in Fig. 2-3. Since the grippers act at a large
number of points simultaneously, the workpiece positions must be maintained
to close tolerances. If workpieces need to be picked up, for example from
a conveyor belt, it may be necessary to align these on the belt beforehand.
17
Fig. 2-3:
Multi-workpiece gripper for
transfer of complete rows
of workpieces
18
Gripping in assembly
operations
There are many details which require consideration in the planning of an automated assembly line. The most important of these, however, are time and
accuracy. Time can be gained, for example, by using turret grippers.
It is perfectly possible to use standard grippers for this purpose. Fig. 2-4 shows
a mounting plate equipped with the necessary number of grippers. Assembly
tools can also be fitted in certain cases. The advantage for the user is that a
number of idle robot motions within the assembly sequence can be avoided,
thus shortening the sequence. The large diameter of the interference circle, on
the other hand, is a disadvantage. It must be determined as a first step whether
sufficient working space is available.
Fig. 2-4:
Multi-workpiece gripper
for assembly operations
New technology, such as video recognition systems, has led to new demands
being placed on gripper systems. One example of this is the insertion of chocolates into a blister pack. This also falls under the broad heading of assembly
work. Fig. 2-5 shows a solution in which several suction cups are used to pick-up
the rectangular chocolates from a conveyor belt.
The suction cups are fitted to single-acting standard cylinders which are
protected against torsion. Each suction cup is able to move forward independently at high speed. Once the recognition system system has detected a workpiece and determined the coordinates and the orientation of the workpiece
(longitudinal axis), the gripper adjusts its angle accordingly. The suction cup now
advances, picks up a workpiece from the moving belt and returns to its initial
position. Once all the suction cups have picked up workpieces, the robot swivels
to the packing conveyor belt and sets down all the workpieces simultaneously in
the nests of the blister packs. Since all workpieces are already correctly aligned
relative to the grippers, their alignment with the packaging is also correct.
19
Fig. 2-5:
Multiple suction-cup grippers
for assembly operations
1 NC rotary axis
(robot hand axis)
2 Angle mounting plate
3 Standard cylinder with
non-rotating piston rod
4 Suction cup
5 Conveyor belt
6 Workpiece (confectionery)
4
6
20
Positive-locking or
force-locking grippers?
Workpieces can be held within gripper fingers by (frictional) force. They can,
however, also be held simply by physical systems such as the shape of the
gripper or even by adhesion, e.g. adhesives. The theoretical possibilities are
shown in Fig. 2-6.
Fig. 2-6:
Methods of holding a workpiece (example: ball bearing)
1 Enclosure
only without clamping
2 Partial enclosure
combined with clamping
force
3 Clamping force only
(force-locking connection)
4 Holding with suction
(force field)
5 Holding
with magnetic field
6 Holding with adhesive
layer, such as grease
21
Fig. 2-7:
Gripping principle:
A positive-locking connecion
places much less stress on
workpieces during gripping
and holding
Positive locking
Force locking
a) Gripping an egg
with the human hand [2]
b) Gripping a workpiece and
holding it during assembly
c) Attitude of gripper hand
during feed motion
a)
m.g
m.g
b)
c)
22
Grippers
as separators
Fig. 2-8:
Gate feeder using
a parallel-jaw gripper
1 Parallel-jaw gripper
2 Sliding gate
Sliding gates have been fitted in place of the gripper fingers. These should
be as short as possible, as is usually the case in gripping applications, to avoid
overload of the linear guides of the gripper jaws and reducing their service life.
This solution is worth considering only for the feed of small workpieces, since
other solutions are available for large heavy workpieces [3]. In order to reduce
the load acting on the feed slide, a stepped track has also been developed
which enables a proportion of the load due to workpiece build-up to be
supported by the step.
Publications
23
3
Grippers
and hand axes
Grippers are holding devices; this is their main function. In order to obtain
a given effect, we must provide grippers with the ability to move in three
dimensions. This is achieved by using motion axes. A robot application for
example with 6 axes is not particularly complicated, since the robot provides
the necessary motion capability. In applications where costs are critical but
ultra-high speed is not required, it is worth considering hand axes, which are
often available as flexible modules and can take the place of a robot.
This produces solutions which can be installed quickly at reasonable cost.
Depending on the application in question, a hand axis may be of interest for the
following motions. Rotation > 360, swivelling < 360, thrust motions (generally
with short strokes) and screwdriving motions, particularly for the insertion of
screws. The most typical motion is, however, swivelling, which is why gripper
manufacturers almost always offer compatible swivelling units. Fig. 3-1 shows
a two-axis module which can swivel between 0 and 270 and provide a linear
thrust stroke of up to 100 mm. The positions are finely adjustable, with a
cushioned approach. But what exactly can we do with this motion capability?
Fig. 3-1:
Three-point gripper combined
with a swivel/linear unit
Degrees of freedom
of the hand
Let us first consider the term degrees of freedom. A workpiece can have
a maximum of 6 degrees of freedom, expressed as 3 linear motions on the
3-dimensional axes x, y and z and 3 rotary motions 1, 2 and 3 about the
axes x, y and z. Handling machines, by the way, can have more than 6 degrees
of freedom. We then speak of degrees of mechanical freedom or travel freedom.
Thrust motions (Fig. 3-2) are described as follows:
1 Vertical up-down
2 Forward/backward
3 Lateral left/right
24
while rotary motions, following aviation practice [1], are designated as follows:
1 Pitch, tilt
2 Roll, twist
3 Yaw, turn.
As you will know, the closing motion of the gripper jaws is not considered as a
degree of freedom, since this motion has no influence on the motion path of the
gripper.
Fig. 3-2:
The human hand can execute
motions with 6 degrees
of freedom
(according to Bejczy)
1
a) Biological
b) Technical
2
1
2
3
G
3
a)
Double grippers
save process time
b)
Fig. 3-3:
Double gripper designed
as a crown turret
a) Radial gripper
b) Axial gripper
a)
b)
25
1
1
2
3
4
5
Connecting flange
Cushioned stop
Set screw
Parallel-jaw gripper
Pneumatic cylinder
2
3
5
26
Fig. 3-5:
Handling module
for assembly of small
workpieces
1
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Swivel cylinder
Lifting cylinder
Adapter plate
Standard gripper
Transfer system
Workpiece for insertion
Receiver workpiece
Gripper finger
Magazine
3
4
5
6
8
9
Simple handling modules can also be quickly and easily assembled using
standard suction cups and semi-rotary actuators (Fig. 3-6). An additional shortstroke axis would turn this combination into a pick-and-place device. A hollow
flange shaft can be used as a throughfeed for the vacuum line. The actuator can
operate at switching frequencies of up to 3 Hz.
27
Fig. 3-6:
Handling unit with suction
cup and semi-rotary actuator
Gripper jaw
Standard gripper
Semi-rotary actuator
Workpiece
Conveyor belt
28
Feeding double
stations
In the interests of fast processing time, machines with rotary indexing tables are
often equipped with double clamping devices. Machines of this kind are also
referred to as duplex machines, producing two finished workpieces during each
working cycle. It would be an attractive idea to construct a quadruple gripper,
able to remove two finished workpieces and at the same time bring two fresh
blanks. A gripper of this kind would, however, be bulky and difficult to use, particularly with large irregularly-shaped workpieces. This problem can be solved by
using a triple turret gripper. This is shown in Fig. 3-8. The free gripper G1 first
picks up a finished workpiece from the clamping point S1. A new blank is then
inserted into the vacant clamping point, while the vacated gripper G2 can pickup the second finished workpiece from the clamping point S2. The second blank
is then positioned by the gripper G3 [2]. If a single gripper were used, it would
be necessary for the robot to execute a number of idle strokes, making the
operating cycle longer.
Fig. 3-8:
Triple gripper installed on a
special machine with double
stations
G Grippers
S Clamping points
29
Fig. 3-9 shows a particularly simple solution for feeding ferromagnetic sheet
metal. A suction cup is mounted directly on the hollow piston rod of a standard
cylinder. The suction cups reach through the gaps between the top rollers of a
roller conveyor and contact and pick up a sheet metal workpiece. The workpieces are secured by the permanently-magnetised upper rollers and are then
moved on to a normal roller conveyor. The stack of workpieces is progressively
raised by a lifting device. If the roller conveyor is inclined by a few degrees, the
sheet metal workpieces will move along the conveyor by gravity alone. Further
suggestions for the handling of sheet metal can be found in [3,4].
Fig. 3-9:
Picking up ferromagnetic
sheets from a stack using
a suction-cup/lifting module
1 Suction cup
2 Standard cylinder
with hollow piston rod
3 Frame
4 Magnetic rollers
5 Roller conveyor
6 Sheet metal stack
7 Lifting table
3
4
6
7
30
Specimen shaker
The excellent quality of pneumatic components has made them popular far
beyond the field of mechanical engineering alone. Pneumatic modules are
being used for manipulative movements in all kinds of new areas. The specimen
shaker shown in Fig. 3-10 is an example from the field of laboratory automation.
Fig. 3-10:
Simple specimen shaker
made from standard
components
This shaker has been created using a standard cylinder, a swivel unit with a
hollow flange shaft and a standard gripper and adapter. It would also be
possible to create an array of shakers or provide other motion combinations.
The critical factor is to create a quick, inexpensive assembly, without the need
for a great deal of preparatory work.
Publications
31
4
Construction
of gripping effectors
Main purpose of
grippers is to provide
a holding system
32
Fig. 4-1:
Some of the sub-systems
of a mechanical gripper
1
2
3
4
Adapter
Force generator
Force conversion
Force transmission,
with finger as transmission
components
5 Gripper jaw
as gripping component
Holding
system
Interface
Actuation
Kinematics
It is essential when designing gripper jaws to know the points at which the
workpiece is to be gripped. Technical parameters naturally also have an certain
influence. Fig. 4-2 illustrates this with the example of a two-finger gripper. Area
contacts are generally preferable to line or point contacts.
Fig. 4-2:
The contour at the gripping
point of the workpiece
determines the jaw shape
used, 1, 2 or 3.
Conditions are not always ideal. If we consider the case of parallel flat surfaces, we see that some workpieces are not in fact parallel at all; for example,
plastic mouldings may have slight moulding bevels. If the deviations from
parallel are small, it may be sufficient to fit the gripper jaws with a compliant
rubber covering. It is, however, sometimes better to provide pendulum jaws,
of which three types are shown in Fig. 4-3.
33
Ball-jointed pressure plates can compensate for angular errors on two planes.
Rubber coverings or specially-produced gripper cushions are often sufficiently
compliant for this purpose and have the further advantage that they increase
the coefficient of friction ( approx. 0.5), meaning that a lower gripping force can
be used.
Fig. 4-3:
Gripper jaws
with compliant surfaces
1 Rubber or plastic covering
2 Pendulum jaw
3 Ball-jointed pressure plate
34
With some grippers, the tool centre point changes when workpieces with
different dimensions are gripped. Designs include vice-type grippers (one fixed
and one mobile finger) and scissor-tong grippers. In the former case, the
position changes must be allowed for in programming, while in the case
of scissor-tong grippers, compensation can be provided by specially-shaped
grippers. The gripping surfaces are arched, as shown in Fig. 4-4, and do not
have the usual simple V shape.
Fig. 4-4:
Jaw shape with centring effect
for scissor-tong grippers
TCP = Tool centre point
D
= Workpiece diameter
TCP
R2
R1
B
A
A
C1
D1 + D2
2
A=
0.5 R
tan( 3.14/180)
B = 0.5 R
R1 =
0.5 R
0.5 D
sin( 3.14/180)
R2 =
0.5 R
+ 0.5 D
sin( 3.14/180)
35
This calculation also applies to angle grippers (gripper fingers with separate
pivot points C1 and C2). Radius R1 then becomes larger, while R2 becomes
smaller. The angle between the lines TCP-C1 and TCP-C2 should lie in the range
0 < < (2 40).
The case is different when several workpieces need to be gripped simultaneously. Here, too, it is essential to achieve a certain degree of equilibrium.
The best solution, of course, is to divide up the degree of mobility using the
multiple clamp principle, i.e. with individual pressure points as shown in
Fig. 4-5.
Fig. 4-5:
Gripping several workpieces
simultaneously, using
a pressure distributor to
compensate for tolerances
36
Fig. 4-6:
Jaws of a parallel gripper
for 3 diameter ranges
1
3
0.
.. 7
0
0.
.. 1
0
...
30
mm
0m
50 mm
mm
50 mm
37
Fig. 4-7:
Gripper jaws with specisallyshaped multiple gripping
surfaces
A
B
B
C
C
D
Grippers can be designed for many special applications [3]. There are, for
example, grippers with rotary jaws, which can turn a workpiece through 90.
One jaw is passive, while the other is equipped with a rotary actuator. Attempts
are, however, always made to use a normal basic gripper before developing a
special gripper. Fig. 4-8 shows some examples of special grippers.
Fig. 4-8:
Variants of jaws
for parallel grippers
1 Moulding jaw
with lamellar assembly
2 Width-adjustable jaw
3 Jaw of combination gripper
The moulding jaw incorporates thin movable metal plates. When the gripper
closes, the plates are pressed against the workpiece, forming an impression
of its contour. The entire lamellar assembly is then clamped into place.
The impression is reversible, i.e the lamellae can be reset. Gripper jaws can
also be provided with serrated adjusters, allowing the gripping width, but not
the stroke, to be matched to the workpiece dimensions. The jaws can also be
used turned through 180. In order to grip several workpieces simultaniously
38
Gripper housing
Finger
Mobile jaw
Rotary axis
Support surface
Torsion spring
Workpiece
39
Fig. 4-10:
The type of approach affects
the required opening
In selecting the shape of the gripper jaws, allowance must be made for the
type of approach of the gripper to the workpiece, since this may influence the
required stroke. The approach may be axial or radial technical conditions will
generally dictate which. Fig. 4-10 shows 2 cases, taking the example of V-shaped
jaws for which different gripping strokes c are required for the same workpiece. An opening safety margin a and clamping safety margin b are always
required; these compensate for tolerances and provide the necessary latitude.
Radial approach
Axial approach
b
a
Publications
40
5
Forces acting
on grippers
The main purpose of a gripper is to hold objects securely for a certain period.
Grippers using the force-locking principle, on which we will concentrate in this
article, are required to generate holding forces to balance out all the steadystate and dynamic forces and torque values which occur during a motion
sequence. The required gripping force is thus a major criterion for the selection
of the right type and size of gripper.
The required gripping force can be calculated approximately. This calculation
should not be neglected, but may not provide a final answer. In doubtful cases,
you should also carry out tests or recommend users to do so, since some of
the calculation variables are subjected to fluctuations or are only estimates.
If you go too far over to the safe side, this may be disadvantageous for the
user a heavy gripper may necessitate a handling device which is one size
larger in terms of handling capacity or may reduce the working load of such a
device.
The actions of two bodies upon each other are always equal and directly
opposite, i.e. reaction is always equal and opposite to action.
This means that force and counter-force are in equilibrium. A simple experiment
to demonstrate this is shown in Fig. 5-1a. A rod is subjected to a tensile load. In
the first case, one end of the rod is clamped, while in the second case a person
pulls on each end. The tensile force in the rod in each case is not 400 N as
you might think but only 200 N. If we apply this to the parallel gripper shown in
Fig. 5-1b, this is subject to the same prin-ciple. It makes no difference whether
only one finger moves and applies a gripping force of 200 N or whether two
opposed fingers each generate 200 N. The two grippers shown are equivalent
in terms of force.
41
Fig. 5-1:
The law of interacting forces
a) The tensile force in the rod
is 200 N in both cases
b) Due to the principle
of action = reaction,
it makes no difference
with parallel grippers
whether the gripping
force FG is applied
by one finger or two
200 N
200 N
200 N
a)
b)
FG
FG
FG
200 N
200 N
200 N
Fig. 5-2:
Forces acting on gripped
object (state of rest)
FR
FR
1
1 Finger
2 Gripper jaw
3 Workpiece
FG
FG
Coefficient of friction
42
mG
n
Variables in formula:
FG = Minimum required gripping force in N
G = Weight force of gripped object in N
g = Gravitational acceleration in m/s2
m = Workpiece mass in kg
n = Number of fingers or gripper jaws
= Coefficient of friction between gripper jaw and object.
As we can see, allowance is made in the formula for the number of fingers, since
of course a friction force FR is created at each gripper jaw. With 3 contact points,
n = 3. There are several possible variants for the 3-point solution. Fig. 5-3 shows
a true three-finger gripper and a solution based on a two-finger gripper. In this
latter case, the gripping force is split at the V-jaw into the contact forces FKi.
Fig. 5-3:
Plan view
of 2 gripper situations
FG
a) Two-finger gripper
with V-jaw
b) Three-finger gripper
FK2
FG
FG = FK1
FG
FG
FK3
G = FKi .
G = FG . . 3
If, in the case of the two-finger gripper, a V-jaw angle of 120 is selected, the
same as the finger positioning of a three-finger gripper, the two grip-pers will
be the same from the point of view of holding forces. There will be differences
with other V-jaw angles. In these cases, we must refer to the contact angles,
which can be determined by the following formula if random V-jaw angles are
permissible:
FKi =
G sin1
(sin1 + sin2 + sin3)
in which
i = 1, 2, 3
and
1 = 180 23
2 = 180 13
3 = 180 12
5 Forces acting on grippers
43
The total of the 3 friction forces FR1 to FR3 (Fig. 5-4) must be at least large
enough to compensate for the weight force G produced by gravity. Knowledge of
contact forces is also required if we wish to check the gripping pressure per unit
area in the case of sensitive workpieces.
Fig. 5-4:
Calculation of contact forces
for a gripper with a V-jaw on
one side
13
FR1
FG = FK1
FR3
FR2
FK3
12
23
FK2
Fig. 5-5 shows the mathematical relationships governing gripping force during
an upward motion in the case of the commonly-used V-jaw grippers with
3- or 4-point object contact. A distinction can be made between 3 variants
of gripping:
Pure positive-locking gripping
Positive locking in combination with friction locking
Pure friction-locking gripping.
44
Fig. 5-5:
Forces at the parallel-jaw
gripper with V-jaw for
workpieces
a
g
m
S
Sketch
Contact forces
Linear acceleration
Gravitational acceleration
Mass
Safety factor
Coefficient of friction
FG
FK1 =
m(g + a)sin2
sin(1 + 2)
m .g
FG = m(g + a) S
FK2 =
FK1
1
m(g + a)sin1
sin(1 + 2)
FK2
2
FG
Positive locking
with friction locking
FR1
FR2
m(g + a)
FK1 =
FG
2cos1
FG
FK1
FK2
1
m .g
m(g + a)
FG =
FK2 =
tan S
m(g + a)
2cos2
FR
a
FR
FG = FK1 S
FG
FK2
FK2 =
m(g + a)
2cos2
90
m .g
m(g + a)
FK
FR
FK =
m(g + a)
FG =
sin S
2
m .g
FG
45
The equations given in Fig. 5-5 incorporate allowances for certain factors which
we have not yet mentioned:
The coefficient of friction m fluctuates quite widely, like a persons blood
pressure. A safety factor S must therefore be included. In practice, the factor
used is between 1.5 and 4.
The weight force G represents only part of the load. Allowance must also be
made for other forces, particularly the inertia forces resulting from the acceleration a of the robot arm. Process forces may also be involved, for example
during assembly, by inserting components.
It may be, in the case of a multi-axis handling machine, that the force situation
changes from time to time during a motion cycle. It may be possible to counteract certain forces which occur by using positive-locking gripping (lateral
motions), while other forces may call for a higher coefficient of friction. It is
therefore a question of identifying the motion phase requiring the highest
holding force and selecting a gripper on this basis. Fig. 5-6 shows a number
of typical motions and the forces operative during these.
Fig. 5-6:
Force situations
during gripper motion
FR
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
Rest state
Upward motion
Downward motion
Lateral motion
Inclined upward motion
FR
FR
FR
FR
v=0
FB
FG
a)
FG
FB
FG
FG
b)
FG
d)
FG
FG
c)
FR
46
FR
FR
FB
FR
FG
G
FG
e)
FR
FB
FG
G
In the case of an upward motion, the weight force G and the inertia force FB can
be compensated by the friction forces FR. During the downward motion, the inertia force acts in opposition to the weight force and makes the object effectively
lighter. During the braking phase, however, a deceleration force then becomes
operative. In the case of lateral motions, inertia force is absorbed by positivelocking gripping, requiring no additional friction forces. The inertia force,
attempts, however, to force open the gripper jaw. With inclined motions, consideration must be given to the horizontally- and vertically-acting components of
the inertia force. The position is of course somewhat different with V-jaws and
other types of handling devices. It is necessary to study the complete handling
operation.
The inertia forces can be calculated as a general principle as follows:
FB = m a
or in the case of a rotary motion:
FB = m r
or in the case of a rotary motion:
a
m
r
=
=
=
=
a = 5 m/s2,
aN = 10 m/s2,
= 10 rad/s2 and
N = 17 rad/s2.
47
P2
P3
P1
P4
Mass = 1 kg
1 (9.81 + 5) 2
0.2 2
= 74N
+ma=
1 9.81 2
0.2 2
+ 1 5 = 54N
m (g + aN) S
n
1 (9.81 + 10) 2
0.2 2
= 99N
48
In the cases discussed up to now, it has been assumed that the centre of gravity
of the workpiece is positioned precisely between the gripper jaws. It can of
course also lie elsewhere, but this should be avoided, since this may result in
workpieces twisting under heavy acceleration.
Fig. 5-8:
Examples of torque created
as a result of gripped workpieces
l
c
c
FK1
FK2
G
FK2
FK1
FK2
FK1
G
a+b
and
FK2 =
Ga
a+b
and
FK2 =
G c
l
49
FN Normal forces
acting on guide
x Finger length
up to point of action
y Distance from point of
actIon to centre of gripper
FNy
FNx
FR
FG
FNy
y
FNx
FG
50
Characteristic curve
for gripping force
Users need to know whether or not their grippers develop a constant gripping
force throughout the stroke. This information is provided by a characteristic
curve of gripping force. Fig. 5-10 shows 2 transmission mechanisms as exaples.
As the angle lever (angle gripper) swivels, the gripping force varies throughout
the gripper stroke as a function of the cosine of the angle of rotation a. In the
second example, on the other hand, FG = constant. If the angle of rotation of
an angle gripper is small, this effect can be ignored. Some lever mechanisms,
however, have a characteristic gripping force curve with very pronounced
variations. A typical case is a lever operated gripper, whose curve has a very
steep gradient, with high gripping force available only within a short range of
travel. These two examples demonstrate that not every gripper offers a constant
force throughout its travel.
Fig. 5-10:
Gripping force FG as a
function of gripper stroke h
a) Angle gripper
b) Parallel gripper
Q Tensile force
h Gripper stroke
51
6
Technical properties
The technical properties of grippers and their price form the basis for an
assessment of their suitability for a given application and a comparison with
other makers products. The more suitably a gripper range is matched to the
users average requirements, the easier it will be for users to select the right
gripper. There will of course always be special applications requiring special
grippers. But what in fact are the characteristics of a gripper?
Any use of grippers must start with a study of the planned application. This will
reveal what grippers are required to do, and what loads they must withstand. If
studies of this kind are carried out inadequately, over-hastily and incompletely,
the result is likely to be annoyance if grippers are the wrong choice, they may
fail quickly and thus not provide the expected performance. Never try to talk
someone into using a particular gripper the choice must be taken on the basis
of the degree to which the requirement profile and the gripper performance
coincide.
52
6 Technical properties
Fig. 6-1:
Characteristic data
for grippers
Operating principle
- mechanical
- fluidic
- magnetic
- adhesive
Gripping force in N
Gripping force pattern
(Gripping force diagram)
Gripper stroke per jaw in mm
or opening angle in degrees
Gripping width adjustment
Load capacity max. in N
Closing (gripping time) in s
Opening (release time) in s
Load limit values
- Forces
- Torques
- Finger length
Number of gripper components
Main dimensions in mm
Dead weight in kg
Performance/mass ratio
in N/grams
Mass moment of inertia in kgcm2
Operating pressure range in bar
Maintenance cycles
Design of bearings and guides
Range of sizes
Repetition accuracy in mm
Operating temperature range
in degrees
Mode of operation
- Single acting
- Double acting
Working frequency max. in Hz
Mounting position
Energy type and consumption
Retention of gripping force in case
of power supply failure
Monitoring of gripping stroke
Material specifications
Service life
Interface data
- mechanical
- fluidic
- electrical
Environmental characteristics
- Clean-room class
- Exhaust air
- Abraided particles
6 Technical properties
53
Accuracy of gripping
Fig. 6-2:
General model of a
handling operation
1 Workpiece store
on suspended conveyor
2 Industrial robot
on a mobile unit
3 Assembly carriers
on a transfer line
In order to carry out close-tolerance assembly, all the following measures must
be adopted:
Improvement of repetition accuracy, particularly that of the handling device
Design of components to be assembled in such a way as to facilitate
assembly, particularly by providing guide chamfers
Combination of grippers using joining mechanisms.
Joining mechanisms are devices placed ahead of the gripper which are designed
to compensate for angular and positioning errors between the connecting part
held by the gripper and the connecting axis defined by the basic assembly part.
A distinction is made between active (IRCC = instrumented remote centre compliance) and passive joining mechanisms (RCC = remote centre compliance).
In the interests of simplicity, most are are of the RCC type. These can easily
54
6 Technical properties
4
5
6
3
7
8
The problem of fitting a pin into a hole is similar to the problem encountered
in feed motions of inserting a workpiece into a clamping device. There is little
fundamental difference between these two operations. We shall consider this
type of operation next.
6 Technical properties
55
Fig. 6-4:
Situation in which an overload
of the gripper and handling
device can occur if no compensation is provided.
a)
a) Feed to a clamping device
b) Axial correction during
closing of clamping device
b)
Force closure
a)
56
6 Technical properties
b)
The situations here are more than the grippers can cope with. Attention must be
paid to axial misalignment.
What is the answer? There are various possibilities:
Depending on the type of clamping device (clamping collet, vertical insertion),
it may be possible to work in the sequence Set down/open jaws/clamp in
machine/retract gripper or it may be essential to work in the sequence
Insert workpiece/clamp in machine/open jaws/retract gripper. The former
case does not present difficulties, since there is no force-locking connection
between the clamping device and gripper.
There are industrial robots which allow a soft switching action within certain
limits. The arm behaves compliantly and the robot does not attempt to
reestablish its old position. This is achieved by means of a larger area of
coincidence for the evaluation of the signals from the positional transducers
of the respective robot axes.
It is possible to use hand-joint sensors to detect misalignment. The sensor
data is used to derive corrective motions for the robot arm.
The simplest method is to use compliant intermediate plates (rubber, springs),
which provide adequate compensation at least for minor errors. Even gripper
jaws with compliant faces are often enough.
It is also possible to arrange for the gripper to open in stages.
In the transitional phase, the gripping force is slightly reduced. Commerciallyavailable grippers with this type of function operate with spring fingers
(leaf springs) driven by a three-position cylinder.
Grippers have also been produced with a definite floating mounting for use in
cases where large deviations can be expected between the actual position
and programmed setpoint position, for example when picking cartons from
shelves. Once the workpiece has been gripped and raised, the gripper travels
to the centre of the axis and is locked in this position. This requires a locking
device, which is integrated into the gripper.
The sequence Insert workpiece/open jaws/clamp in machine/retract
gripper can, at least with small workpieces, be achieved by using a pressing
element as shown in Fig. 6-6. This is an additional facility complementing
the gripper function whereby the pressing element is clamped when the workpiece is picked up. Once the clamping position is reached, the gripper opens.
The pressing element now acts on the workpiece and presses it against
the contact area of the clamping device, into which it is then clamped.
The gripper, having completed its task, is retracted without being subjected
to overload.
6 Technical properties
57
It can be seen from the number of remedies available that this is a problem
which needs to be taken seriously.
Fig. 6-6:
Gripper combined
with a pressing element
1
2
3
4
5
Pressure spring
Gripper
Pressure plate
Workpiece
Gripper jaws
1
2
Fig. 6-7 shows a very simple device which can be used to assist assembly
operations. The gripper is mounted on a cone able to tilt by about 15. This
makes the gripper flexible in the x, y and z directions in cases where the joining
part misses its destination and rests on the basic assembly part. In these cases,
the cone lifts slightly, creating some breathing space in the x-y plane.
The gripper is now able to deflect in the appropri-ate direction. It is, however,
necessary for the mating parts to have guide chamfers.
Fig. 6-7:
Simple joining mechanism
for vertical assembly
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Centring cone
Connector plate for gripper
Gripper
Gripper jaw
joining part
Basic assembly part
Arm of handling device
7
3
4
z
5
6
58
6 Technical properties
y
x
Protection
against collision
Grippers are final effectors, which is to say that they are positioned at the end
of a kinematic chain (free-arm robots) and thus have the greatest radius of
action of all the robot components. This in turn means that grippers are subject
to the greatest risk of collision. The more complex and delicate a gripper is,
the greater the chance of damage in the case of a collision. Collision-protection
devices (or shut-off devices) have thus been developed to prevent this. These
devices are fitted between the gripper and robot arm and complement the
gripper control system. The protective devices are triggered when an adjustable
load threshold is exceeded and generate a shut-off signal. In the case of the
device shown in Fig. 6-8, a pneumatically-pressurised chamber is used to keep
the device stiff. In the case of a collision, the cushion of compressed air is
depressurised and the mechanism becomes soft, i.e. slightly flexible.
Fig. 6-8:
Collision protection
with adjustable parameters
for a gripper, showing
reaction capability
a) Rotational
b) Vertical
c) Horizontal
F Triggering force
z Vertical impact path
Angle of deflection
resulting from collision
Angle of tilt
F
F
F
a)
b)
c)
There are also spring-loaded mechanisms in which the gripper disengages under
overload and recoils from an obstacle. These, however, offer little convenience
in the form of adjustment but are very simple in design. The deciding factor is
of course the application in question and the probability that unexpected obstacles will be encountered. This will indicate whether it is necessary to protect
a gripper against collisions. If there are no obstacles anywhere near the gripper,
collision protection will certainly not be required.
6 Technical properties
59
Fig. 6-9:
When working with threedimensional object configurations, consideration must be
given to the clearance contour
of the gripper
Every gripper requires space to operate. The route to the gripping point requires
a gripper working area or feed channel which must be free of obstructions.
The minimum size of this area is governed by the contour of the gripper with
open jaws or with a workpiece if this projects beyond the edges of the gripper.
As the result of this, it may prove better to use a parallel-jaw gripper instead
of an angle gripper. This is illustrated in Fig. 6-9. It has been assumed that the
workpiece to be press-fitted into a basic assembly part needs to be picked up
by a gripper making a positive-locking connection in the insertion direction.
This can, however, also be achieved by using a parallel gripper, with the advantage that this will permit the storage locations on the magazine pallet to
be positioned more closely together. This increases storage capacity, which is
generally desirable.
a) Radial gripper
b) Parallel gripper
1
2
3
4
5
x
Clearance edge
Pitch circle of gripper jaws
Workpiece
Flat pallet
Open gripper jaws
Distance between
storage locations
2
3
4
x
x
a)
Load-bearing capacity
and dead weight
b)
If the gripper is kept as light as possible, this means a higher payload for the
handling device and minimum impairment of dynamic machine characteristics.
Fig. 6-10 shows the relationship between the nominal load of the handling
device and the tool load, with grippers often being regarded as tools. The nominal load specification refers to the interface between the robot arm and the
connector flange of the gripper.
If a handling device is operated with the maximum possible load, speed and
acceleration must be reduced. This may affect one motion axis or several.
The handling cycle will thus become slower. This is not a problem if the process
times are significantly longer than the cycle time for a handling operation.
It is therefore worth considering in appropriate cases whether an increased
handling-device load can be used.
60
6 Technical properties
Fig. 6-10:
Specifications of load capacity
for industrial robots
Nominal load
Tool load
Working load
Additional load
Maximum working load
Maximum load
The performance of a gripper can be expressed by the ratio of gripping force
in newtons to dead weight in grams. The performance index for a gripper with
a mass of 420 g and a gripping force of 300 N would thus be 0.71 newtons
per gram of dead weight. Values of over 1 indicate very good grippers. Most
commercially-available grippers, however, have in-dexes well below 1.
Service life
6 Technical properties
61
7
Application areas
and gripper types
The excellent flexibility of an industrial robot from both the mechanical and
control technology points of view and the speed of a pick-and-place device can
provide a practical benefit only if the selected gripper meets the requirements of
the application in question. The applications of a given gripper are not, however,
subject to any rigid definition with a little imagination, modifications can
always be found to provide the optimum solution to a gripper application.
The aim of this article is to provide some suggestions for this.
One of the main uses of industrial robots and insertion devices is without doubt
machine-feed and assembly applications. Both these areas may involve requirements and customer wishes which go well beyond the aver-age case. It may
also be the case that a single gripper module is required to deal with objects of
widely-varying geometry. Each individual gripping task must be thought through
thoroughly before a recommendation is made.
Application areas
of grippers
62
Fig. 7-1:
Approximate correlation
between gripped objects
and gripper types
Gripper types
Gripped objects
Mass
Ideal
Suitable
Suitable in certain cases
Not applicable
0,2 ... 1 kg
1 ... 10 kg
Dimension
10 ... 50 kg
> 50 kg
20 ... 50 mm
50 ... 300 mm
300 ... 1000 mm
> 1000 mm
Internal gripping
Surface
Smooth
Rough
Porous
Sensitive
Round parts
Disc
Short cylinder
Shaft/Rod
Prisms
Block
Flat/short
Flat/long
Textiles
Foil
Plastics
Glass
Pottery
63
Fig. 7-2:
Radial gripper holding
a sheet-metal workpiece
The size of the workpiece to be handled need not necessarily dictate the size of
the gripper. If, for example, a gripper is required for large integrated circuits (ICs)
with 40 pins, this gripper will almost always need to be capable of executing
a powerful closing motion, since with large ICs considerable force is required
to bend the numerous legs. As Fig. 7-3 shows, the reason for this is that the
gripper must adjust the legs to a precise spacing during its closing motion.
The IC legs are prebent to an angle of approximately 15, allowing them
to conform to the correct spacing in the gripper.
Fig. 7-3:
ICs have splayed pins which
are aligned to the desired
spacing during the gripper
motion
a) IC with straight legs
b) Pins splayed
out at an angle
c) Gripper jaws
Applications such as the feed of automatic machine tools and the removal of
processed workpieces may require 2 workpieces to be picked up simultaneously.
Special multiple grippers can be designed for this purpose, but it is sometimes
possible to use a slightly modified simple parallel gripper for this purpose. This
is shown in Fig. 7-4. It is, however, then necessary to use suitable gripper jaws
to suit the distance between the workpieces.
64
Fig. 7-4:
Example of twin-workpiece
gripper as a special use
of a parallel jaw gripper
Feed gripper
as special solution
There are cases where the clamping point of a machine is not freely accessible
to the gripper due to the fact that passage is obstructed by tools, safety or test
equipment, etc., leaving only a certain feed channel. In cases of this kind, the
clearance contour of the gripper when holding a workpiece is a critical factor in
the selection process. Fig. 7-5 shows a solution in which a workpiece is gripped
parallel to the main axis of a 3-point gripper. The gripper has been fitted for this
purpose with specially adapted gripper jaws. The workpiece should be gripped
close to its centre of gravity to prevent unnecessary moments which would have
the effect of rotating the workpiece out of the jaws.
Fig. 7-5:
Handling lengths of bar
material with a 3-point
gripper
open
clamped
2
3
65
a)
b)
c)
d)
y
x
66
Fig. 7-7:
A 4-point gripper created by
combining 2-point grippers
Great progress has been achieved in recent years in the automation of assembly
work at all technological levels. For example, automatic machines have been
developed for the assembly of electronic components which allow cycle times
well below 1 second. This cannot be achieved by industrial robots, but these
play a valuable role in flexible assembly systems for short-run assembly work.
Assembly robots are without doubt an essential element of the factory of the
future.
One of the ways of achieving flexibility is to use automatic gripper changing
systems. The idea is to constantly interchange individual specialised grippers as
appropriate to technical requirements. In cases of this kind, an effector is more
than just a gripper and may also include further function groups (Fig. 7-8).
67
Fig. 7-8:
Gripper module
for flexible assembly
1 Industrial robot
connector flange
2 Upper part of
changer system
3 Joining part
Collision
protection
Uncontrolled joining
mechanism
2
The changer system provides a mechanical coupling and connections for signal
and power-supply lines, for example for compressed air. Each individual gripper
must be equipped with a lower changer system. Automatic changing (setting
one gripper down and picking up another) takes approx. 5 seconds. The purpose
of the joining mechanism is to provide automatic compensation for axial offset
and small anglar deviations. A collision protecting device can also be valuable,
particularly in cases where it is necessary to protect a complicated and costly
gripper from damage. If the gripper is overloaded, the collision protection device
disengages, triggering an emergency stop of the handling device.
For long-run assembly operations, other gripper systems can be considered,
such as assembly grippers. This term is commonly used to refer to all grippers
in assembly operations but should really only be applied to grippers inside
which an assembly operation can be carried out. These will of course be special
grippers built for a specific purpose or combination grippers. Fig. 7-9 shows an
example of these.
68
Fig. 7-9:
Assembly gripper
1
2
3
4
5
6
2
3
4
The gripper system consists in this case of a suction gripper and parallel-jaw
gripper. These are independent and are activated individually. It is perfectly
possible to produce this combination gripper from standard components.
In accordance with the assembly sequence shown in Fig. 7-10, the joining part
is first picked up by the suction gripper. The basic assembly part is then gripped
by the parallel gripper. The joining process is carried out while the effector
travels to the set-down position. This operation can also be carried out during
set-down, by inserting the joining part into the basic assembly part. This method
can be used, for example, to place lenses in mounts. The advantage is that no
external assembly device is required.
Fig. 7-10:
Sequence for assembly
within a gripper
a) Approach
to pick-up position
b) Gripping the joining part
c) Lifting the joining part
d) Approach to
2nd pick-up position
e) Gripping the basic
assembly part
f ) Joining process
g) Module assembled
h) Set-down of
completed module
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)
h)
69
8
Checklist for grippers
Grippers are the direct interface between automation devices and the objects
to be gripped. The geometry of these objects can vary greatly. Operating conditions, too, are certainly not constant and may be far from ideal. This makes it
difficult to select grippers. In individual cases, it may be that no standard gripper
is acceptable, making it necessary to develop a special gripper. The rule therefore is check all the requirements of a given application and consider their
feasibility. The selection of grippers is a matter which needs to be taken very
seriously!
Up to the present time, no uniform guidelines have been developed for the
design and sizing of grippers. If a variety of workpieces need to be handled,
the selection of grippers will be determined chiefly by object and process parameters and other parameters under the user's control. There is at the moment
no universal algorithm to determine the structure of gripper systems and the
design of grippers. Programs are, however, avail-able for the calculation of
technical/physical parameters.
Many interrelationships
between factors
The relationships between the major technical/physical factors governing gripper applications are shown in Fig. 8-1. The critical aspect is not steady-state
conditions but the dynamic effects in a moving system. Furthermore, it is not
enough to consider random moments which occur at some point during a handling operation. Rather, it is important to determine the maximum values which
are encountered at various points in time within a motion sequence. There are
then two possibilities:
Relaxation of requirements by changing motion and time parameters and/or
Selection of a gripper on the basis of the maximum parameter values within
the motion sequence.
70
Fig. 8-1:
Mutually influential factors
and basic variables relating
to the selection of grippers,
from the technical point of
view
Configuration
Anordnung
von
of robotund
and
Roboter
machine
Maschine
Position and
Bewegungsrichtung
Direction of motion ofdes
Greifers
Greifobjekt
gripper zum
towards
object
Greifzone
und Oberflche
Gripping zone
and
an
der Griffstelle
surface
at gripping point
cLage
Position
and in
der Teile
Lage
der Objekte
Position
of objects
iminGreifer
gripper
components
der
bernahmein transfer device
einrichtung
Shape
of Grsse
size
Form
und
of object
to be
der
Greifobjekte
gripped
Mass and
Masse
und Eigenproperties
schaften
der
of
objects
Objekte
Geschwindigkeit
Speed and
und
Beschleuniacceleration
of
gung
robotdes
perRoboaxis
ters je Achse
Calculation of
Berechnung
der
contact pressure an
Flchenpressung
at gripping
point
der
Griffstelle
Definitionder
of drive
Festlegen
Antriebsparameters
parameter
fr Greiferfor
gripper
drive
antrieb
Material and
Werkstoff
und
surface of des
Oberflche
gripping object
Greifobjekts
Bewegungsfolge
Axis motion
insequence
den Achsen
Shape
and
number
of
Form
und
Anzahl
der
gripper components,
Elemente,
Auswahl des
choice ofund
gripper
and
Greifers
der Kinekinematics
of gripper
matik
der Arbeitscomponents
elemente
des Greifers
Determination
Bestimmen
des
of gripper gearing
Greifergetriebes
Kontrollrechnung
und
Checking calculation
Optimierung
der
and optimisation
Greiferkonstruktion
of gripper design
Gripper flange
Greiferflansch
and type of
und
Energieart
power
source
Selection
of type
Auswahl
des
Typs des
of gripper drive
Greiferantriebs
Design
Konstruktion
of gripper connection
Greiferanschlu
71
Fig. 8-2:
Generation of characteristic
gripper data, starting with
the gripper location
Determination
Greifzoneof
gripping
zone
ermitteln
Finding
a gripping
Griff-Flche
surfacesuchen
on the object
Calculation
of
Berechnung:
--Force
Kraft
--Moment
Moment
--Moment
of inertia
Trgheitsmoment
Provisional
vorlufiger
location
of gripper
Greifort
Surface
properties
beschaffenheit
Oberflchen-
berprfen
Checking
of der
Greiferdaten
gripper
data
Estimation
of
Abmessungen
von
workpiece
dimensions
Werkstckabstzen
Relocation
of der
Verschieben
gripper
plane
Greifebene
Study
of gripper und
Greifervarianten
variants
and
Feststellung
der
suitability
of these
Eignung
Dokumentieren
der
Documentation
Ergebnisse
of results
A number of attempts are being made to produce programs which will allow
the automatic planning of handling systems, including grippers. The procedure
used here, too, is to identify all possible gripping surface pairs on the object to
be manipulated (relating to two-jaw grippers, i.e. parallel surfaces). The contactfree regions (gripping zone) are then defined. We then determine all the grippers
able to work within the defined gripping zones. There must be adequate coincidence between the object gripping surfaces and gripper surfaces (gripper jaws).
The decision as to whether a gripper is able to grip a workpiece by the pair of
gripping surfaces selected is then taken in a process which takes into account
various physical and other parameters. Once all possible types of grippers have
been identified, an optimisation process is started to identify the best gripper
(type and variant).
The most practical method would of course be a comprehensive simulation
system in which a gripper could execute all the required motion sequences on
the computer screen in the form of an animation. This would allow continuous
output of all major parameters, with automatic signalling whenever limit values
were exceeded. It would also allow cases to be identified in which even slight
changes in speed or acceleration would offer an advantage.
72
Step-by-step gripper
selection
The first step towards finding the right gripper is to undertake a comprehensive
description of the task for which the gripper is to be used. This will often involve
the combination of several components in an assembly station and will require
severval grippers. The question then is whether to use a gripper changer system
or not. Gripper systems which can be matched to individual assembly operations
make cycle times shorter and thus result in faster flexible assembly systems.
The time required for gripper changing must, however, be short, and only an
automatic changer system can ensure this. The determining variables are the
range of workpiece variants and the batch sizes involved. As a rule of thumb,
automatic gripper changer systems will be economically viable if the number
of geometrically different component variants per batch is 5 or more or the
production time per batch is up to 2 hours.
The flow chart shown in Fig. 8-3 can be used to select an individual gripper.
Each activity can be correlated to typical questions. These can help in a
discussion with users to arrive at a binding list of technical characteristics.
Intuitive selection of a gripper on the basis of gripping force alone, as is
still done in many cases today, can easily lead to error and should be avoided
at all costs.
73
Fig. 8-3:
The main steps
in the selection of grippers
Start
Start
Preguntas
Typische
tpicas
Fragen
Determination
of Bedingungen
all conditions (mass,
size,
shape)
applying
to the
Abklrung
aller
(Masse,
Gre,
Form)
am Greifobjekt,
gripped
object,the motion sequence
and any limiting
factors
der Bewegungssequenz
und einschrnkender
Randbedingungen
originating in the process
or its environment
von Proze
und Umgebung
1 to
5 5
1 bis
Definition
of gripper
principle:
Single, Einzel-,
multible Mehrfachgreifer,
or special grippers,
Festlegung
des
Greifprinzips:
holding
system, kinematics
or force fields
Sondergreifer,
Haltesystem,
Kinematik bzw. Kraftfelder
6 6tobis
12 12
Determination
of necessary forces,
forces occuring
and sowie
loads der dabei
Ermitteln der notwendigen
und auftretenden
Krfte
to which workpiece
is subjectzu ertragenden Belastungen
vom Werkstck
1313tobis
16 16
no
nein
Can the
load
beBelastungssituation
successfully handled in
in jeder
every
Kann
die
direction
of motion?
Bewegungsrichtung
beherrscht werden ?
17
21 21
17tobis
yes
ja
ListZusammenstellung
of other important requirements,
such asAnforderungen
accuracy,
sonstiger wichtiger
wie z.B.
connection
conditions,Anschlubedingungen,
overload protection, deviation
of gripping
Genauigkeit,
berlastschutz,
points and monitoring
devices
Greifpunktverlagerungen
und Kontrollen
22
2626
22tobis
DesignGestaltung
of gripper jaws,
sensor equipment,
media Ausstattung,
der Greiferbacken,
sensorische
throughfeeds and mounting
Medienfhrung und Befestigung
27
32 32
27tobis
no
nein
Does
the concept
theAnforderungen
requirements
Entspricht
das conform
Konzepttoden
as expressed
in theAufgabenstellung
problem description?
gem
?
33
3535
33tobis
yes
ja
Evaluation and selection of gripper model
Bewertung und Typauswahl (monetr sowie nichtmonetr)
(financial and nonfinancial factors)
Outsourcing,
special
or in-house
Realisierung
durchexternal
Zukauf,manufacture
Fremdvergabe
oder Eigenbau
36
3939
36tobis
40 40
Stop
Stopp
74
75
31. Are adapter plates required for the mechanical connection of the gripper,
and are these commercially-available designs?
32. Are the gripper jaws required to compensate for parallelism errors
at the gripping surfaces of the object?
33. Is the achievable time sequence (for pick-up, transportation and release)
acceptable?
34. Will the gripper provide the expected service life under the operating
conditions in question?
35. Are all operating values for the gripper within permissible limits?
36. Will a standard gripper, possibly with special jaws, be suitable,
or will a special solution be required?
37. Are the conditions of supply and guarantee as expected?
38. Do auxiliary devices (pressure devices, gripper magazine) need to be
considered?
39. What level of cleaning, servicing and maintenance will be required?
40. Has a satisfactory gripper been found or should the problem be referred
to a gripper specialist?
The Festo gripper selection tool (GST) can be used to make a selection on the
basis of technical/physical parameters.
The input parameters are as follows:
76
9
Suction grippers
abhorred by nature
Air as a medium
In the Middle Ages, vacuum was very much an unknown quantity. It was not
until Otto von Guericke of Magdeburg conducted his famous experiment with
hemispheres and teams of horses that a first insight was gained into this strange empty state which nature was said to abhor. People were, however, aware of
such things as the 45-centimetre scars seen on the skin of whales, caused by
the suction cups of giant octopuses. These cups can be 10 to 15 centimetres in
diameter and are located on the octopuses' tentacles, which are up to 15 metres
long. Today, suction cups are in widespread use in industry as an inexpensive
and simple automation tool. This is the first of three articles dealing with these
devices.
77
Fig. 9-1:
The most important functions
and properties in relation to
suction grippers
2
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Vacuum line
Pressure switch
Angular freedom
Quick exhaust
Vertical freedom
Quick interchangeability
Generation of holding force
Workpiece contact sensor
4
5
6
7
Suction cups are suitable for a large number of handling operations, such as
sorting, feeding, clamping, turning and stacking, and are used as grippers with
lifting devices, balancers, feed devices, stacking systems, packing machines and
production lines. Suction cups are particularly convenient when workpieces have
the following features:
78
Awkward dimensions
Susceptible to deformation
Non-magnetic
Surfaces sensitive to scratching (ground, polished, painted)
Undulating but non-porous surfaces.
The purpose of this is to define the vacuum in the suction chamber and the size
of the suction area in such a way that these compensate reliably for all the
forces occurring during manipulation operations. In the case of slow motions,
such as the movement of suction-held workpieces on a balancer, it is sufficient
to consider static forces. With high-speed motions, dynamic forces must also be
considered. Fig. 9-2 illustrates the relevant force conditions. The following
applies as a general principle:
F = (po pu) A n3 z
1
S
FS
pu
A
po
With high-speed motions, allowance must also be made for forces resulting from
weight, mass moment of inertia and centrifugal force. This results in different
lines of action for the overall force. Furthermore, the centre of gravity of the
gripped object may not coincide with the centre of the suction cup. Fig. 9-3
shows the resulting typical load cases and the calculation of the required
suction cup force FS.
79
The force F is always the force resulting from all static and dynamic effects,
including allowance for superimposed motions.
Fig. 9-3:
Typical force situations
at suction cup
FS
Fs n1 F
FS
FX
S
FZ
FS
Fs n1 Fz + n2/ Fx
Fs n1 k1 F
k1 = 1 + r/R
S
r
F
4
FS
Fs n1 k1 Fz + n2/ Fx
or
Fs F(n1 k1 cos + n2/ sin)
S
FX
r
FZ
5
FS
Fy
S
R
Fs n1 k1 Fz + n2/ k2 Fx or
Fs F(n1 k1 cos + n2/ k2 sin)
k2 = 1 + r/R + Fz/Fy
FZ
v
Fs n2 F/
S
FS
80
In cases of lateral motion and where the suction surface is positioned vertically,
we must consider a further variable the coefficient of friction . This can be
taken as = 0.5 for clean dry glass, stone and plastic, falling to = 0.1 to 0.4
with damp and oily surfaces. Other sources quote the following guide values:
Type
of suction cup
Type of surface
Coefficient of friction
with peak-to-valley height
Ra = 0.05 m Ra = 1.5 m
Rigid
Oil-free
0.85
Slightly
deformable
Oil-free
0.45
0.65
Rigid/slightly
deformable
Lubricated with
drilling emulsion
0.15
0.35
Rigid
0.05
0.25
Slightly
deformable
0.025
0.15
81
Suction cups used in handling systems operate with rough vacuum, which
ranges from 105 to 102 Pa. Other ranges include fine, high and ultra-high
vacuum. 70% vacuum is the value generally used with suction cups. This means
0.7 bar vacuum or 0.3 bar absolute pressure.
We will present 4 types of vacuum generation in this article (Fig. 9-4).
These are:
Vacuum pumps and blowers
Vacuum generators operating on the venturi principle (ejectors)
Adhesive suction cups
Pneumatic cylinders.
Fig. 9-4:
Methods of producing
a vacuum
a) Rotary pump or other
type of pump
b) Vacuum generator
c) Adhesive suction cup
d) Piston suction system
a)
b)
c)
d)
82
Vacuum blowers produce only a relatively low vacuum, as can be seen from the
comparison in Fig. 9-5. They do, however, have a large suction capacity, making
them useful in cases where it is necessary to compensate for the porosity of
workpieces.
Fig. 9-5:
Comparison of performance
of typical vacuum generators
-0,9
-0,8
-0,7
Vakuumpumpe
Vacuum
pump
Vacuum
Vakuum
in barin bar
-0,6
-0,5
Ejector
Ejektor
-0,4
-0,3
-0,2
Vacuum
blower
Vakuumgebse
-0,1
0
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1000
Suction capacity
Saugvermgen
in l/min in l/min
83
Fig. 9-6:
Mode of operation of venturi
nozzle, with shut-off valve to
produce ejector effect
3
4
a) Suction
b) Ejection
5
1
2
3
4
5
6
Shut-off valve
Receiver nozzle
Driver nozzle
Compressed air supply
Suction cup
Workpiece
a)
b)
Adhesive suction cups are merely pressed onto the workpiece to force out the
air they contain; a vacuum is then created by the resilience of the suction cup
material or by weight forces. It is virtually impossible to compensate for leakage
losses. The suction surfaces must be smooth and non-porous.
Piston suction systems are occasionally used with automatic assembly
machines. These systems produce vacuum and an ejector pulse in the same line
in alternation in synchronisation with the machine cycle. The piston stroke and
timing are stored in the form of a control cam.
It is even possible to generate vacuum using a solenoid, as with the patented
suction cup shown in Fig. 9-8. As the solenoid picks up, the volume of the
chamber below the suction cup increases, creating a vacuum which holds the
workpiece in place.
84
Fig. 9-8:
Solenoid-actuated suction cup
Vacuum circuits
Fig. 9-9:
Example of a vacuum circuit
based on an ejector
1 Directional control valve
for compressed air supply
2 Ejector
3 DCV to control exhaust air
(switchover to ejection)
4 Silencer
5 Filter
6 Pressure switch for vacuum
7 Suction cup
8 Distributor
The line diameter in the vacuum circuit should not be undersized, since this will
increase flow resistance, but should not be oversized that suction times become
too long. We see in nature that trees need to feed vital liquids to the very last
leaf tip, which has resulted in the evolution of appro-priate distribution systems.
85
A similar task faces technicians who need to size the lines of a suction system.
They must consider the flow resistance in the tubing of the system. If we
imagine a tree fitted with suction cups, as shown in Fig. 9-10, we must size the
tubing in accordance with the factors shown. Each further branch should be
made smaller by a factor of 1.42.
Fig. 9-10:
Correct choice of tubing
diameter is important in the
distribution of suction air
1 Suction cup
2 Line
0,35.D
0,5.D
D Tubing diameter
2
0,71.D
Publications
86
10
Suction cups
for every application
Large number of
application parameters
Suction cups are the active components which create the contact between a
handling device and the workpiece to be handled. There are many different
workpieces and gripping applications, and an equally diverse range of suctioncup variants, with differences of size, material, geometry, Shore hardness and
design. We will investigate some of these variants in the following.
87
Suction-cup shapes
and designs
If we could bring the suction cups available from every manufacturer together
in one place, we would have a collection as garish as any eastern bazaar.
Let us, however, first consider the different shapes and designs of suction cups.
As shown in Fig. 10-1, these are as follows:
Bellows suction cups
Suitable for slightly curved, inclined, easily deformable and uneven surfaces.
Provides a slight lifting motion; compensates for height differences; can have
up to 6.5 pleats. Small diameters of this type are Suitable for thin materials.
Bellows suction cups with a large number of pleats are sometimes fitted with
an internal or external support spring to provide additional rigidity.
Flat suction cups
In general terms universal suction cups, Suitable for non-porous flat and
slightly curved surfaces; able to transmit high vertical forces.
Deep suction cups
Good adaptation to round surfaces (Fig. 10-5) and profile sections.
Should not be used for flat surfaces, since rigidity is low and wear is rapid.
Ribbed suction cups
Suitable for flat and unstable surfaces. The ribs across the mouth of the cups
prevent thin materials from being drawn into the cups and make these more
resistant to lateral deformation. This type of suction cup is also useful for
use with vertical surfaces, since the ribs provide increased friction when the
workpiece is in contact with these after being picked up. Since the lips of
the suction cups do not flex very much, virtually 100% of the effective suction
area is maintained. The more rigid design means on the one hand that suction
cups can be produced in larger sizes without a support plate but on the other
means that the suction cups cannot grip objects with any pronounced curve.
Suction cups with cellular rubber seal
These provide a good seal with uneven and heavily-textured surfaces, such as
corrugated sheet metal, textured glass, concrete slabs, fireproof bricks, etc.
Not good for applications with vertical workpieces.
Oval suction cups
Good for long, narrow or slightly-curved workpieces. Can be used for
spiders (large grippers with a large number of suction cups spread over
their area) in the automobile industry; typical features are metal baseplates
and narrow flexible sealing lips.
88
10
11
89
Fig. 10-2 shows the results of a comparative study [1] of flat suction cups
without metal reinforcement (A), flat suction cups with metal plates and small
flexible sealing lips at the extreme edges (B), double-lip suction cups (C) and
bellows suction cups (D). The aim was to find the maximum trans-mittable
vertical and horizontal forces, the flexible vertical stroke produced by a
vertical force and the residual volumetric flow rate between the suction cup
and the workpiece. These involve relationships, in certain cases very complex
relationships, between the shape and material of the suction cup and the
surface properties of the workpiece.
Despite its relatively simple design, type A exhibits good results for all criteria.
Its comparatively large flexibility in the vertical direction as the vertical force
increases, makes it suitable for use in all but a few applications. Type B allows
very high vertical forces, since the vacuum chamber stays in shape even under
high vacuum thanks to spacers and the small narrow sealing lips. In the case of
type C, the double seal results in a very low residual volumetric flow rate. The
complex seal system, however, takes up more space, thus reducing the effective
diameter of the suction cup. Type D is characterised by the low maximum
vertical forces which it can transmit, its lack of geometrical stability under the
action of lateral forces, and its very large elastic vertical stroke. This rules this
type out for a variety of handling applications.
Fig. 10-2:
Evaluation of various
types of suction cups
Very good
Ideal
Suitable
Suitable in certain cases
Not applicable
Criteria
Design
Transmittable
vertical
force
Transmittable
horizontal
force
Flexible
vertical
stroke
Residual
volumetric
flow rate
90
Freedom of movement
of suction cups
The ideal workpiece surface for suction cups is one which is perfectly flat and in
particular non-porous. In many cases, however, workpiece surfaces are not flat,
which means that suction cups must be compliant or adjustable on their vertical
axis and in their angular attitude. There are various ways of achieving this
(Fig. 10-3). In the simplest cases, bellows suction cups can be used. They offer
a certain degree of angular compliance. Multi-axis freedom of movement is
required mainly in cases involving large irregularly-shaped workpieces, such
as are typically encountered in the automobile industry.
Fig. 10-3:
Freedom of movement
of suction cups
1 Bellows suction cup
2 Spring-loaded flat
suction cup
3 Angle adaptability
provided by
ball-and-socket head
4 Longitudinal freedom
of movement through
suction cup's own mass
5 Fixed angle setting
6 Longitudinal and angular
freedom of movement
through double joint
and longitudinal guide
Spring-loaded suction cups can also cushion the impact of workpiece contact
and compensate for height differences. The spring tension also offers the
advantage that the suction cup comes into contact with the workpiece before
the handling device stops. This reduces the time taken to build up the required
vacuum in the end position.
91
Ball-and-socket brackets also reduce the bending forces which occur during
the handling of movable objects. Another method which has been suggested of
achieving flexibility is a matrix of individual suction cups which are able to
execute a large vertical motion (Fig. 10-4). The suction cups can then adapt to
a given surface as they are lowered onto an indi-vidual workpiece or a pile of
workpieces. When in position, all the rods are clamped into place, allowing the
handling device to store the workpiece shape temporarily and lift a layer of
individual workpieces.
Fig. 10-4:
Suction-cup array fitted to
rods allowing longitudinal
movement and used to pick up
workpieces of constantly
varying contours [2]
Let us at this point once again mention deep suction cups (bell-shaped), which
have the adaptability to handle concave and convex workpieces very well, as
shown in Fig. 10-5.
Fig. 10-5:
Deep suction cups can adapt
well to curved surfaces
a) Gripping a convex body
b) Gripping on a concave
surface
a)
92
b)
A special type of vacuum gripper is shown in Fig. 10-6 which in a way combines
a bellows with the sleeve principle of a rolling diaphragm, resulting in a very
large freedom of movement. This is intended for use with objects whose geometry, position and orientation vary continually within certain limits. Suction
cups with numerous pleats are often used in the food industry.
Fig. 10-6:
Vacuum gripper with very
large freedom of movement
of suction components
1 Suction cup
2 Workpiece
3 Magazine plate
1
2
3
93
The answer is to use numerous individual suction cups, each operating at a low
vacuum. Even better are low-pressure grippers whose active surface consists of
porous material which can let air through. Special plates are also available with
a large number of fine suction holes. Components of this kind can be combined
to form large units, as shown in Fig. 10-8. One disadvantage of course is that the
gripper is awkward due to its size.
Fig. 10-8:
Low-pressure gripper
equipped with porous plastic
or perforated plates
Ensuring a correct
gripping position
94
Fig. 10-9:
Positioning aids and stops for
use with vacuum grippers
a) Fine positioning
during gripper contact
b) Stop to reduce displace
ment during lateral motion
c) Alignment by springloaded stops before
gripper contact
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
Centring mandrel
Spring
Suction cup
Workpiece
Magazine feed
Arm
Support
Vacuum connection
Roller conveyor
Tapered guide
Spring-loaded
guide wedge
Workpiece-controlled
activation of suction air
2
3
6
4
5
7
a)
b)
8
10
11
c)
The needless discharge of suction air means a waste of energy and usually also
indicates a gripper malfunction. Attempts are therefore made to equip suction
cups in such a way that they activate vacuum generation only when they reach
the workpiece surface. There is a further problem: When several suction cups
are used in an array, it may occur that not all the suction cups are covered by
the workpiece, for example during the handling of packages of varying sizes in
positions which are not always precisely defined. Any suction cups which remain
uncovered must be deactivated in order to prevent the vacuum from collapsing.
The basic concept is illustrated in Fig. 10-10.
Fig. 10-10:
Automatic deactivation
of uncovered suction cups
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
Vacuum
Basic body
Airborne ball bearing
Suction cup
Workpiece
3
4
5
95
The flow of incoming air closes the uncovered suction cup. Flow-activated valves,
triggered by flow losses, can also be used with permeable surfaces such as
perforated plates to deactivate any uncovered suction device. Valves of this kind
are commercially available and are generally equipped with a filter to prevent
dirt particles from entering the vacuum circuit. In the case of the Festo vacuum
efficiency valve ISV-..., a spring-loaded float is used as a shut-off device.
Provided that a vacuum starts to build up under the suction cup, a ring seal
will open and release the required suction cross-section. Fig. 10-11 shows
an application in the form of a circuit diagram.
Fig. 10-11:
Circuit diagram for a suction
head fitted with vacuum
efficiency valves
1
2
1
2
3
4
Vacuum generator
Exhaust air
Distributor
Vacuum efficiency
valve with filter
5 Flat suction cup
It also takes some organisation to activate a suction cup at the right moment.
Sensor valves are often used for this purpose, as are proximity sensors.
Fig. 10-12 shows a number of variants. Sensor valves are installed in the vacuum
line and act directly on this, while external sensors supply an electrical signal
which is used to activate directional control valves. With the solution shown
in Fig. 10-12b, the handling device travels towards a stack whose height is of
course constantly changing. Once the workpiece has been reached (topmost
sheet), the lowering motion is stopped and the vacuum is activated. In the case
of Fig. 10-12d, a positive signal triggers the vacuum by actuating a directional
control valve.
96
Fig. 10-12:
Activating the vacuum
1
5
a) Integrated
electrical sensor
b) External electrical sensor
c) Vacuum sensor valve
in suction line
d) Integrated
inductive sensor
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Vacuum connection
Electrical sensor
Sealing lip
Stack of workpieces
Limit switch
Flat suction cup
Sensor valve
Suction bore
Inductive sensor
Workpiece held
by vacuum
Ejector systems
6
3
4
b)
a)
8
7
10
d)
c)
Rapid ejection of workpieces from suction cups is just as important for fast
machining cycles as a fast pick-up. There are various ways of achieving this.
If a vacuum generator is used to produce the vacuum, it has become standard
practice to fill a small reservoir with compressed air during vacuum generation.
When the compressed-air supply to the generator is switched off, vacuum generation ceases and at the same time the compressed-air reservoir discharges
abruptly. This creates a positive pressure in the suction chamber, ejecting the
workpiece from the suction cup (Fig. 10-13).
Fig. 10-13:
Circuit diagram for a vacuum
generator with an ejector
pulse system
p Input pressure
V Vacuum
97
It is of course also possible to switch straight from suction air to compressed air,
and this is done in practice. An example of this is shown in our last illustration,
Fig. 10-15. By the way, precise ejection at the desired point is particularly
important with fragile or very light workpieces, since these could otherwise
stick to the suction cup momentarily and then fall at a greater height from the
handling device during its return stroke and possibly suffer damage.
Fig. 10-15:
Circuit diagram for a suction
gripper with a vacuum
generator and compressedair ejector system
p Supply pressure
V Vacuum
Publications
98
11
Suction cups in
handling technology
The range of applications of standard and special suction cups is very wide,
covering everything from sanitary porcelain and strips, planks and panels to
foodstuffs. The processes involved generally form part of a medium or large
scale production operation. Suppliers of suction cups usually offer a complete
selection of individual units and modular systems. Apart from suction cups
themselves, systems of this kind include vacuum generators, valves, tubing
and piping, instrumentation, control equipment and flexible mounting systems.
We will consider some selected examples of applications below.
Fig. 11-1:
Some typical applications
of bellows suction cups
1 Picking up inclined
workpieces
2 Leveling of an inclined
formed part
3 Limiting suction force
4 Highly-flexible
suspension for undulating
workpieces in random
orientation
5 Picking up stepped
workpieces
6 Gripping formed parts
with undulating surface
7 Picking up flat workpieces
from magazine
8 Separating and picking up
flat workpieces
5
p1
p1
p2
p2
p1 > p2
6
99
It is not easy to grip thin sheet-metal material, since sheets can stick to a stack
over their entire area and burred edges can become tangled. Plastic panels may
also stick together due to electrostatic charges. It is therefore necessary to
prevent two workpieces from being picked up at the same time. Fig. 11-2 shows
a number of ways of achieving this [1].
Fig. 11-2:
Picking up thin panels
with a suction cup
1
2
a) Undulating effect
b) Air nozzle to assist
separation
1
2
3
4
Suction cup
Blast nozzle
Indexing motion
Lifting device to raise stack
3
4
a)
b)
In Fig. 11-2a, the suction cups do not merely lift the panel but first generate
undulations along the length of the panel to detach any second panel which
may be adhering to the underside of the first. Only then is the panel lifted. Each
lifting cylinder must accordingly be controlled separately. Peeling effects can
also be produced by combining spring-loaded suc-tion cups with a non-springloaded suction cup at the edge of the panel. In this case, the panel is lifted at
the edge while still being held down at other points by the spring force of the
suction cups. It is also possible to equip flat suction cups with a separator
insert, which is a fixed support within the suction chamber. When vacuum is
present, the panel picked up by the suction cup bends slightly around the separator insert, due to the upward motion of the soft suction-cup lips. This effect
can be exploited with thin sheet metal up to approx. 3 mm.
When panels are picked up which are slightly porous, such as chipboard, a
through-suction effect may be encountered, also resulting in two panels being
lifted from a stack at the same time. The remedy here is to increase the suction
area (by using more suction cups) and reduce the vacuum level.
Problems may also be experienced with magnetic grippers when picking up
thin sheet-metal workpieces, since field lines may pass right through the first
workpiece and pick up a second workpiece as well. In order to solve this problem, combination grippers have been developed, as shown in Fig. 11-3. The
workpiece is first gripped by a suction cup and slightly lifted by this.
100
The magnet is now activated, significantly increasing the holding force. This
higher force allows high-speed manipulations to be carried out.
Fig. 11-3:
Combination gripper for handling thin ferritic sheet-metal
workpieces
V
1
1 Electromagnetic coil
2 Suction-cup lip made
of soft cellular rubber
V Vacuum
200 mm
Double lifting of small blanks can be rectified by using a second suction cup to
remove the second workpiece, which is held less firmly than the first workpiece
and can thus be vacuumed away and set down at another place. The first
gripper can swivel away from the second suction cup or else rotate, as shown
in Fig. 11-4. The two grippers rotate synchro-nously in opposition. The suction
forces are adjusted to different levels. A second workpiece is picked up along
with the first, carried along and then ejected into a set-down tray.
Fig. 11-4:
Vacuuming second workpieces away with a rotating
suction cup
1 Blanks magazine
2 Suction cup
for second workpiece
3 Set-down tray
for second workpieces
4 Rotary gripper
5 Feed device
for production machine
2
3
4
5
101
2 mm
1
1 Suction cup
2 Floating sheet
at top of stack
3 Permanent magnet
4 Stack of sheet-metal
work pieces
2
3
1
1
2
3
4
Vertical magazine
Toothed insert
Spring-loaded ratchet
Suction cup
3
4
102
The bowing effect is used in many other adapter feed devices. The feed station
shown in Fig. 11-7 also features a suction cup which holds the sheet-metal workpieces at their centre. The dead weight of the workpieces causes these to sag.
After the sagging phase during lifting, the sheet-metal workpiece springs into
the pick-up roller slot. The rollers grip the metal workpiece and convey it outwards, whilst the suction cup simultaneously detaches from the workpiece and
returns to its home position.
Fig. 11-7:
Feeding station
for thin sheet metal
1
2
3
4
5
Lifting cylinder
Suction
Pick-up rollers
Contact point
Workpiece stack
103
Distribution
and feeding
with suction cups
The number of applications which fall under this heading is colossal. We can therefore do no more than show just a few examples, which may prove useful for
your own applications. As is well known, suction cups with soft lips do not operate very accurately. Furthermore, the workpiece in question may be displaced
when the suction cup springs into action if it is not specially guided. This is a
disadvantage, but one which does not become apparent in many applications,
since the workpiece is precisely centered by other technical means at its
destination, particularly in the case of feed operations. This can be seen in the
example of a tub filling and closing machine shown in Fig 11-8. A tub released
by a distributor device is picked up by vacuum and set down on a rotary table.
The suction cup passes through the workpiece carrier on the table in order
to do this. The tub aligns itself precisely on the table. It would in theory also
be possible to allow the workpieces to fall into their carriers by gravity, but this
would not provide sufficient reliability for automated operation. If workpieces
are allowed to move at random even for a short time, there can be no guarantee
of accurate movement. Even if the result is acceptable 99 times out of 100, this
is not good enough.
Fig. 11-8:
Feed system
on a packing machine
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Vertical magazine
Distributor
Suction cup
Rotary indexing table
Lifting cylinder
Tub (workpiece)
Production machine
1
2
3
4
6
5
7
Fig. 11-9 shows the feeding of food containers on a filling line. Retaining brushes
on the magazine ensure that only one container is removed at a time.
The gripper arm carries a suction cup and is able to reach down between the
two conveyor belts and set down the deep-drawn foil container. Only when this
has been transported onwards can the arm swivel back into its pick-up position.
A rotary pneumatic cylinder can be used as a drive or, as shown here, a rackand-pinion gear unit with a linear cylinder.
104
Fig. 11-9:
Feeding of food containers
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
Retaining brush
Stack of containers
Magazine rod
Spindle-driven lift ram
Limit switch
to monitor feed
Double conveyor belt
Lateral guide
Suction-air line
Gripper arm drive
Swivel arm
Suction cup
3
4
11
10
5
6
8
9
Suction cups are also frequently used in combination with other grippers to
provide auxiliary functions. This is illustrated in the example, Fig. 11-10 showing
the stacking of spools of textile thread. These spools are gripped internally by a
mandrel gripper and placed on a pallet. The auxiliary function to be provided
by the handling device, is to insert a separator board between each layer. The
device picks up the separators from another stack via suction cups which are
advanced into their working position specifically for this operation. In this way, it
is possible to operate without a gripper-changing system. Combinations of this
kind can be produced relatively easily by using pneumatic cylinders with hollow
piston rods.
Fig. 11-10:
Multi-layer stacking
of textile thread spools,
using a combination gripper
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Gripper connection
Lifting cylinder
Hollow piston rod
Separator
Mandrel gripper
Gripper thread spool
First stack layer
Transport pallet
3
4
6
7
8
105
Fig. 11-11 shows a glass bulb feeder system. The bulbs enter the feed conveyor
by gravity and are transferred to a pick-up position. These workpieces, which
are fragile and curved on all sides, can be reliably picked up via suction gripper
and fed into the machine in a 2-second cycle. If it is not possible to align light
workpieces sufficiently well by gravity, it may be necessary to provide an aid.
This can take the form of mechanically-operated V-shaped jaws at the pick-up
station. A mechanical radial gripper can provide a suitable basic module for a
device of this kind.
Fig. 11-11:
Feeding station
for glass bulbs
1 Swivel magazine
2 Handling device
with suction cup
3 Forked carrier in feed chain
4 Glass bulbs
5 Filling area
6 Magazine rail
5
1
6
3
4
Publications
106
Fig. 1-1:
12
List of illustrations
Fig. 1-2:
Fig. 1-3:
Fig. 1-4:
Fig. 1-5:
Fig. 1-6:
Fig. 1-7:
Fig. 1-8:
Fig. 2-1:
Fig. 2-2:
Fig. 2-3:
Fig. 2-4:
Fig. 2-5:
Fig. 2-6:
Fig. 2-7:
Fig. 2-8:
Fig. 3-1:
Fig. 3-2:
Fig. 3-3:
Fig. 3-4:
Fig. 3-5:
Fig. 3-6:
Fig. 3-7:
Fig. 3-8:
Fig. 3-9:
Fig. 3-10:
Fig. 4-1:
Fig. 4-2:
Fig. 4-3:
Fig. 4-4:
Fig. 4-5:
Fig. 4-6:
Fig. 4-7:
12 List of illustrations
107
Fig. 4-8:
Fig. 4-9:
Fig. 4-10:
Fig. 5-1:
Fig. 5-2:
Fig. 5-3:
Fig. 5-4:
Fig. 5-5:
Fig. 5-6:
Fig. 5-7:
Fig. 5-8:
Fig. 5-9:
Fig. 5-10:
Fig. 6-1:
Fig. 6-2:
Fig. 6-3:
Fig. 6-4:
Fig. 6-5:
Fig. 6-6:
Fig. 6-7:
Fig. 6-8:
Fig. 6-9:
Fig. 6-10:
Fig. 7-1:
Fig. 7-2:
Fig. 7-3:
Fig. 7-4:
Fig. 7-5:
Fig. 7-6:
Fig. 7-7:
Fig. 7-8:
Fig. 7-9:
Fig. 7-10:
108
12 List of illustrations
Fig. 8-1:
Fig. 8-2:
Fig. 8-3:
Fig. 9-1:
Fig. 9-2:
Fig. 9-3:
Fig. 9-4:
Fig. 9-5:
Fig. 9-6:
Fig. 9-7:
Fig. 9-8:
Fig. 9-9:
Fig. 9-10:
Fig. 10-1:
Fig. 10-2:
Fig. 10-3:
Fig. 10-4:
Fig. 10-5:
Fig. 10-6:
Fig. 10-7:
Fig. 10-8:
Fig. 10-9:
Fig. 10-10:
Fig. 10-11:
Fig. 10-12:
Fig. 10-13:
Fig. 10-14:
Fig. 10-15:
12 List of illustrations
109
Fig. 11-1:
Fig. 11-2:
Fig. 11-3:
110
12 List of illustrations
2-point gripper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
3-dimensional axes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
3-point gripper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
4-point gripper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
13
List of special terms
Accuracy of gripping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Adapter rail . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Adhesive suction cup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Alignment effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Angle gripper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36, 51
Angular compensation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Application area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Assembly gripper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Assembly mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Axial alignment error . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Axis gripper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Ball-and-socket head . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Bellows suction cup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88, 99
Centre deviation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Centring aid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
Changing system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Characteristic curve for gripping force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Characteristic data for grippers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Checklist for grippers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Clamping force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Clamping marks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Clamping safety margin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Clamping zone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Clearance contour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Coefficient of friction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45, 80
Collision-protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .59
Combination gripper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38, 66, 100, 105
Compensate for tolerances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Compliance device . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Contact force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13, 43
Contact sensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Crown turret . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Cushioned stop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Deceleration force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Deep suction cup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88, 92
Degrees of freedom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Degrees of transmission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Diameter of the interference circle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Distribution with suction cup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
Double gripper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Double-lip suction cup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Duplex machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
111
112
Eccentric force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Ejector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Ejector system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
External gripping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Geometrical error . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Gripped object . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Gripper finger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Gripper fingers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Gripper jaws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32, 37
Gripper module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Gripper pin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Gripper selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Gripper selection tool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .76
Gripper system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .66
Gripper types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Gripper working area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Gripping centre . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Gripping force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41, 43
Gripping point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11, 17
Gripping stroke . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Gripping surface pairs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Gripping zone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10, 72
Guide wedge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Inertia force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Interference circle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Internal gripping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
IRCC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .54
Jaw shape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Jaw-type gripper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Knee-lever gripper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Lateral compensation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Lifting suction cup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Load-bearing capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Low-pressure gripper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
Magazine pallet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Maximum load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Moulding jaw . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Multiple suction-cup gripper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Multi-point gripper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Multi-stage ejector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Multi-workpiece gripper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Nominal load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Non-slip covering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Normal force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Quick exhaust . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Safety factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Scissors-type gripper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
113
Securing function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Self-adhering suction cup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Sensor, inductive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Separator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Sequence gripper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Service life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Set-down zone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Shaft gripper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Short-stroke axis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Shut-off device . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Single-stage ejector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Specimen shaker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Spreader magnet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Spring-loaded gripper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Standard gripper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Stepped track . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Suction cup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77, 96
Suction-cup array . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Suction-cup shape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Suction-cup/lifting module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Swivel/linear unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
114
TCP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Third law of motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Three-finger gripper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Three-point gripper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Thruster device . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Tool centre point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14, 35
Triple turret gripper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Turning workpieces over . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Turret gripper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Twin-workpiece gripper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Two-finger gripper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33, 43
Type of approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Universal jaws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Uses of grippers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Vacuum blower . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Vacuum circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Vacuum efficiency valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
Vacuum generator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Vacuum management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Vacuum switch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Vacuum technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Vacuum pump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Venture-type vacuum generator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Venturi nozzle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Vertical magazine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
Vice-type gripper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
V-jaw gripper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Wide-range gripper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14