Professional Documents
Culture Documents
foreword
Nick Saville
Director of Research and Validation
Cambridge English Language Assessment
June 2013
Foreword 5
Introduction 11
PART ONE English in the Pearl River Delta
14
17
English in education
29
Overseas study
47
53
61
68
Language landscapes
70
79
Student projects
85
91
contents
101
APPENDICES
References 105
News sources
107
Abbreviations 110
Acknowledgements 112
1
In this short book, Profiling English in China: the Pearl
River Delta, I explore the changing role and status of the
English language in an area of Guangdong province in
South China. This region includes the former European
colonies of Hong Kong and Macau at the mouth of the
Pearl River, and stretches up to the historic mainland city
of Guangzhou, formerly known in English as Canton,
about 100 km up-river.
Although much of the world has not heard of the
Pearl River Delta, and might not be able to locate it on
a map, the area touches the lives of nearly everyone.
Wherever plastic goods, toys, shoes, lighting or electronic
gadgets are sold, there is a high chance that these were
manufactured in one of the factory towns of the delta.
The label Made in China usually means Made in the
Pearl River Delta.
The Pearl River Delta can also claim to be where the
story of English in China began with the Canton Trade
via Macau in the 17th century. It is sometimes forgotten
that the expansion of English worldwide occurred at
the same moment in different parts of the globe: the
first English-speaking settlement in North America at
Jamestown, the arrival of the East India Company in
India at Surat, and the first English traders in China at
Canton all took place within the space of a few years
in the early 1600s. The story of English in China, then
and now, forms an important part of the wider story of
English and globalisation.
The history of English in the region has been
continuous over four centuries or more, and its
development into a trading lingua franca known as
pidgin (thought to have been derived from the Chinese
pronunciation of the English word business) has been
an influence on modern varieties of English everywhere.
During its long history, the number of people learning
English in China has waxed and waned, reaching a low
point during the Cultural Revolution at the end of the
1960s, but now experiencing what (for demographic
reasons) is likely to prove a peak.
introduction
11
A forward-looking work
This book is intended as an exploratory study in several
respects. First, it is concerned not only with providing
an overview of the current situation, but also with the
dynamic of change. It asks questions such as, What will
the extraordinary changes now taking place in the Pearl
River Delta mean for the future of English in the region?
Second, this book is forward-looking in the sense
that it suggests ideas and methods of enquiry which
can be extended in the future, in partnership with local
institutions and researchers in the Pearl River Delta itself,
across other regions of China, and in other emergent
economies.
The book should thus be seen as a preliminary study
identifying topics and modes of enquiry that merit
further investigation.
A sensitivity to levels
Research on English in economic and social development
too often regards the knowledge of the language as
something which is binary: people are typically regarded
as either knowing English or not. In reality, there is a wide
12
Sources
This book draws extensively on a research database of
news articles, letters, comments and blog posts. This
database, compiled intensively during the research
period from a variety of print and electronic sources,
contains around 2000 items, and reflects current opinion,
anecdote and formal statistics. Where text has been used
directly from the database, the source reference is given
as numbers in square brackets. Text from these sources
has not been copy-edited.
This book also incorporates research, experience,
and observation gained during my position as Visiting
Associate Professor in the Department of English at
City University in Hong Kong during 2010 and 2011.
Acknowledgements to some of the many people in the
Pearl River Delta who have helped me in this research
are provided at the end of the book.
13
Part one
English in the
Pearl River Delta
Heilongjiang
Jilin
Xinjiang
olia
ong
Liaoning
M
ner
In
on
Zhejiang
n
jia
Jian
Fu
Yunnan
Hunan
gxi
Ch
Guizhou
Shanghai
ing
Hubei
hu
gq
Jiangsu
An
Sichuan
ng
ndo
Sha
Henan
Sha
Gansu
Tibet
Heb
i
Sha
anx
Qinghai
nxi
Ningxia
ei
Beijing
Tianjin
Guangxi
n
gdo
an
Gu
Taiwan
Hainan
The Pearl River Delta
16
2
The Pearl River Delta contains surprising linguistic
diversity. Guangdong province is the homeland of
the Cantonese language and Cantonese remains the
dominant local language, spoken throughout the region
in mainland China, Macau and Hong Kong by almost
everyone born there. Cantonese ranks as one of the
worlds biggest languages in terms of native-speaker
numbers, with an estimated 5560 million first-language
speakers in established communities in over 20 countries
making it a language roughly the size of Italian.
Cantonese is not the only indigenous language in
the delta area. On the east side runs a historic linguistic
boundary between Cantonese and Hakka more or less
dividing the new city of Shenzhen. There are also enclaves
of several other Chinese dialects in the region.
In Hong Kong and Macau, Cantonese is an official
language but its status is increasingly challenged by
Putonghua (often referred to locally in English as
Mandarin). English is an official language only in Hong
Kong, though its use is spreading across the rest of the
delta, as this book documents.
languages
and
communities
of the pearl
river delta
17
Other
10%
Hakka
25%
Figure 4 The
languages of Shenzhen
in 1985. (Zhang,
2005)
Putonghua
20%
Min
20%
Cantonese
25%
The Shenzhen area used to be occupied by Cantonesespeaking villages in the west and Hakka communities
in the east. In the 1980s, as the city grew, it became
multilingual when migrant workers flooded in from other
provinces. Now it is pulled towards both Putonghua and
Cantonese still the dominant language of neighbouring
Hong Kong.
Shenzhen, occupying the length of the border
between Hong Kong and mainland China, provides
us with a complex and fascinating research site for the
study of language change. But although there has been
substantial sociolinguistic research generally on language
use in urban areas, and of the fate of language minorities
created by migration, the linguistic consequences of new
city developments remain largely unexplored.
A study of Milton Keynes in the UK, a much smaller
city, but one established only slightly earlier than
Shenzhen, suggests a number of new town tendencies
(Williams & Kerswill, 1999):
(1) that dialect levelling occurs (i.e. linguistic
differences between new residents grow less);
(2) loose and diffuse social network structures of a
kind that typically occur in areas of in-migration
promote rapid language change;
(3) adolescents are key agents of language change.
In looking at new cities, we can note that although the
use of Putonghua is clearly growing in the whole delta
region, there is contradictory evidence concerning how
far and how fast such shifts are taking place. Some recent
reports suggest adolescents who are second-generation
migrants in Shenzhen are now acquiring Cantonese.
18
>
Li Zhen is a 16-year old high school student who was born in Wuhan and
moved to Shenzhen at the age of 10. She insists on talking to her friends in
Cantonese. My parents do not speak Cantonese and we speak Putonghua or
Wuhan dialect at home Li said. in school, we only speak Putonghua in class.
(But) all my friends are Cantonese speakers. Cantonese is the fashionable
language among Shenzhen teenagers. [3046]
>
Language shift
These changes in the Pearl River Delta need to be seen in
the context of the inter-generational language shift taking
place on an extraordinary scale across China. Chinese
dialects, such as Wu and Yue (which includes Cantonese),
which are amongst the worlds largest languages in terms
of numbers of speakers, are giving way to Putonghua. The
Chinese languages, though as different from each other as
the languages of Europe, are steadily being positioned as
local, non-standard, dialects.
This language shift in mainland China is largely
a product of national policy. Because Putonghua is
the medium of education in most of China, children
encounter the language even in pre-school, whatever their
family language. Many parents speak to their children in
Putonghua at home, to prepare them for school. Younger
children, whether in Shanghai or Guangzhou, do not
always now share a language with their grandparents.
19
Others 2%
Putonghua 1%
Cantonese
89%
>
20
In a dark basement theatre, Nair Cardoso runs through her lines before a
rehearsal of a play that will be watched by hundreds of people in just a couple
of weeks. However, her character Benina speaks a language she only half
understands. It is a problem shared by most of her fellow cast, not to mention
her future audience. The script is in Patu a creole that mixes Portuguese,
Cantonese and Malay that today is only spoken by a handful of Macaus
residents and has been listed by Unesco as critically endangered. Patu was
once spoken by many Macanese the Eurasians who acted as the Portuguese
colonys administrators and interpreters and who today are trying to hold onto
a distinct cultural identity in the predominantly Chinese city. [1438]
21
22
23
50
Figure 6 The
growing percentage
of the Hong Kong
population who report
being able to speak
English, according to
census surveys.
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
31 961 996 971 991 996 001 006 011
1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2
19
24
25
Migrant workers
H
uk
ou
Dongguan
uk
ou
igr
an
t
Hu
ko
Mi
gra
nt
Shenzhen
Guangzhou
igr
an
t
igr
an
t
uk
ou
Zhuhai
The decline of the work unit forms a key part of Chinas modern development.
Pressure has been growing recently to reform the hukou system, and the new
competition for migrant workers has already led some cities, including Guangzhou and
Shenzhen, to allow migrant workers better access to local services.
26
27
3
Education in China is a highly competitive business
and English now forms a significant part of almost every
high-stakes exam. The Pearl River Delta, however, seems
to be distinctive in both its education provision and its
needs for English.
For example, the business of the region can require
a greater number of workers able to communicate in
English, probably more than any other area of China,
but at the same time the Pearl River Delta has one of the
highest populations of migrant workers. Ironically, these
workers are employed on assembly lines in factories
where they are forbidden to talk to each other.
The Pearl River Delta is also distinctive for its
distortion of conventional age profiles. In cities such as
Dongguan for example, migrants represent as much as
80% of the current population. This not only makes the
area peculiarly lacking the normal urban age spread of
the very young and very old, it also affects the available
pathways through the education system, since migrant
parents without hukou permanent residence usually
cannot gain access to local public schools for their
children. Many children of migrant workers are therefore
schooled away from their parents, outside the region.
A further distinctive feature of the Pearl River Delta
is the presence of Hong Kong and Macau. These two
cities, where English plays an important role in both
education and business, have affected social attitudes
to English in the region and the perceived importance
of English in employability. They have also affected the
regional capacity for the teaching, learning and testing
of English.
english in
education
29
Kindergarten interview
Primary
Junior
Middle
Senior
Middle
Undergraduate
PG
22
23
PHASE
KG
AGE
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
Zhongkao
Gaokao
CET 4/TEM 4
CET 6
TEM 8
CET Band 8
30
In Hong Kong, testing for English often starts at age two, because many
kindergartens require an interview. Since kindergartens are often seen as the pathway
to entry to good primary schools, and thus to secondary school and university, such
interviews are regarded by parents as a high-stakes test. Some tutorial centres in Hong
Kong provide courses to prepare both children and parents for such tests. The idea that
college starts at kindergarten is now growing elsewhere in the delta.
31
32
Although primary education in Hong Kong has always been mainly Cantonesemedium, the increasing number of students crossing the border each day from
mainland China to attend Hong Kong primary schools is affecting the medium of
instruction in schools in the New Territories.
The Education Bureau (EDB) has implemented a finetuning policy regarding the medium of instruction in
Hong Kong secondary schools, which allows schools to
teach particular classes or age groups through English. The
EDB at the same time reaffirmed that The Governments
overall language policy aims at nurturing students to
become bi-literate and tri-lingual (EDB, 2010).
Since the fine-tuning policy was introduced, all three languages can be used in the
same school for different subjects, ages or streams. This makes it difficult not only
to determine what exactly is the medium of instruction (MoI), but also to monitor any
change in the use of MoI, or assess the relative use of English against other languages.
33
C1
B2
B1
A2
A1
Basic
User
Independent
User
Proficient
User
C2
34
60
France
Sweden
50
40
30
20
10
Pre--A1
A1
A2
B1
B2
35
>
36
Over half of Hong Kong students in their final year are below C1 level widely
regarded as the minimum entry level for English-medium study. This suggests there
may be a mismatch between students English proficiency and the aspiration of Hong
Kong universities to be world class English-medium institutions.
Figure 11 shows the band results for IELTS test-takers in
both Hong Kong and mainland China. Although levels
of English in Hong Kong appear to be higher than on
the mainland, we need to remember that the majority of
test takers in Hong Kong are final-year students, taking
IELTS within the CEPAS scheme, whereas those in China
take IELTS as a gateway to overseas study. In other
words, mainland test-takers are likely to be younger, and
at an earlier point in their English-learning careers.
37
B2
C1
C2
percentage candidates
30
25
20
Mainland China
Hong Kong
15
10
5
0
IELTS Bands
Although Hong Kong universities refer to themselves as English-medium, they are far
from being English-only zones. Textbooks and assessments are usually in English but the
use of English in lectures is more mixed, depending on the subject and lecturer. Informal
use of English outside classes, however, is low.
>
The younger generation from the mainland constantly outperforms locals ...
they score high in exams, participate in social activities and even speak better
English than many local students. We invited investment bankers to give
seminars on campus, an HKU professor said, and after, all the mainland
students rushed to socialise with the speaker, handed in their resumes
and asked for internship opportunities, while many local students just hid
themselves in the back rows. [5847]
The distinction between private and public schools in China is not always clear
cut. Many elite schools in the public sector will accept a student who does not have
a sufficiently high exam score if parents are willing to pay fees. Children of migrant
workers often do not have free access to local government schools they have to pay
fees at a public school, or attend cheap private schools which cater for migrants.
There also exists a wide range of international language
school chains, such as Wall Street, EF, Berlitz and Disney.
These often have a presence in city-centre shopping
malls and recruitment points in metro stations and other
public places.
39
Figure 12 Disney
English, which opened
its first centres in 2008
in Shanghai, now has
centres in Guangzhou
and Shenzhen. It is one
of several major language
school chains operating in
the delta region.
Within the delta region, there exists a clear centreperiphery pattern with regard to foreign teacher
employment: those employers based in suburbs and
40
>
We trainees are being babied by comparison to the other teachers before us.
[ language school chain] has been in China for 15 years. Their program is a very
good one with a well thought out curriculum. Even though I have never taught in
my life, I feel comfortable taking on the challenges of teaching given this companys
support system. [3851]
41
>
Many parents and students put off extracurricular activities until college.
... Many parents and students have clear priorities: get into a good high
school and college and then indulge in their interests. Those students
who do pursue total education do so knowing the risks. Whats more,
they tend to be either well-off, carry foreign passports, or prodigiously
talented. [5384]
Although both the nature of high-stakes English testing in China and the methods
used in teaching encourage a rote learning of vocabulary rather than a communicative
proficiency in the language, it seems that an increasing number of young people in the
delta region can communicate in English. We need to understand how and why this is
happening.
42
>
43
>
Peoples mania for English learning has wasted education resources and
threatened the study of Chinese, said Zhang Shuhua, dean of the information
and intelligence institute at the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences. Zhang
made the remarks at a meeting during the annual session of the 12th
National Committee of the Chinese Peoples Political Consultative Conference,
the top political advisory body, which closed on Tuesday. His outspoken words
have triggered intense online discussion, with nearly 90,000 comments posted
on the topic by 9 p.m. Thursday on Sina Weibo, the Chinese equivalent of
Twitter. [5326]
>
44
45
Current trends amongst migrant workers both skilled and unskilled seem to be
leading to contradictory and unpredictable outcomes in relation to education demand
and provision, and the use of English and other languages in the region.
46
4
Overseas study has a long history in China. Indeed,
several prestigious universities, such as Tsinghua
University in Beijing and Sun Yat-sen University in
Guangzhou, began life as Christian mission schools
preparing Chinese students for study in the USA.
After the opening up of China from the 1980s, the
number of students travelling overseas began to increase;
by the start of the 21st century, Chinese students had
become an important part of university life in the Englishspeaking destinations of the US, UK and Australia.
overseas
study
Rising numbers
In the mid-2000s, the rising trend of overseas Chinese
students seemed to falter. In 2006 (Graddol, 2006) I
predicted that the apparently unlimited stream of
students coming out of China would decline, and
that instead of providing the worlds largest source of
international students, China would itself become a net
destination for overseas study.
There were several reasons for concluding this. My
research had found that the number of places available in
higher education within China was growing rapidly: in
Guangzhou alone, in 2004 over 100,000 additional places
were made available when the island of Xiaoguwei
in Panyu district opened as a university city. Across
the delta there has been a similar explosion in higher
education provision in both public and private sectors.
At the same time, there are fewer young people
graduating from high school because of demographic
decline even accounting for the increased proportion
of students staying in education beyond the compulsory
age of education. This means that the competition for
places in Chinese universities was getting easier.
Furthermore, attitudes of Chinese employers also
seemed to be changing. Finding local graduates more
pliable and better connected in the social networks which
are paramount in Chinese business, returnees sometimes
47
>
There was a time when Chinese students who obtained higher education
abroad were considered to be the most fortunate of their generation. After
graduating from elite universities in the US and Britain, they were virtually
guaranteed the best career prospects upon their return. Those students were
colloquially referred to as sea turtles returning home with the world on their
backs. But things are different now. [2475]
48
150,000
100,000
50,000
49
>
50
A poll for the latest China Education Xiaokang Index found almost 40% of
Chinese believe the best time to study abroad is now at undergraduate level,
while about 21% said it is during high school. The traditional idea that
students go overseas after they have bachelors degrees gained only 17%
support, and about 4% said it should be at post-doctoral level, according to the
report compiled by Xiaokang, a State-run magazine. [3210]
The family, not the student, usually decides. This is traditional in China. Although
the younger generation increasingly have their own aspirations, the financial
commitment required for overseas study means the whole family continues to
play a decisive role.
2
3
Richer parents will place a child in a private school overseas to ensure they are
properly prepared for college. The richer the family, the younger the child is
sent overseas.
51
The 4-2-1 family pyramid, in which four grandparents and two parents focus their
spending on a single child, helps explain why more middle-class families can now
afford to send their child for study abroad. But in the next generation, the pattern may
reverse. In more cities, two single-child couples are allowed two children themselves.
They may also find they are expected to support up to eight grandparents and four
parents, as well as other extended family, as well their own children. Family economics
will change again.
52
5
The economy of the Pearl River Delta was built on trade
between China and the west. From the earliest days of
the Portuguese trade in the 16th century, which brought
silk, rice, tea and porcelain to Europe, commerce has
been the lifeblood of the delta economy.
The original thirteen factories in Canton were
constructed outside the city walls, and strict rules were
imposed by the Chinese on the movement of foreigners.
A caste of minders arose, called the linguists who
acted as intermediaries between foreign and local
merchants. The factories were not places of manufacture,
but where the local factors or wholesalers established
their warehouses. There remains a Thirteen factories
Road (Shisanhang Lu) in Guangzhou, though it is
now some distance from the river. The successor to the
hongs (merchant businesses) is in many ways the new
Canton Fair complex, which receives several hundreds of
thousands of visitors each year to its trade fairs.
Manufacturing became important only after World
War II. Hong Kong had for a century or more relied on
its role as an intermediary in world trade with China, but
fears that China had become part of the communist bloc
gave rise to international sanctions and a collapse in such
trade. At the same time, business leaders with capital,
english, jobs
and the
economy
Figure 17 Thirteen
factories road still exists
in Guangzhou, though it is
now some distance from
the river.
53
54
Low proficiency
job types
Frontline Service
Personnel
Clerks
Receptionists/
Telephone Operators
Secretaries
Executives/
Administrators/
Associate Professionals
A2
B1
B2
C1
55
56
>
I earn more money than most of the Hongkongers and I always ask them
to speak Putonghua to me, one of my Beijing friends said with pride. ...
Top investment banks and hedge funds prefer to hire mainlanders over
Hongkongers, ABCs and Westerners for their China business knowledge. In
Central, Putonghua is becoming a popular language, not only in shopping malls,
but also in offices. [5847]
57
>
With more court cases being heard in Chinese, lawyers who know only English
say the amount of work available for them has dropped, causing some to earn
less, go into early retirement or move abroad. [5482]
59
60
6
It is impossible to understand the changing role of English
in the Pearl River Delta today without understanding the
profound economic restructuring now taking place in the
region, and the extensive social, political and educational
implications of this transition.
China manages its economy through five-year plans,
created by central government and cascaded down to
provincial and municipal levels. Each plan provides a
shared understanding of the countrys economic road
map; it sets the direction in which enterprises, institutions,
and government departments should aim, encouraged
by incentives such as tax breaks, development land and
revised regulations, such as those governing hukou.
China has now embarked on its 12th five-year plan, for
20112015. At local levels, details continue to be finalised
and its influence is likely to extend beyond 2015.
the
great
economic
and social
transition
400
350
300
2.0
1.8
1.6
1.4
250
200
150
100
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
50
0.2
0
62
63
Percentage of workforce
70
60
Primary
sector
50
Tertiary
sector
Secondary
sector
40
30
Quartenary
sector
20
10
0
Pre-industrial
Industrial
Post - industrial
Time
64
Figure 23 Economies
tend to develop in similar
ways, in which the
services sector eventually
dominates. This model is
sometimes referred to as
the Fisher-Clark model.
1993
30
20
10
0
40
percentage of workforce
percentage of workforce
40
A1/A2 B1/B2
C1
Figure 24 An analysis
of the structure of
employment in Hong
Kong suggests that there
has been a significant
shift towards the need
for at least C1 levels of
English in the workplace.
2009
30
20
10
0
A1/A2 B1/B2
C1
65
>
Our education system has to be changed fast ... we need a more challenging,
more creative education system. Otherwise we still, for most Chinese
companies, are followers following the UK and the States to try to catch up.
Wang Jian, founder of BGI, Shenzhen [5852]
66
67
Part two
English in the urban
landscape
Figure 27 (previous
page) Guangzhou city
centre at Opera
Square.
7
Many voices in the landscape
The built environment is filled with language: road signs,
warning notices, advertising hoardings, and informal flyposters which advertise personal services, second hand
furniture or lost animals. Business signs especially in
Hong Kong struggle to command attention by being
bigger than rivals, or are suspended more precariously
over the street, or are illuminated more brightly in neon,
or use the latest LED technology from the delta factories.
The urban spaces of Hong Kong, especially, are in this
way noisy. As you walk or drive through them, it is difficult
to avoid the sense that you are being hailed and shouted at
as you pass. The languages and mix of languages found in
the written landscape reflects the complex linguistic lives
of its inhabitants, the regulations of different authorities,
and the wide variety of social, economic and political
activities which take place in the city.
Linguists who study language landscapes sometimes
refer to them as heteroglossic: that is, the landscape
speaks with many voices. Official signs, for example,
represent a voice of authority; such notices usually
directly reflect official language policy. Advertisements
tell us through their choice of language about the
consumers they are targeting. Ephemeral materials,
created by ordinary citizens or hawkers, reflect more
directly the languages of local communities.
Language landscapes reflect the social, economic and
political activities of the diverse communities which live,
language
landscapes
Figure 28 The
landscapes in the
Pearl River Delta are
constantly changing.
Here, old factories in
Kwun Tong district of
Hong Kong have been
demolished and a new
promenade created,
facing Hong Kongs old
Kai Tak airport, now itself
being redeveloped as
a cruise liner terminal.
Such change reshapes
the flows of people and
the economic and social
activities which take place
within public spaces.
71
72
Figure 32 (above)
Prohibition signs, Chater
Park, Hong Kong Central.
Figure 33 Informal
notices gain authority
through the trilingual
formula: here, Chinese,
English and icon.
(Building site, Causeway
Bay, Hong Kong)
73
74
Figure 34 Commercial
City shopping mall in
Shenzhen shows the
intrusion of English in the
urban landscape.
75
76
77
Soundscapes
The study of language landscapes can be extended to
spoken language. In lifts, trains and stations, ferries and
other public spaces, announcements are routinely made.
In Hong Kong on the MTR, for example, announcements
are trilingual, in Cantonese, Putonghua, and English.
These announcements provide a constant reminder of
place, signalled by the choice of languages, the order in
which they appear (English was moved to third place
after the handover of Hong Kong in 1997), and the accent
of the speaker (in Hong Kong the English announcements
are made with a British accent, those in neighbouring
Shenzhen with an American accent).
Some announcements travel with passengers, such
as those in lifts or on board trains. Others are fixed to
particular spaces for example, the safety announcements
on escalators reminding you how to stand safely repeat
in an endless loop as you pass through the area. Often,
announcements from adjoining spaces such as the
platform, the escalator and the train standing with open
doors can be heard at the same time.
Just as in the written domain, an area more usually
studied in language landscape research, we can find in
the soundscape a complex mix of voices, varying from
formal and official to informal and ephemeral. As you
pass by the entrance to a shop unit, you are likely to be
hailed by an assistant intent on attracting you to look
inside the shop. A foreigner is likely to be addressed in
English, a Chinese person in Hong Kong in Cantonese, or
in Shenzhen in Putonghua.
As you walk through public spaces throughout the
delta, there is typically a press of people around you, whose
voices also form part of the experience of place. Even if, as
a visitor, you cannot easily distinguish between Cantonese
and Mandarin, they sound different as a result of their
differing tones and phonology. Everywhere, people walk
alongside you or just behind, speaking on mobile phones to
unseen friends, or chatting with companions.
Speech, of course, is not the only sound in the
landscape. There are many others, such as distinctive
traffic noise, the rumbling of wheeled cases around bus
and railway stations, the sounds emitted by pedestrian
crossings, and shuttered entrances opening or closing.
All such sounds help define and characterise particular
urban spaces.
78
8
It is clear to the most casual foreign visitor that whilst
written English is ubiquitous in many parts of the
Pearl River Delta, it varies in quality and quantity. This
variation reflects the complex underlying distribution of
language users, the social and economic practices found
in different urban spaces, and government policy. For
example, when Guangzhou decided to regularise its
bilingual signage, it focused only on areas of high visitor
traffic. The China Daily commented:
>
an english
landscapes
scale
Degrees of English
The first intrusion of English into the landscape is often in
advertising. English words appear, especially in slogans,
in a way which a native speaker may not easily be able
to make sense of. Such use tells us something about the
intended readership: people who wish to be addressed
as potential English speakers but who may not know the
language well.
Figure 42 An
advertisement in
Guangzhou shows English
words embedded in
Chinese copy. This would
be classed as Level 1 on
the scale.
79
Figure 44 (above) A
notice in a shopping
precinct in Kowloon Bay
is unusual for a semiofficial notice in Hong
Kong in not being fully
bilingual.
Figure 45 (left) A notice
in Guangzhou East
railway station. Only the
words Public Notice are
in English.
80
An English Scale
81
82
Figure 46 Percentage
of local population in
Hong Kong who are
native English speakers,
according to a 2006
survey.
Figure 47 A sign in
Chinese only on Lamma
Island.
Figure 49 (Above)
A more informal sign
which may encourage
an English speaker to
investigate.
83
84
9
During the academic years 2010-2012 I taught an
undergraduate course in World Englishes at City
University, Hong Kong. As part of the students course
work, I set a practical investigation into the local use
of English. Students first attended my lectures which
included discussions of research methodology, the idea
of language landscapes, and sociolinguistic patterns
of English use. They were encouraged to interpret the
notion of landscape broadly, and tutorials included the
design of packaging and ephemera.
student
projects
85
Figure 52 Students
in Group 1
researched English
use in eleven
supermarket chains
in Hong Kong.
(Student Wiki)
6
5
Yata
Piago
Jusco
Vanguard
Wellcome
Sogo- Freshmart
Taste
International
3 Did the shelf labelling for products cater for Englishspeaking customers and if so, to what level?
c!ty'super
Marketplace
Figure 53 (above)
Graph showing score
for labels according
to student created
criteria.
Figure 54 (left)
Citysuper, IFC Mall,
Hong Kong Island.
One of the most
English of Hong
Kong supermarkets.
86
(2) Quality
Accuracy and relevance of the English words. This field is graded by word
choices on the price tags which indicate whether they can give correct
and proper information of products. Products with names in abbreviated
forms are sometimes unclear and are deemed of in low quality as they
obstruct shoppers from getting the correct information from the price tag
conveniently.
(1 - not accurate and relevant at all; 10 - very accurate and relevant)
(3) Manner
Clearness. This field is graded by the organization and layout of information
on the price tags. Even with sufficient information that gives the customers
a clear and correct idea of the product, the information on price tags
should also be designed for easy access, such as the font size of the words,
the layout as in whether the text are grouped and placed in rational and
consistent formats.
(1 - very unorganized and inconsistent; 10 - very organized and consistent)
87
Figure 55 Students in
Group 2 researched
English use in four tourist
destinations, including
the bar area of Lan
Kwai Fong in Hong Kong
Central.
88
89
Figure 58 Map of
stalls in the Ladies
Market produced by
student researchers.
90
10
Within communities, across community boundaries,
people flow and circulate. Such flows are rarely random.
Some are highly predictable, bringing distinctive
patterns of communication and language competencies
into or out of particular parts of the city at regular times
each day, each week, or at certain times of the year. This
chapter builds on the previous discussion of how English
is distributed unequally across the urban landscape,
introducing a dynamic approach which takes account of
such flows and their rhythms.
corridors
and flows
Language flows
One of the more obvious flows in Hong Kong is formed
by the commuters who bring a tidal wave of English into
the business districts, twice a day, five days a week. For
example, in Central and Admiralty districts on Hong
Kong Island, an English-rich stream of people flows
inwards during a two-hour period from 7am, then ebbs
outward again around 6pm. The people who make up
this crowd are mainly the professional white-collar office
workers in the tower office blocks, including many of
the expats who do not speak Chinese (but who may be
bilingual in a variety of other languages in addition to
English). These people flow from other residential areas
in the city, such as Discovery Bay on Lantau, Yung Shue
Wan on Lamma Island, as well as the areas marked as
high English on the map in Chapter 8, such Mid-levels.
This flow contains many people who speak English as
either their first language, or as a second language. They
are employed in the kind of managerial and professional
jobs for which the workplace English project described in
Chapter 5 considered a minimum of a C1 level of English
was required.
Slightly later (the shopping malls in Hong Kong tend
not to open before 1011am), come the people who serve
the English speakers in shops and cafes in the business
districts. This stream will contain many speakers of
lower English proficiency, perhaps A2B1 level, arriving
from all over Hong Kong. The two groups together help
91
Figure 60 In buildings
like ifc 2 in Hong
Kong Central, large
communities of highproficiency English
speakers assemble each
working day.
92
number of people
C1+
7am
8am
A1/A2
9am
10am
11am
12am
This notion of time-related flows of people with different language repertoires and English proficiencies is
explored in the following pages.
>
In Zhaoqing, a city in the west Pearl River Delta, local authorities said more
than 100,000 motorcyclists left the city Jan. 20. The highways leading out
of the city were so crowded that helicopters had to be summoned to help
control traffic. [502]
93
3: Graduate flows
The Hong Kong economy depends crucially on graduates
with high proficiency in English; these people sustain
the operations of banks, finance houses and other highend tertiary sector employers who now characterise
the economy. Yet a surprisingly low proportion of such
employees graduate from local universities. Each year, it
seems, there is significant churn; many graduates leave
Hong Kong, and new ones arrive. Many new arrivals are
returnees Chinese from Hong Kong or elsewhere who
have studied or worked abroad.
94
Figure 62 One of
several exhibition
halls in the vast new
Canton Fair complex,
Guangzhou. Fairs here
attract hundreds of
thousands of visitors
every year.
20,000
local graduates
16,500
GEP
5,000
ASMTP
6,500
Returnees
48,000
total inflow
Figure 63 Estimated
flows of graduates in
Hong Kong 2006. (Hart
& Tian, 2010:76)
26,000
join workforce
12,000
leave Hong Kong
95
4: Lamma Island
Lamma Island is home to a community of around 6000
people, of whom about one third are non-Chinese. The
only connection to the rest of Hong Kong is by ferry, a
journey of about 25 minutes. Hence a commuter corridor
exists, stretching from Central piers on Hong Kong Island
to the pier at Yung Shue Wan the main habitation on
the island continuing down the narrow single street of
the village, onwards to Hung Shing Ye beach, a popular
destination for day visitors to the island.
When a ferry docks at Yung Shue Wan, a pulse of
people is sent down the single shopping street. At regular
intervals, this street fills with shoppers and people
chatting, then all but empties until the next pulse.
The linguistic make-up of these groups squeezing
through the village, past the shops varies by time of day.
For example, in the early morning, an incoming stream of
mainly middle-aged, Cantonese-speaking men file down
the village street from the ferry pier to their workplace at
the Hongkong Electric power station. At the same time,
in the reverse direction, a flow of children attending
English-medium schools on Hong Kong Island and an
outgoing stream of both male and female office-workers
head towards the ferry.
In the afternoon and evening these flows reverse. Day
workers on Lamma leave the island; from 3pm, children
return from their English-medium schools speaking
English to each other; the early evening brings back office
workers and teachers, many of whom make up most of
the islands expatriate population of English speakers.
On Sundays and holidays come tourists, and a
different ferry schedule with higher fares. Many of
these day tourists come from mainland China, speaking
Putonghua, rather than Cantonese.
Lamma Island is thus home to speakers of many
languages, and it attracts visitors from many places.
However, the linguistic constitution of the flows through
its main street varies during the day, affecting both the
language of conversations within groups of visitors and
the language of interactions with local shopkeepers and
other residents.
Despite its complexity, the rhythm of this
multilingualism in the public spaces of Lamma Island is
a normal part of daily life, regarded as unremarkable by
both shopkeepers and other residents.
96
97
98
99
100
Figure 67 (previous
page) Filipina maids
meet under the Hong
Kong and Shanghai Bank
headquarters.
Figure 68 Worldwide
Plaza shopping mall is
filled with small shops
and money transfer
services catering for
Filipina maids.
Figure 69 A notice
outside St Johns
Cathedral in Hong Kong
Central includes Filipino
for the benefit of the
thousands of Filipina
maids, mostly Christian,
who gather in the area
on Sundays.
11
Postscript
After the main research for this book was carried out,
it became apparent that, at least in Hong Kong, the
language landscape has already been changing and in
ways which provide insights into local social, economic
and political developments.
Take, for example, a typical street scene, such as that
in Mong Kok in Hong Kong. This street, like many others,
appears to maintain its look over a period of years. But a
closer examination shows that there is constant change.
Signs that are frequently replaced such as advertising
hoardings and ephemeral handwritten signs are most
likely to reflect changes in the community, whilst other
more permanent signs retain a memory in the landscape of
earlier times.
postscript
and
conclusions
101
Some conclusions
In this book, I have explored the changing status of
English in a part of China which is undergoing rapid
economic, social and political transformation. I have
demonstrated how a study of public discourse as
visible in newspapers and blogs, and on signs and
advertisements in the urban landscape can be used
to monitor the complex changing role that English now
plays in education, employment and evolving social
identities in the Pearl River Delta.
102
103
104
references
105
106
news
sources
107
108
109
AEC
abbreviations
BGI
CEFR
CELTA
CEPAS
CET
CNY
ECR
EDB
ESP
IELTS
ISO
KG
Kindergarten
LED
MA
MBA
MTR
110
P3
PG
Postgraduate
PLA
PRD
S1
SAR
SAT
SEZ
TEM
TIRF
111
acknowledgements
Mainland China
Dai Fan (Head of English, Sun Yat-sen University,
Guangzhou);
Chang Chenguang (Dean, Professor, School of Foreign
Languages, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou);
Frank Miao (President, Franklin English Language
College);
Lily Liao Ke (Student);
Ekaterina Isaeva (English teacher, Guangzhou);
Undergraduate and postgraduate students in the
Department of English, Sun Yat-sen University,
Guangzhou.
Hong Kong
Dr Kingsley Bolton (Head, Language and Communication
Centre, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore);
Dr Rodney Jones (Acting head, Department of English, City
University);
Dr Jackie Jia Lou (Assistant Professor, Department of
English, City University);
Dr Anna Danielewicz-Betz (Associate Professor, Centre for
Language Research, The University of Aizu, Japan);
Colleagues and students in the Department of English, City
University.
112
In Profiling English in China: The Pearl River Delta, David Graddol explores the
changing status of the English language in a part of China undergoing rapid
economic, social and political transformation.
Breaking new methodological ground, David Graddol demonstrates how a study
of public discourse in newspapers, blogs, signs and advertisements in the urban
landscape can be used to monitor the complex changing role that English is
now playing in education, employment and evolving social identities.
He argues that researchers need to distinguish between different levels of
English proficiency more sensitively and illustrates how the Common European
Framework of Reference (CEFR) can be used as a research tool by sociolinguists.
Profiling English in China: The Pearl River Delta is intended as the first of a series of
books exploring the changing social, economic and educational contexts in which
English is learned and used. David Graddol presents methods of inquiry which
will be useful for researchers working in other parts of the world. The book
will be essential reading for anyone seeking a wider understanding of the role of
English in globalisation and economic development.
ISBN 978-1-908791-07-8
781908 791078