To which are prefixed, A HISTORY of the LANGUAGE, and AN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. By SAMUEL JOHNSON, A.M. In TWO Volumes VOL. I The words "Samuel Johnson" and "English Language" were printed in red; the rest was printed in black. The preface and headings were set in 4.6 mm "English" type, the text—double columned—was set in 3.5 mm pica. This first edition of the dictionary contained a 42,773 word list, to which only a few more were added in subsequent editions. An important innovation of Johnson's was to illustrate the meanings of his words by literary quotation, of which there are around 114,000. The authors most frequently cited by Johnson include Shakespeare, Milton and Dryden. Nietinnarywas of the finest quality aealinte the cost of which ran to nearly £1,600; more than Johnson had been paid to write the book. Johnson himself pronounced the book "Vasta mole superbus" ("Proud in its great bulk").[8] No bookseller could possibly hope to print this book without help; outside a few special editions of the Bible no book of this heft and size had even been set to type. The title page reads: A DICTIONARY of the English Language: in which The WORDS are deduced from their ORIGINALS, and ILLUSTRATED in their DIFFERENT SIGNIFICATIONS by EXAMPLES from the best WRITERS. To which are prefixed,repulsed from your door, during which time I have been pushing on my work through difficulties of which it is useless to complain, and have brought it at last to the verge of publication without one act of assistance, one word of encouragement, or one smile of favour. Such treatment I did not expect, for | never had a patron before ... Is not a patron, my lord, one who looks with unconcern on a man struggling for life in the water, and when he has reached ground, encumbers him with help? The notice which you have been pleased to take of my labours, had it been early, had been kind: but it has been delayed till I am indifferent and cannot enjoy it; till 1am solitary and cannot impart it; till 1 am known and do not want it. The Text A Dictionary of the English Language was somewhat large and very expensive. Its pages were 18 inches (46 cm) tall and nearly 20 inches (50 cm) wide. The paper tarae af tha finact snialite arrailahla tha anctPhilip Stanhope, 4th Earl of Chesterfield but not to Johnson's pleasure.Chesterfield did not care about praise, but was instead interested by Johnson's abilities. Seven years after first meeting Johnson to discuss the work, Chesterfield wrote two anonymous essays in The World that recommended the Dictionary.He complained that the English language was lacking structure and argued: We must have recourse to the old Roman expedient in times of confusion, and chose a dictator. Upon this principle, I give my vote for Mr Johnson to fill that great and arduous post. However, Johnson did not appreciate the tone of the essay, and he felt that Chesterfield had not made good on his promise to be the work's patron. In a letter, Johnson explained his feelings about the matter: Seven years, my lord, have now past since I waited in your outward rooms or was renulsed from vour door. during whichets Cn a tA ee Johnson's preparation Main article: Letter to Chesterfield Johnson's dictionary was prepared at 17 Gough Square, London, an eclectic household, between the years of 1746 and 1755. By 1747 Johnson had written his Plan of a Dictionary of the English Language, which spelled out his intentions and proposed methodology for preparing his document. He clearly saw benefit in drawing from previous efforts, and saw the process as a parallel to legal precedent (possibly influenced by Cowell): I shall therefore, since the rules of stile, like those of law, arise from precedents often repeated, collect the testimonies of both sides, and endeavour to discover and promulgate the decrees of custom, who has so long possessed whether by right or by usurpation, the sovereignty of words. Johnson's Plan received the patronage of Philip Stanhope, 4th Earl of Chesterfield Wesreaerste Ores peers ET Vel Heil ore1658 and a dictionary of 40,000 words had been prepared in 1721 by Nathan Bailey, though none was as comprehensive in breadth or style as Johnson's. The problem with these dictionaries was that they tended to be little more than poorly organized and poorly researched glossaries of "hard words": words that were technical, foreign, obscure or antiquated. But perhaps the greatest single fault of these early lexicographers was, as one historian put it, that they "failed to give sufficient sense of [the English] language as it appeared in use."[3] In that sense Dr. Johnson's dictionary was the first to comprehensively document the English lexicon. Johnson's preparation Main article: Letter to Chesterfield Johnson's dictionary was prepared at 17 Gough Square, London, an eclectic household, between the years of 1746 and ANTS Eee A ALT LT aero ee eee Ree ID reedIn 1598 an Italian-English dictionary by John Florio was published. It was the first English dictionary to use quotations ("illustrations") to give meaning to the word; surprisingly, in none of these dictionaries so far were there any actual definitions of words. This was to change, to a small extent, in schoolmaster Robert Cawdrey's "Table Alphabeticall", published in 1604. Though it contained only 2,449 words, and no word beginning with the letters W, X, or Y, this was the first monolingual English dictionary. Several more dictionaries followed: in Latin, English, French and Italian. Benjamin Martin's Lingua Britannica Reformata (1749) and Ainsworth's Thesaurus Linguae Latinae (1737) are both significant, in that they define entries in separate senses, or aspects, of the word. In English (among others), John Cowell's Interpreter, a law dictionary, was published in 1607, Edward Phillips’ The new world of English words came out in 1658 and a dictionary of 40,000 words hadO victoriamascaliuc.weeblycor GJ IIclualng KODErt voasiey ana 1nomas Longman - none could afford to undertake it alone — set out to satisfy and capitalise on this need by the ever increasing reading and writing public. Johnson's dictionary was not the first English dictionary, nor even among the first dozen. Over the previous 150 years more than twenty dictionaries had been published in England, the oldest of these being a Latin-English "wordbook" by Sir Thomas Elyot published in 1538. The next to appear was by Richard Mulcaster, a headmaster, in 1583. Mulcaster compiled what he termed "a generall table [of eight thousand words] we commoniie use...[yet] It were a thing verie praise worthy...if som well learned...would gather all words which we use in the English tung...into one dictionary..."[2] In 1598 an Italian-English dictionary byBackground A hundred years earlier, books had been regarded with something approaching veneration, but by the mid-eighteenth century this was no longer the case. The rise of literacy among the general public, combined with the technical advances in the mechanics of printing and bookbinding, meant that for the first time, books, texts, maps, pamphlets and newspapers were widely available to the general public at a reasonable cost. Such an explosion of the printed word demanded a set pattern of grammar, definition, and spelling for those words. This could be achieved by means of an authoritative dictionary of the English language. In 1746, a consortium of London's most successful printers, including Robert Dodsley and Thomas Longman — none could afford to undertake it alone — set out to satisfy and capitalise on this need by the ever increasing reading and writing public. Tahnonnle dintianard ure nat tha firctThere was dissatisfaction with the dictionaries of the period, so in June 1746 a group of London booksellers contracted Johnson to write a dictionary for the sum of 1,500 guineas (£1,575), equivalent to about £230,000 as of 2011.[1] Johnson took nearly nine years to complete the work, although he had claimed he could finish it in three. Remarkably, he did so single- handedly, with only clerical assistance to copy out the illustrative quotations that he had marked in books. Johnson produced several revised editions during his life. Until the completion of the Oxford English Dictionary, 173 years later, Johnson's was viewed as the pre-eminent English dictionary. According to Walter Jackson Bate, the Dictionary "easily ranks as one of the greatest single achievements of scholarship, and probably the greatest ever performed by one individual who labored under anything like the disadvantages in a comparable length of time”. Rackearaund- ‘Oo conclude we would like to mention that for a specialist in linguistics and a teacher of foreign languages systematic work with a good dictionary in conjunction with his reading is an absolute necessity. A Dictionary of the English Language Published on 15 April 1755 and written by Samuel Johnson, A Dictionary of the English Language, sometimes published as Johnson's Dictionary, is among the most influential dictionaries in the history of the English language. There was dissatisfaction with the dictionaries of the period, so in June 1746 aa To 3 az great number of new words and meanings without increasing the bulk of the volume, the editors excluded much encyclopaedic material. The other great American dictionaries are the "Century Dictionary", first completed in 1891; "Funk and. Wagnalls New Standard Dictionary", first completed in 1895; the "Random House Dictionary of the English Language", completed in 1967; "The Heritage Illustrated Dictionary of the English Language", first published in 1969, and C.L. Barnhart’s et al. "The World Book Dictionary” presenting a synchronic review of the language in the 20th century. The first three continue to appear in variously named subsequent editions including abridged versions. Many small handy popular dictionaries for office, school and home use are prepared to meet the demand in reference books on spelling, pronunciation, meaning and usage. An adequate idea of the dictionaries cannot be formed from a mere description and it is no substitute for actually using them. To conclude we would like to mention that formodern editions is a big institution numbering hundreds of specialists in different branches of human activity. It is important to note that the name "Webster” may be attached for publicity’s sake by anyone to any dictionary. Many publishers concerned with their profits have taken this opportunity to issue dictionaries called “Webster’s”. Some of the books so named are cheaply-made reprints of old editions, others are said to be entirely new works. The practice of advertising by coupling N. Webster's name to a dictionary which has no connection with him, continues up to the present day. A complete revision of N. Webster’s dictionary is achieved with a certain degree of regularity. The recent "Webster’s Third New International Dictionary of the English Language” has called forth much comment, both favourable and unfavourable. It has been greatly changed as compared with the previous edition, in word selection as well as in other matters. The emphasis is on the present-day state of the language. The number of illustrative quotations is increased. To accommodate the oreatused in America (Britishisms) are marked off. N. Webster’s dictionary enjoyed great popularity from its first editions. This popularity was due not only to the accuracy and clarity of definitions but also to the richness of additional information of encyclopaedic character, which had become a tradition in American lexicography. As a dictionary N. Webster’s book aims to treat the entire vocabulary of the language providing definitions, pronunciation and etymology. As an encyclopaedia it gives explanations about things named, including scientific and technical subjects. It does so more concisely than a full-scale encyclopaedia, but it is worthy of note that the definitions are as a rule up-to-date and rigorous scientifically. Soon after N. Webster’s death two printers and booksellers of Massachusetts, George and Charles Merriam, secured the rights of his dictionary from his family and started the publication of revised single volume editions under the name "Merriam- Webster”. The staff working for the modern editions is a big institutionAmerican English the rank of a separate language, not a variant of English (see p. 265). The set of morphemes is the same. Some words have acquired a new meaning on American soil and this meaning has or has not penetrated into British English. Other words kept their earlier meanings that are obsolete and not used in Great Britain. As civilisation progressed different names were given to new inventions on either side of the Atlantic. Words were borrowed from different Indian languages and from Spanish. All these had to be recorded in a dictionary and so accounted for the existence of specific American lexicography. The world of today with its ever-growing efficiency and intensity of communication and personal contacts, with its press, radio and television creates conditions which tend to foster not an isolation of dialects and variants but, on the contrary, their mutual penetration and integration. Later on, the title "International Dictionary of the English Language” was adopted, and in the latest edition not Americanisms but words not used in America (Britishisms) are markedetymologies and his definitions are often more exact. N. Webster attempted to simplify the spelling and pronunciation that were current in the USA of the period. He devoted many years to the collection of words and the preparation of more accurate definitions. N. Webster realised the importance of language for the development of a nation, and devoted his energy to giving the American English the status of an independent language, distinct from British English. At that time the idea was progressive as it helped the unification of separate states into one federation. The tendency became reactionary later on, when some modern linguists like H. Mencken shaped it into the theory of a separate American language, not only different from British English, but surpassing it in efficiency and therefore deserving to dominate and supersede all the languages of the world. Even if we keep within purely linguistic or purely lexical concepts, we shall readily see that the difference is not so great as to warrant American English the rank of a separate lanonage not a variant of Fnolich (cee nCuriously enough, the first American dictionary of the English language was compiled by a man whose name was also Samuel Johnson. Samuel Johnson Jr., a Connecticut schoolmaster, published in 1798 a small book entitled "A School Dictionary”. This book was followed in 1800 by another dictionary by the same author, which showed already some signs of Americanisation. It included, for instance, words like tomahawk and wampum, borrowed into English from the Indian languages. It was Noah Webster, universally considered to be the father of American lexicography, who emphatically broke away from English idiom, and embodied in his book the specifically American usage of his time. His great work, "The American Dictionary of the English Language", appeared in two volumes in 1828 and later sustained numerous revised and enlarged editions. In many respects N. Webster follows the lead of Dr S. Johnson (the British lexicographer). But he has also improved and corrected many of S. Johnson’s etvmologies and his definitions are oftenquotations. It keeps to all the main principles of historical presentation and covers not only the current literary and colloquial English but also its previous stages. Words are defined and illustrated with key quotations. "The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Current English” was first published in 1911, i.e. before the work on the main version was completed. It is not a historical dictionary but one of current usage. A still shorter form is "The Pocket Oxford Dictionary”. Another big dictionary, also created by joined effort of enthusiasts, is Joseph Wright’s "English Dialect Dictionary”. Before this dictionary could be started upon, a thorough study of English dialects had to be completed. With this aim in view W.W. Skeat, famous for his "Etymological English Dictionary” founded the English Dialect Society as far back as 1873. Dialects are of great importance for the historical study of the language. In the 19th century they were very pronounced though now they are almost disappearing. The Society existed till 1896 and issued 80 publications, mostly monographs. c SeeLaireLs eer eeantoevolunteers testifies to the keen interest the English take in their language. The first part of the Dictionary appeared in 1884 and the last in 1928. Later it was issued in twelve volumes and in order to accommodate new words a three volume Supplement was issued in 1933. These volumes were revised in the seventies. Nearly all the material of the original Supplement was retained and a large body of the most recent accessions to the English language added. The principles, structure and scope of "The Oxford English Dictionary", its merits and demerits are discussed in the most comprehensive treaty by L.V. Malakhovsky. Its prestige is enormous. It is considered superior to corresponding major dictionaries for other languages. The Oxford University Press published different abridged versions. "The Shorter Oxford English Dictionary on Historical Principles” formerly appeared in two volumes, now printed on thinner paper it is bound in one volume of 2,538 pages. It differs from the complete edition in that it contains a smaller number of cuotations. Tt keens to all the mainDr S. Johnson: the lexicographer is the objective recorder of the language. The purpose of OED, as stated by its editors, has nothing to do with prescription or proscription of any kind. The conception of this new type of dictionary was born in a discussion at the English Philological Society. It was suggested by Frederick Furnivall, later its second titular editor, to Richard Trench, the author of the first book on lexicology of the English language. Richard Trench read before the society his paper "On Some Deficiencies in our English Dictionaries", and that was how the big enterprise was started. At once the Philological Society set to work to gather the material, volunteers offered to help by collecting quotations. Dictionary-making became a sort of national enterprise. A special committee prepared a list of books to be read and assigned them to the volunteers, sending them also special standard slips for quotations. By 1881 the number of readers was 800, and they sent in many thousands of slips. The tremendous amount of work done by these volunteers testifies ta the keen interest thepurpose of this monumental work is to trace the development of English words from their form in Old English, and if they were not found in Old English, to show when they were introduced into the language, and also to show the development of each meaning and its historical relation to other meanings of the same word. For words and meanings which have become obsolete the date of the latest occurrence is given. All this is done by means of dated quotations ranging from the oldest to recent appearances of the words in question. The English of G. Chaucer, of the "Bible” and of W. Shakespeare is given as much attention as that of the most modern authors. The dictionary includes spellings, pronunciations and detailed etymologies. The completion of the work required more than 75 years. The result is a kind of encyclopaedia of language used not only for reference purposes but also as a basis for lexicological research. The lexicographic concept here is very different from the prescriptive tradition of Dr S. Tohnson: the lexicooranher is thethe unquestionable authority on style and diction for more than 75 years. The result was a lofty bookish style which received the name of "Johnsonian” or "Johnsonese”. As to pronunciation, attention was turned to it somewhat later. A pronouncing dictionary that must be mentioned first was published in 1780 by Thomas Sheridan, grandfather of the great dramatist. In 1791 appeared "The Critical Pronouncing Dictionary and Expositor of the English Language” by John Walker, an actor. The vogue of this second dictionary was very great, and in later publications Walker’s pronunciations were inserted into S. Johnson’s text — a further step to a unilingual dictionary in its present-day form. The Golden Age of English lexicography began in the last quarter of the 19th century when the English Philological Society started work on compiling what is now known as "The Oxford English Dictionary” (OED), but was originally named "New English Dictionary on Historical Principles”. It is still occasionally referred to as NED. The purpose of this monumental work is togua non” in lexicography; S. Johnson, however, only mentioned the authors and never gave any specific references for his quotations. Most probably he reproduced some of his quotations from memory, not always very exactly, which would have been unthinkable in modern lexicology. The definitions he gave were often very ingenious. He was called "a skilful definer”, but sometimes he preferred to give way to sarcasm or humour and did not hesitate to be partial in his definitions. The epithet he gave to lexicographer, for instance, is famous even in our time: a lexicographer was ‘a writer of dictionaries, a harmless drudge ...’. The dictionary dealt with separate words only, almost no set expressions were entered, Pronunciation was not marked, because S. Johnson was keenly aware of the wide variety of the English pronunciation and thought it impossible to set up a standard there; he paid attention only to those aspects of vocabulary where he believed he could improve linguistic usage. $. Johnson’s influence was tremendous. He remained the unmuestionable authoritv on stvle andinvolved a tendency to oppose change, and S. Johnson’s Dictionary was meant to establish the English language in its classical form, to preserve it in all its glory as used by J. Dryden, A. Pope, J. Addison and their contemporaries. In conformity with the social order of his time, S. Johnson attempted to "fix” and regulate English. This was the period of much discussion about the necessity of "purifying” and “fixing” English, and S. Johnson wrote that every change was undesirable, even a change for the best. When his work was accomplished, however, he had to admit he had been wrong and confessed in his preface that "no dictionary of a living tongue can ever he perfect, since while it is hastening to publication, some words are budding and some falling away”. The most important innovation of S. Johnson’s Dictionary was the introduction of illustrations of the meanings of the words "by examples from the best writers", as had been done before him in the dictionary of the French Academy. Since then such illustrations have become a "sine cua non” in lexicosranhv: S. Tahnson.words occurring in books. Its title was "A Table Alphabeticall, containing and teaching the true writing and understanding of hard usuall English words borrowed from the Hebrew, Greeke, Latine or French”. The little volume of 120 pages explaining about 3000 words was compiled by one Robert Cawdrey, a schoolmaster. Other books followed, each longer than the preceding one. The first attempt at a dictionary including all the words of the language, not only the difficult ones, was made by Nathaniel Bailey who in 1721 published the first edition of his "Universal Etymological English Dictionary”. He was the first to include pronunciation and etymology. Big explanatory dictionaries were created in France and Italy before they appeared for the English language. Learned academies on the continent had been established to preserve the purity of their respective languages. This was also the purpose of Dr Samuel Johnson’s famous Dictionary published in 1755.1 The idea of purity involved a tendency to oppose change, and erat : = SaasAlthough, as we have seen from the preceding paragraph, there is as yet no coherent doctrine in English lexicography, its richness and variety are everywhere admitted and appreciated. Its history is in its way one of the most remarkable developments in linguistics, and is therefore worthy of special attention. In the following pages a short outline of its various phases is given. A need for a dictionary or glossary has been felt in the cultural growth of many civilised peoples at a fairly early period. The history of dictionary-making for the English language goes as far back as the Old English period where its first traces are found in the form of glosses of religious books with interlinear translation from Latin. Regular bilingual English-Latin dictionaries were already in existence in the 15th century. The unilingual dictionary is a comparatively recent type. The first unilingual English dictionary, explaining words by English equivalents, appeared in 1604. It was meant to explain difficult words Qecunning in books. ibs title was "AHISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF BRITISH AND AMERICAN LEXICOGRAPHY The essence of lexicography The development of British lexicography The development of American Lexicography Jonson’s Dictionary Webster’s Dictionary Although, as we have seen from the preceding paragraph, there is as yet no coherent doctrine in English lexicography, its richness and variety are everywhere admitted and appreciated. Its history is inYounger Futhork Younger Futhork or "Normal Runes" gradually evolved Elder Futhark over a period of many years and stabilized by about 800 A.D., the beginning of the Viking Age. It was the main alphabet in Norway, Sweden and Denmark throughout the Viking Age, but was largely though not completely replaced by the Latin alphabet by about 1200 as a result of the conversion of most of Scandinavia to Christianity. Three slightly different versions of the alphabet developed in Denmark, Sweden and Norway:Gothic runes Gothic, an extinct east Germanic language, was originally written with a Runic alphabet about which little is known. One theory of the origins of runes is that they were invented by the Goths, but this is impossible to prove as very few inscriptions of writing in Gothic runes survive. These runes were replaced with a new alphabet in the 4th century AD. Anglo-Saxon Futhorc Anumber of extra letters were added to the Runic alphabet to write Anglo- Saxon/Old English. Runes were probably bought to Britain in the 5th century by the Angles, Saxons, Jutes and Frisians (collectively known as the Anglo-Saxons), and were used until about the 11th century.Elder Futhark Elder Futhark is thought to be the oldest version of the Runic alphabet, and was used in the parts of Europe which were home to Germanic peoples, including Scandinavia. Other versions probably developed from it. The names of the letters are shown in Common Germanic, the reconstructed ancestor of all Germanic languages.ed of runic inscriptions ude: « ‘Kilroy was here’ type inscriptions on cliff walls, large rocks and buildings « grave stone inscriptions, often with who carved the runes and who was buried, and also who made sure the stone was raised. (Later grave slabs or stone coffins were sometimes inscribed with Christian texts carved in runes) « religious/magic inscriptions: prayers and curses, formulas on charms, etc. Notable features * The direction of writing in early Runic inscriptions is variable. Later they settled down into a left to right pattern « Word divisions were not generally recognised in Runic writing, although one or more dots were occasionally used for this function.Origin Little is known about the origins of the Runic alphabet, which is traditionally known as futhark after the first six letters. In Old Norse the word rune means ‘letter’, ‘text’ or ‘inscription’. The word also means ‘mystery’ or 'secret' in Old Germanic languages and runes had a important role in ritual and magic. Here are some theories about the origins of runes: + The alphabet was probably created independently rather than evolving from another alphabet. « Runic writing was probably first used in southern Europe and was carried north by Germanic tribes. « The Runic alphabet is thought to have been modelled on the Latin and/or Etruscan alphabet.Ake w smu cellt Illuminated manuscript, eS aUE Illuminated ManuscriptsClassificationRGHINESE aes NESOAMERICAN = (Soe sugleg eso ee tes tals Arava ies, With lesser publicized group: ir Me pene meee enue inna cok Nese yslegte BERNINATES airite By, a Teal ali pier inciding in ti aerate atest een) bareeee ea eee fea) stl Eruemsiied Ceara eas rere eura Pers eee eure neato] Pee oere eet descendents of the cece ieactegi st eve ties eae ie] alphabet, vowels are Tes)PES OF SYSTEMS . =aTy sual!) asyss neseDarwin's opinion soday’s theory ‘siicigte ERM canlese Mitel aetna wulserelual might alOsichisneme Vial eiare} * N7iitelee te AC a nero sos Ua ete tg i Sine omen eel Case ea eer ay see eR AUR) different places independer AGN of writing (APIS fe VIN atlanta oe ate La eommunicate with the gods, or as a eS Ieee cane ties Enon] ieared possesed a divine nature in eeaeieru eel trem eaten at) eee eRe cut ea US eRe eee Tecate Canc kta iescle tasPeotone Sinhalese The most surprising language in this branch is Romany, the language of the Roma (also known as Gypsies - this is a derogatory term which should not be used). The Roma migrated to Europe from India. Sanskrit had three genders as has Marathi; most modern Indic languages have two genders; Bengali has none. The fascinating point about India is that the south Indian languages (like Tamil) are not Indo-European. In other words, Hindi is related to English, Greek and French but is totally unrelated to Tamil. North Indians visiting Madras (in the south) are as baffled by Tamil as a foreigner would be. The Tokharian Branch Turfanian and Kuchean are recently identified ue PIangUEBeS once spoken inets cea Hindi In India most of the states have their own language. These languages either use Devanagari script or a derivation (if the people are Hindus) or the Arabic Nastaliq script (if the people are Muslims). Bengali (West Bengal as well as Bangladesh), Bhili (Central India), Oriya (in Orissa), Marathi (in Maharashtra), Assamese (in Assam), Punjabi and Lahnda (from the Punjab), Maithili and Maghadi (from Bihar), Kashmiri (Kashmir - written mainly in Nastaliq), Sindhi (the Pakistan province of Sindh - also written in Nastaliq), Gujarati (Gujarat in western India), Konkani (in Goa, an ex Portuguese colony, uses the Latin script), Sinhalese (Sri Lanka - uses its own script derived from Pali), Maldivian (Maldives - with its own script based on Arabic). SinhaleseThe Indic Branch This branch has the most languages. Most are found in North India. They are derived from Sanskrit (the classical language of Hinduism dating from 1000BC). This gave rise to Pali (the language of Buddhism), Ardhamagadhi (the language of Jainism) and the ancestors of the modern North Indian languages. Of the modern North Indian languages, Hindi and Urdu are very similar but differ in the script. The Hindi speakers are Hindus and use the Sanskrit writing system called Devanagari (writing of the Gods). Urdu is spoken by the Muslims so uses the Arabic Nastaliq script. These two languages are found in north and central India and Pakistan. Nepali is closely related to Hindi. Hindieet sc ea Pashto (also called Pushtu or Pakhto) is spoken in Afghanistan and parts of north west Pakistan. Baluchi is spoken in the desert regions between Iran, Afganistan and Pakistan. These languages are written in the Nastalig script, a derivative of Arabic writing. It is interesting that you cannot tell which family a language belongs to by the way it is written. Ossetian is found in the Caucasus mountains, north of Georgia. Tadzhik is a close relative of Farsi, written in Cyrillic and spoken in Tadzhikistan (of the former USSR) as well as northern Afghanistan. Avestan is the extinct language of the Zoroastrian religion. Scythian is an extinct language of a warrior people who once lived north of the Black Sea. The Indic Branch This branch has the most languages. Most are found in North India. They are derived from Sanskrit (the classical language of Se a a ae ee ee i esArmenian Three extinct languages from this branch are Dacian (or Daco-Mysian - spoken in the ancient Balkan region of Dacia), Thracian and Phrygian (spoken in ancient Troy). The Iranian Branch These languages are descended from Ancient Persian, the literary language of the Persian Empire and one of the great classical languages. The main language of this branch is Farsi (also called Iranian, Dari and Persian), the main language of Iran and much of Afghanistan. Kurdish is a close relation. Kurdish is spoken in Turkey, Syria, Iran and Iraq by the Kurds. It is the second largest of the Iranian languages after Farsi. In Turkey it was banned until recently. Pashto (also called Pushtu or Pakhto) isLuwian (spoken in ancient Troy) and Palaic. All languages in this branch are extinct. Hittite is the earliest Indo-European language known in Europe. It has two noun genders, animate and inanimate. It has post-positions. The Thracian Branch This branch is represented by a single modern language, Armenian. It has its own script. Armenian is spoken in Armenia and Nagorno-Karabakh (an enclave in Azerbaijan). The language is rich in consonants and has borrowed much of its vocabulary from Farsi (Iranian). Nouns have 7 cases and the past tense of verbs take an E prefix like Greek.There are two dialects that have been diverging for 1000 years. They are mostly mutually intelligible. Geg is spoken in the north of Albania and Kosovo (Kosova). Tosk is spoken in southern Albania and north west Greece. The ancient Illyric and Mesapian languages, spoken in parts of Italy, are considered by some to be an extinct member of this branch. The Anatolian Branch This branch includes the language of the Hittite civilisation which once ruled central Anatolia, fought the Ancient Egyptians and was mentioned in the Christain Bible's Old Testament. Other languages were Lydian (spoken by a people who ruled the south coast of Anatolia), Lycian (spoken by a Hellenic culture along the western coastal regions), Luwian (spoken in ancient Troy) and Palaic.Until the 1970s Greek was a Diglossic language. This means that there were two forms: Katharevoussa used in official documents and news broadcasts and Demotic used in common speech. The Greek spoken in Cyprus includes many Turkish, Arabic and Venetian words and has a different pronounciation to the official Greek of Greece. The Illyric Branch Another single language branch. Only Albanian (called Shqip by its speakers) belongs to this branch. It has been written in the Latin script since 1909; this replaced a number of writing systems including Greek and Arabic scripts. Albanian has many avoidance words. Instead of saying wolf, the phrase may God close its mouth is used. The definate article is shown by a suffix: BUK (bread) BUKA (the bread). Many noun plurals are irregular. There are two dialects that have been Aivrarnine far TANN wanre Thaw ara macthyThe Hellenic Branch The only extant language in this branch is Modern Greek. Greek is one of the oldest Indo-European languages. Mycenaean dates from 1300BC. The Ancient Greek of Homer was written from around 700BC. The major forms were Doric (Sparta), Ionic (Cos), Aeolic (Lesbos), and Attic (Athens). The latter is Classical Greek. The New Testament of the Christian Bible was written in a form of 1st Century AD Greek called Koine. This developed into the Greek of the Byzantine Empire. Modern Greek has developed from this. Greek has three genders and four cases for nouns but no form of the verb infinitive. The language has its own script, derived from Phoenician with the addition of symbols for vowels. It is one of the oldest alphabets in the world and has led to the Latin and Cyrillic alphabets. The Greek Alnhahet is still need in science andThe Slavic languages are famed for their consonant clusters and large number of cases for nouns (up to seven). Many of the languages have three numbers for verbs: singular, dual and plural. Macedonian has three definite articles indicating distance; all are suffixes: VOL (ox), VOLOT (the ox), VOLOV (the ox here), VOLON (the ox there). The Baltic Branch Three Baltic states but only two Baltic Languages (Estonian is related to Finnish). Lithuanian is one of the oldest of the Indo- European languages. Its study is important in determining the origins and evolution of the family. Lithuanian and Latvian both use the Latin script and have tones. Lithuanian has three numbers: singular, dual and plural. Prussian is an extinct language from this branchThe Slavic Branch These languages are confined to Eastern Europe. In general, the Catholic peoples use the Latin alphabet while the Orthodox use the Cyrillic alphabet which is derived from the Greek. Indeed some of the languages are very similar differing only in the script used (Croatian and Serbian are virtually the same language). One of the oldest of these languages is Bulgarian. The most important is Russian. Others include Polish, Kashubian (spoken in parts of Poland), Sorbian (spoken in parts of eastern Germany), Czech, Slovak, Slovene, Macedonian, Bosnian, Ukrainian and Byelorussian. The Slavic languages are famed for their consonant clusters and large number of cases for nouns (up to seven). Many of the languages have three numbers for verbs: singular, dual and plural. Macedonian has three definite articles indicatingspoken in the south of France and the north-east of Spain, respectively. Note that Basque (spoken in parts of Spain and France) is not an Indo-European language - in fact it is totally unrelated to any other language of the world. Galician is a Portuguese dialect with Celtic influences spoken in the north west of Spain. Finally, Moldavian is a dialect of Romanian spoken in the Moldova. Under the Soviets the Moldavians had to use the Cyrillic alphabet. Now they have returned to the Latin alphabet. Apart from Latin, other extinct languages include Dalmatian, Oscan, Faliscan, Sabine and Umbrian. Latin had three genders and at least six cases for its nouns and a Subject-Object- Verb sentence structure. Most modern Romance languages have only two genders, no cases and a Subject-Verb- Object structure.C ql and Celtic influences. Romanian has picked up Slavic influences because it is a Latin Language surrounded by a sea of Slavic speakers, Portuguese and Spanish have been separate for over 1000 years. The most widely spoken of these languages is Spanish. Apart from Spain, it is spoken in most of Latin America (apart from Portuguese speaking Brazil, and a few small countries like Belize and Guyana). Romansh is a minority language in Switzerland. Ladino was the language spoken by Spain's Jewish population when they were expelled in 1492. Most of them now live in Turkey and Israel. Provincial and Catalan are closely related languages spoken in the south of France and the north-east of Spain, respectively. Note that Basque (spoken in parts of Spain and France) is not an Indo-European language - in fact it is totally unrelated to any other language of the world. Galician is a Portuguese dialect with Celtic influences spoken in the north west ofO victoriamascaliucweeblycor (i) add an s, having been influenced by Norman French. The Latin Branch Also called the Italic or Romance Languages. These languages are all derived from Latin. Latin is one of the most important classical languages. Its alphabet (derived from the Greek alphabet) is used by many languages of the world. Latin was long used by the scientific establishment and the Catholic Church as their means of communication. Italian and Portuguese are the closest modern major languages to Latin. Spanish has been influenced by Arabic and Basque. French has moved farthest from Latin in pronunciation, only its spelling gives a clue to its origins. French has many Germanic and Celtic influences. Romanian has(France), Lombardo (Danube region), Visigoth (Iberian Peninsula) and Vandal (North Africa) are extinct languages from this branch. German has a system of four cases and three genders for its nouns. Case is the property where a noun takes a different ending depending on its role in a sentence. An example in English would be the forms: lady, lady's, ladies and ladies’. The genders are masculine, feminine and neuter. German has three dialects spoken in northern Germany, southern Germany and Austria, and a very different form spoken in Switzerland. English has lost gender and case. Only a few words form their plurals like German (ox, oxen and child, children). Most now add an s, having been influenced by Norman French. The Latin Branch Also called the Italic or Romance T anenacacFlemish and Afrikaans are varieties of Dutch while Yiddish is a variety of German. Yiddish is written using the Hebrew script. Three of the four (mainland) Scandinavian languages belong to this branch: (Danish, Norwegian, and Swedish). Swedish has tones, unusual in European languages. The fourth Scandinavian language, Finnish, belongs to a different family. Icelandic is the least changed of the Germanic Languages - being close to Old Norse. Another old language is Faroese. Gothic (Central Europe), Frankish (France), Lombardo (Danube region), Visigoth (Iberian Peninsula) and Vandal (North Africa) are extinct languages from this branch. German has a system of four cases and three genders for its nouns. Case is the property where a noun takes a different ending depending on its role in a sentence.The Germanic Branch These languages originate from Old Norse and Saxon. Due to the influence of early Christian missionaries, the vast majority of the Celtic and Germanic languages use the Latin Alphabet. They include English, the second most spoken language in the world, the most widespread, the language of technology, and the language with the largest vocabulary. A useful language to have as your mother tongue. Dutch and German are the closest major languages related to English. An even closer relative is Frisian. Flemish and Afrikaans are varieties of Dutch while Yiddish is a variety of German. Yiddish is written using the Hebrew script. Three of the four (mainland) Scandinavian languages belong to this branch: (Danish,The Celtic Branch This is now the smallest branch. The languages originated in Central Europe and once dominated Western Europe (around 400BC). The people migrated across to the British Isles over 2000 years ago. Later, when the Germanic speaking Anglo Saxons arrived, the Celtic speakers were pushed into Wales (Welsh), Ireland (Irish Gaelic) and Scotland (Scottish Gaelic). One group of Celts moved back to France. Their language became Breton spoken in the Brittany region of France. Breton is closer to Welsh than to French. Other Celtic languages have became extinct. These include Cornish (Cornwall in England - now being revived), Gaulish (France), Cumbrian (Cumbria), Manx (Isle of Man - another language being revived), Pictish (Scotland) and Galatian (spoken in Anatolia by the Galatians mentioned in the Christian New Testament).inflected (ie verbs and nouns have different endings depending on their part in a sentence). Some languages (eg English) have lost many of the inflections during their evolution. The Indo-European languages stretch from the Americas through Europe to North India. The Indo-European Family is thought to have originated in the forests north of the Black Sea (in what is now Ukraine) during the Neoloithic period (about 7000BC). These people bagan to migrate between 3500BC and 2500BC, spreading west to Europe, south to the Mediterranian, north to Scandinavia, and east to India. The Indo-European Family is divided into twelve branches, ten of which contain existing languages. I will describe each of these branches separately. The Celtic Branch« Some of the great classical languages of religion, culture and philosophy were Indo-European. Examples: Latin, Greek, Persian, Sanskrit, Pali. « Languages that are scattered around the world as their speakers are part of diasporas. Examples: Greek, Yiddish, Polish, Armenian, Romany, Kurdish, Italian, Punjabi, Gujarati. The Indo-European languages tend to be inflected (ie verbs and nouns have different endings depending on their part in a sentence). Some languages (eg English) have lost many of the inflections during their evolution. The Indo-European languages stretch from the Americas through Europe to North India. The Indo-Furonean Familv is thought toThe most widely studied language family in the world is the Indo-European. There are a number of reasons for this: « Many of the most important languages of the world are Indo-European. These languages are official or co-official in many countries and are important in academic, technical and world organisations. Examples: English, Spanish, French, German, Russian. Indeed, more than half the world's population speak one or more of these languages either as a mother tongue or as a business language. + Languages that are essential in multinational contexts or with large numbers of speakers. Examples: Portuguese, Hindi, German, Bengali. ¢ Some of the great classical languages of religion. culture and philosonhvAt the heart of Indo-Germanic Philology is the hypothetical model of the original Indo-Germanic Language which is constantly checked against the available linguistic material. The existence of such an original language and the ability to model it hypothetically are important for linguistics since they allow scholars to develop a historical perspective on the evolution of grammar and vocabulary that transcends spoken or written language. The basis of the reconstruction work are obviously not the modern, but the oldest form of the languages and language groups in question. This means that Indo- Germanic Philology has a very wide and varied field of interest as the linguistic material at hand differs significantly in age, form and historical context. Why do people study Indo-Germanic Philology? Beyond purely academic interest, a subject like Indo- Germanic Philology naturally has little practical use and students are motivated more by scholarly concerns. However, the insights it produces are of considerable interest for linguistics and philology in the areas of both linguistic history and of the study of old languages and texts.* Latin, and the Romanic languages, © Celtic, * Germanic, * Baltic, «Slavic, © Greek, « Albanian, * Armenien «Indo-Iranian Also related are long extinct language groups which were only rediscovered this century: * Tocharic, * Old Anatolian Finally, a number of fragmentary language remnants, primarily from the Mediterranean area, can also be included.Germanic philology together with linguistics as a whole emerged as a serious academic discipline in the early 19th century, pioneered particularly in Germany by such linguists as Jakob Grimm. Important 19th century scholars include Henry Sweet and Matthias Lexer. The structure of the modern university means that for the most part work on the field is focussed on medieval English studies, medieval German studies, etc. Only relatively few universities can afford to offer Comparative linguistics as a discrete field. What is Indo-Germanic Philology? Indo-Germanic Philology is concerned with the linguistic relationships between Indo-Germanic (Indo- European) languages. The origins of the academic discipline lie in the 18th Century when scholars discovered that languages change over time and can thus develop independently. They established that many European, and a number of Asian, languages are related to one another with a common origin many thousands of years in the past. These languages include the following groups:Germanic philology Is the philological study of the Germanic languages particularly from a comparative or historical perspective. The beginnings of research into the Germanic languages began in the 16th century, with the discovery of literary texts in the earlier phases of the languages. Early modern publications dealing with Old Norse culture appeared in the 16th century, e.g. Historia de gentibus septentrionalibus (Olaus Magnus, 1555) and the first edition of the 13th century Gesta Danorum (Saxo Grammaticus), in 1514. In 1603, Melchior Goldast made the first edition of Middle High German poetry, Tyrol and Winsbeck, including a commentary which focused on linguistic problems and set the tone for the approach to such works in the subsequent centuries. He later gave similar attention to the Old High German Benedictine Rule. In England, Cotton's studies of the manuscripts in his collection marks the beginnings of work on Old English language. The pace of publication increased during the 17th century with Latin translations of the Edda (notably Peder Resen's Edda Islandorum of 1665).Branches Branches Deere eee) Peal eee research of both Pent] Eretaniat Rete the famous decipherment Clufe Ree aCe a) laa)Branches Bee cu eee ener Eur ur Ri) eae at Eee Se Pee eae eter ee ea ues Deena tty Cru firey art See Cette erie hd ees Praeur anc Pee NCU is eas manuscriptsGermanic Philology History Deere us 19th century Pee ato ae perp railo lem ure ie ence] Henry Sweet and Pletal UE alee noe ferry etc) Grimm These languages include the following groups:es Ed freaks sults Fees eg UU pee with the (Olaus Magnus, Clee shoal se Co Peer rues 5 eee — ned tes ese poria) Germanic Philology History eect aee) during the 17th peo eee en ease eer ore Islandorum of 1665See nd paket g Geren aey Peta) © Germanic PCN mene PCr asta of the Germanic languages eeledl la aie) a comparative or historical Pahthe person that deals Tide m aa ee eae lee historical development, and relationships of a language or languages. EU acres Wace) fee ee ee stesc and methods used Re lite linguistic research to observe the ir le tac elas the Indo-European language family Rule mes language in Pipi pM eicolare)| sources bate ev le meds ee lamb ad Ela yee) records| et Cn eee ea ee A brief chronology of English BC55 Roman invasion of Britain by Julius Caesar. Local inhabitants speak Celtish BC 43 Roman invasion and occupation. Beginning of Roman rule of Britain. 436 Roman withdrawal from Britain complete. 449 Settlement of Britain by Germanic invaders begins 450-480 Earliest known Old English inscriptions.publishing houses were, became the standard. In 1604 the first English dictionary was published. Late Modern English (1800-Present) The main difference between Early Modern English and Late Modern English is vocabulary. Late Modern English has many more words, arising from two principal factors: firstly, the Industrial Revolution and technology created a need for new words; secondly, the British Empire at its height covered one quarter of the earth's surface, and the English language adopted foreign words from many countries. The Germanic Family of Languages English is a member of the Germanic family of languages. Germanic is a branch of the Indo-European language family. A brief chronology of Englishets cea Modern English Early Modern English (1500-1800) Hamlet's famous "To be, or not to be" lines, written in Early Modern English by Shakespeare. Towards the end of Middle English, a sudden and distinct change in pronunciation (the Great Vowel Shift) started, with vowels being pronounced shorter and shorter. From the 16th century the British had contact with many peoples from around the world. This, and the Renaissance of Classical learning, meant that many new words and phrases entered the language. The invention of printing also meant that there was now a common language in print. Books became cheaper and more people learned to read. Printing also brought standardization to English. Spelling and grammar became fixed, and the dialect of London, where most publishing houses were, became theeet ee nea ee roots. The words be, strong and water, for example, derive from Old English. Old English was spoken until around 1100. Middle English (1100-1500) An example of Middle English by Chaucer. In 1066 William the Conqueror, the Duke of Normandy (part of modern France), invaded and conquered England. The new conquerors (called the Normans) brought with them a kind of French, which became the language of the Royal Court, and the ruling and business classes. For a period there was a kind of linguistic class division, where the lower classes spoke English and the upper classes spoke French. In the 14th century English became dominant in Britain again, but with many French words added. This language is called Middle English. It was the language of the great poet Chaucer (c1340-1400), but it would still be difficult for native English speakers to understand today.Germanic invaders entered Britain on the east and south coasts in the 5th century. Old English (450-1100 AD) The invading Germanic tribes spoke similar languages, which in Britain developed into what we now call Old English. Old English did not sound or look like English today. Native English speakers now would have great difficulty understanding Old English. Nevertheless, about half of the most commonly used words in Modern English have Old English roots. The words be, strong and water, for example, derive from Old English. Old English was spoken until around 1100. Middle English (1100-1500) An example of Middle English by Chaucer. In 1066 William the Conqueror, the DukeA Dictionary of the American Language 1843 Noah Webster 1857-1928 49 years of workBritish LEXICOGRAPHY + DICTIONARY + Sir Thomas Eliot + The Promptoriom 1533 Puerorum-bilingual + Abecedarium Anglico * 1480 Latinum- Richard Huloet + ANew ENGLISH + 1552 Dictionary-john Kersey + AUniversal Etymological + 1702 Dictionary-Nathan Baily A Dictionary of the English Language Dr.Samuel Johnson 1721 1747 Alphabetical order Quotations + Preface Abbreviations Explanation * Origin ‘SUPPLIMENTHistory of Dictionary-making + According to the Nihon Shoki, the first Japanese dictioy was the long-lost Niina glossary of Chinese characters. * Arabic dictionaries -organizing words in rhyme order European Dictionaries he earliest modern European dictionaries were bilingual dictionaries. An early non-alphabetical list of 8000 English words was the Elementarie created by Richard Mulcaster in 1592.Dictionary + A dictionary, also referred to as a lexicon, wordbook, or vocabulary, is a collection of words in one or more specific languages, often listed alphabetically, with usage information, definitions, etymologies, phonetics, pronunciations, and other information Principles of Dictionary- making * it has been prepared for one or more functions; + it contains data that have been selected for this purpose its lexicographic structures link and establish relationships between the data so that they can meet the needs of users