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    Three Diamentional Model of Alluvial Stratigraphy Theroy and Applictaion PDF

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    Ravindr Kumar

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    ‘THREE-DIMENSIONAL MODEL OF ALLUVIAL STRATIGRAPHY: THEORY AND APPLICATION SCUDDER D. MACKEY* ano JOHN S. BRIDGE Deparment of Geological Scence and Enironmencl Studies, P.O. Bax 6000, Binghamton University, ‘Bingharion, Now York 13902.6900 USA Asmar: A three-dimensins! model of allavial stratigraphy has been developed (simulate the spatial distribution, proportion, and connect- codess of coarse-grained channel-belt deposit inallaval strata asa fune- tion of channel-belewideh, lodplain width, bankfull channel depth chan- nel-belt an overbank sedimentation rate, avulsion location and period, ‘compaction, and tetonim (titing and fling). In this model floodplain surface of variable width and length i ocupied by a single channel belt ‘Changes in floodplain topography are produced by spatial and temporal ‘variation of channel-belt and floodplain deposition cates and by compaction and local or regional tectonism. The location and timing of avulsions are ‘determined by local changes in floodplain slope relative to chanae!-belt slope and by flood magnitede and frequency. The diverted channel belt {allows te locus of maximum Hoodpiain slope. At the end of each simu- lation, architectural parameters are calculated, including channel-deposit proportion and connectedness and the dimensions of channel-beltsandstone bodies. Threedimensionl perspective diagrams, mesh surfaces and two- dimensional stratigraphic sections can be plotted to illustrate depositional surfaces (time planes) and the lcation and geometry of coarse-grained channe-belt deposits within finer-grained overbank deposits. ‘The model predicts that channe-belt proportion and connectedness and dimensions of sandstone bodies vary a fanction of distance from avulsion points and crosesection orientation. Upstream from avalson points, sand- ‘stone bodies have low width/thickness ratios because of aggradation in a fixed channel bel. Immediately domnstream from avulsion points, channel belts tend to be connected, resulting in sandstone bodies with high width’ thickness ratios. Avalsion sequences develop where points of avulsion shift up valley with 2 progresive decrease in avulsion period. Such sequences ‘may produce successions in which channel-elt proportion and connect- codnss vary vertically witha cyclic period of 10 to 105 years. DDown-alley increases in agradation rate or down-raley decreases in Aoodplan slope (or example, associated wih a rise in base level) may tesult in an increase in channel-belt proportion and connectedness because of high avlsion frequencies in down-valley regions of the floodplain. Down- valley decreases in aggradation rate (as in alluvial fans fereland basins, and during base-level fall) may result in high avulsion frequencies in up- valley parts ofthe floodplain, Tectonic iting and faulting locally increase avalson probabilities, and channel belts generally shift toward areas of ‘maximum subsidence. Under certain conditions, however, depositional to- ography may cause channels to sift avay from areas of maximum sub- sidence. Channel deposit proportion and connectedness are generally high near downthrown areas ofthe Roodplan, but distribution (clustering) af channel belt may not be «reliable indicator of fault geometry or displace- ment. "Models of lleva architecture that consider only sediment accumulation ‘ate as the main controlling factor are oversimplified. The three-dimen- sonal model presented here predicts many of the features of channel be- ot observed in modern rivers, hut there isa pressing need for better ‘models and adequate natural dats to tet them. rrropucTIOn Quantitative models of alluvial stratigraphy have been used by many eologiss and reservoir enginers to understand and predic the spatial * Present adres: Ohio Divison of Geological Survey, Lake Ere Geology Grp, 1634 Syeamore Line, Sandusky, Oo 44870-4132 USA. Joursa of Stonentnr Raat, Vou BES, No.1, Fass, 1995». 7-31 opr © 199, SEPM (acy fe Slinstry Geigy) 0713095865703. distribution and geometry of channe-belt sandstone bodies in alluvial successions. These models may be stochastic (2p, Haldorsen and Mac- donald 1987; Begg and Williams 1991; Budding etal. 1988; papers in Buller et al 199, Hirst etal, 1993), empirical (cg, Lawrence eal. 1991), or proces-based (eg. Leeder 1978; Allen 1978, 1979; Bridge and Leeder 1979, Bridge and Mackey 1993a, 1993b). OF these approaches, process based modes have the best potential to predict realistic geometries and distributions of channel-bet sandstone bodies, Process based models can also be sed to examine the effets of varying contrelling parameters on alluvial stratigraphy, ‘Two-dimensional process-based models have been used extensively to interpret the stratigraphy of ancient fluvial deposits (eg. Allen and Wil liams 1982; Bebrensmeyer and Taute 1982: Bridge and Diemer 1983, Blakey and Gubitosa 1984; Gordon and Bridge 1987; Kraus and Middle ton 1987; Shuster and Steidimann 1987; Mack and Seager 1990, Ross 1990; Shanley and McCabe 1993). Bridge ard Mackey (19932) pointed cout the tendency among users ofthese models to emphasize the eects of only a limited numberof the main controling variables on alluvial stra tigraphy. Bridge and Mackey also modiied Bridge and Leoder’s (1979) ‘modelo simulate alluvial processes more accurately and to predict more aspects of alluvial architecture. Bridge and Mackey (1993b) used this revised two-dimensional model to predict the geometry of channe!-beit sandstone bodies as seen in cross sections normal to the down-valley direction. Several attempts have been made to use Bridge and Leeder’s (1979) ‘model to simulate down-valley variation in alluvial architecture in re- sponse to tilting of the floodplain due to faulting (eg, Alexander and Leeder 1987; Gawthorpe and Colela 1990), These atempts are notre alistic because two-dimensional models ae unable to simulate down- valley variations in the location and orientation of individual channel belts following avulsion, Avulsion can only be simulated realistically if the three-dimensional geometry of the Moodplan surface is considered. ‘These problems can only be resolved with the development ofa three dimensional model of alluvial arcitecure, Details of such a model are presented below, followed by application of the model to a number of| real-world geological situations. It willbe seen that thee-dimensional smdels represent a significant advance over two-dimensional models (as emphasized also by Brant and Fit 1993 in reference to reservoir modes). ‘MODEL DESCRIPTION Floodplain Surface In the thee-dimensional model, a foodplain of variable width and length is occupied by a single active channel bet. The floodplain surface is represented by a rectangular or trapezoidal grid of points defined by an ‘orthogonal (x92) coordinate system with a fixed origin atthe upstream center of the foodplain (Fig. 1). Cross-valey and down-valley lines of section ((ransecs) ate oriented parallel to the 2 or x axes, respectively ‘The floodplain surface may be rectangular or trapezoidal in plan view with down-valley length Land variable width W. The with ofthe food- plain at any downstream pont is jhe ~ W) 0 where I, isthe upstream width ofthe foolan, Ws te downstream Width ofthe Boodlain, and x is downstream distance fom the origin 8 SCUDDER D. MACKEY AND JOHN S. BRIDGE UPSTREAM —e ty |<_—— v, ——_>| DOWNSTREAM Fi. | ~Onbogonal (2) coordinate system wed in thre dimensional model vith ied orga he upstream centr of the Foodplan. The fodplain may be rectangular or irapeoidal. Crosley or dowa-valleywansects are erented. along ether the > or + ates and are tented by a tansect number defied by this coordinate system, ‘The numberof : axis and x axis arid points is defined atthe start ofthe simulation and typically ranges from 50 t0 100 and from 100 to 200, respectively. The distance between grid points i calculated automatically from the number of wser-stected grid points and maximum floodplain width and length For the tepezoidal case, the distance between grid pots remains constant and the number of z axis grid points vais with flood- plain width, ‘The down-valicy slope ofthe initia floodplain and channel-belt surface ‘may be defined by either an exponential or linear funtion S.= Sem (ay ey were 5, i the slope ata given downstream distance x fom the origin, 5, isthe intial upstream slope ss the slope exponent, and S, isthe slope a the downstream edge of oodplain surface. The dowa-valley elevation ofthe inital topographic surface may be described (using Eq 2a) by see genset =n Om y= Sx (6) where y, is the floodplain elevation at down-valley distance x relative 10 ‘the origin (Fig 2), Exponential functions have alse been Sted successfully to stream bed profiles (eg, Mackin 1948; Woodford 1951; Srahler 1952; Hamblin et al, 198; Snow and Slingerland (987) and have boen used in theoretical studies (eg, Yatsu 1955; Scheidegger 1970). Constant slopes ‘may be appropriate when simulating a limited part of a foodplain, Al- ‘emmatvely, the effect of preexisting topography on alluvial architecture can be simulated by specifying the intial foodplain and channel-elt surface elevation a each grid point independently atthe stat ofthe mod. cling session (Channel-Blt Geometry ‘A single active channel belt of width wand maximum hankfull channel depth dis incised on the Noodplain surface (Fig 3). The channel belts assumed 1 contain relatively coarse rained sediments. Channe-belt width and maximum banil channel depth can ether beheld constant or vary ‘with time, Variable channel-belt widths are determined by Monte Catlo sampling of empirical distributions of chanel-width data from modern rivers (See Bridge and Mackey 1993b). A regression expression derived from thse empirical data is used to calculate channel-belt width. Channel- belt widths can also be increased or decreased gradually by varying the ‘mean channel width overtime, Maximum bankfll depths may aso vary with mean channel width by defining a fixed width depth rato. The d- ‘mensions of 2 channel belt are defined during the avulsion process and ‘remain constant during the time between avulsion ‘When using this mode! to simulate ancient deposits, i is ncessary to ‘oblain realistic estimates of channel-belt width w in reaton othe average ‘maximum bankfull depth dof the channel or bankfll channel width In certain cass, it maybe possible to directly measure channel-belt widths and thicknesses from the rocks themselves, given laterally extensive out ‘tops oriented normal to the palelow direction and/or closely spaced subsurface data. Well data can also be used to determine maxiraum bank- {ull channel depth. However, itis very cificult to estimate chanel-belt Initio! Down-Valley Floodplain Profile Distonce trom Upstream Edge of Floodplain (m) Fe, 2.~Plot of intial floodplain elevation versus dowesteam distanc: fr varying values Of swith 3 floodplain slope of 001 atthe une sucam edge ofthe floodplain AS value of increase, Joodpain hopes decrease and aval fom ptetal nereses. a the mode, he ni Hal foodpain surface is adjusted so thatthe ™ as) where PQ) is sandstone porosity at burial depth y in meters (sandstone curve, Figure 6). Converting P)) to solid fraction and integrating over depth yields an expression for slid thickness 7 T= y + 18136) 9 06) aq 16 is used 10 compact coarse-grained channel-belt depois in this ‘model. The entire succession is compacted and floodplain surface eleva tions aze adjusted immediately price toa avulsion, Provision has also been made in Une model to compact a generated succession toa specified depth of burial, Eqs 10 or 13 and Eq 1S are used to compact the sucession toa specified burial depth inorder to facilitate comparison of model results with data from ancient (compacted) alluvial deposits, Tectonism (Changes in the rate and direction of tectonic subsidence (ting and/or faulting) can have a significant impact on channel-belt locations and the stribution of alluvial sediments. Subsidence due to fault displacement ‘or regional titing may result in an avulsve sift in channe-blt location (eg. Coleman 1969; Mike 1975; Bridge and Leeder 1979; Schumm 1986; Alexander and Leeder 1987, 1990; Leeder 1993). Avulsion may occur as 4 direct response to an individual tectonic event (eg, Fisk 1944) or in ‘response toa gradual tectoncaly induced change in floodplain topography (e4., Coleman 1969; Mike 1975). Moreover, a change in gradient may force a change in channel geometry (Watson et al. 1984; Ouchi 1985; Schurnm 1986) and may result in incision and 2 reduced probability of avulsion (¢4., Galloway 1981), or may result in aggradation and an in- ‘creased probability of avulsion. Large-scale pattems of subsidence, base- level changes, ersion, deposition, and topography ae linked in some t¥0- dimensional models of sedimentary basins (cg, Beaumont 1981; Jordan 1981; Quinlan and Beaumont 1984; Beaumont etal. 1988; Jordan et al 1988; Flemings and Jordan 1989, 1990; Jordan and Flemings 1989; Paola 1990; Sinclair et al. 1991; Paola et al. 1992; Heller and Paola 1992) However, these large-scale models donot consider the eects of subsidence ‘on channel and floodplain geometry and facies. In our model, it is assumed that aggradation isa result of subsidence and/or bast-levl sie without attempting any formal linkage. The infu- cence of such subsidence and base-evel change on channel and floodplain geometry and faces are not considered explicitly. However, the model ‘an simulate the effects of regional and/or local variation in the rate of subsidence on floodplain topography, and hence on the location of avulsing channel belts and the resulting distribution of channe-belt deposits. The timing and magnitude of episodic tectonic tilting is determined stochas- tically ee Bridge and Leeder 1979). Gradual tilting occurs at a specified fixed or variable rate in meters'eas CCross-valley titing occurs about the x axis, with the tilt axis located ‘along any down-valley transect onthe floodplain surface. Similarly, down- valley titng occurs about the z axs wth te it axis located along any cross-valey transect onthe Floodplain surface. Down-valley subsidence at 2 given location on the floodplain surface i given by ent an ‘where r,s the rate of subsidence (or up) in meters year at down-valey stance, from the tit axis, ri the rte of subsidence (or uplift atthe THREE- DIMENSIONAL MODEL OF ALLUVIAL STRATIGRAPHY " Shole Alternate 500 1000 1500 2000 2600 ‘Sondstone DEPTH (m) 3000 3500 4000 4500 sooo 4 30 POROSITY (%) 40° 50 Ut axis, and ra. isthe ate of subsidence ata specified distance, fom the tilt axis (typically 1000 m). Similarly, for eross-valey subsidence ,eo= 8) wher rs the rte of subsidence (or uplif) in metersyear at ross valley distance z from the tt 2x, isthe rate of subsidence (or uplift) atthe tlt axis, and isthe rate of subsidence a a specified distance D,, from. the tit axis ‘The effect on alluvial architecture of local deformation associated with surficial (normal fault displacement can als be simulated using this mod- cl. Currently, the model is nat capable of modeling displacements asso- ciated with reverse faults and strike-slip fuls. Gibson etal, (1989) de- ‘veloped an elastic response model that predicts the displacement geometry associated with 2 normal fault based on pror work by Rippon (1985), Watterson (1986), Barnett et al (1987), and Walsh and Watterson (1987, 1988, 1989), Expressions derived by Walsh and Watterson (1987) and Gilson et al (1989) ape used in the three-dimensional modelo calculate Doto Sources: Boldwin (1971) [ Rieke & Chilingarion (1974) Shole Original Boidwin ond Butler (1985) Fa, 6,—Compario of sormpasitepoosty- ‘depth curves forsale and sandstone coi lines wath data fom Baldwin (1971 short dashed lines) and Rieke and Chilingarian (0974; long dashed ines), Pint ales (Bad Win 1971 ae for ay, sty lay and tere ows sity ay (eles), and ely wth woken shard celts (triangles). Expresions derived from these composite curves are used to com- fc sediments in the model. The Orginal Shale Curve isthe best to these data (ee ‘Baldwin 1971) ani used in the orginal PSM program (Bridge and Leeder 1979). The ‘Aitemate Stale Curve more clowly approxi ‘ates the rapid loss of post ear ie sur fice naval sediments ee, Anderson 1991, The Sandstone Curve derived by Bld win and Butler (1985) is sed on data rom ‘Seater and Christi (198. 60 70 80 the fault displacement geometry along, and oriented normal to, a normal fault (Fig, 7), Details are presented beiow. ‘The faul-suriae displacement profile is plot of displacement d, along the fault plane versus distance from the fault center (Fig, 8). For mtile- event displacements along the fault plane, the fault surface displacement profile can be obtained from como «9 ‘here normalized fault displacement dis 4, a-$ 20) where D ithe maximum displacement at the fault ete. The normalized Aistance r, from the fault center is, a an 2 SCUDDER D. MACKEY AND JOHN S. BRIDGE Plon View Foutt Troce Fo. 7.~Defniton diagam for fal islacement. Eipse defines poins of ‘qual displacement aay fom the fal tac. Wid ofthe eligi ecu fo ‘He length of te fal wae, and length Z ofthe lips is equal othe distance ‘norma othe ft ceater where displacement eouls 20. Dis maximum dis ‘lacement tthe faut centr and di dpacement along the fault trace away from the fault center See text for discus, where Ris the fault radius. typically half the width of he fault trace ‘The reverse crag radius R, is given by Re~ Rid and normalized drag displacement along a line oriented normal to the faultis 2 a (ea where dy is the normalized drag displacement at normalized distance Py from the fal surface. Her, dis equal 1 d/D, rai equal to rR, and is drag displacement at radius r rom the fault trace (see Figure 7). For dipping faults, the percentage of displacement attributed to the banging walls oP — 0.0046 409) = 110 — 293 on) where isthe dip ange of the fault plane in degrees). However, inthe ‘model, the faut plane is efectvely vertical and is located along a single transect across the floodplain, The fault displacement geometry due 10 2 slipping fal plane an be simulated by specifying the percent displacement tiibutale tothe hanging wall (Eq 24), but faut curvature, which also influences the faut displacement geomety, isnot simulated in the curtent model Favk surfaces can be oriented in citer a eross-valey oc down-valley direction, an the magnitade and fequency of faulting is determined stochastically (ce Bridge and Leeder 1979). inputs tothe model include the location, orientation, dip, and with of the fault surface he location of maximum displacement and direction of throw: mean period (yeas) between events andthe mean and standard deviation of displacement for ‘ach faulting event. Gradual (continuous faulting simulated by allowing the fault to slp at constant rate in meters'year. Magnitude and frequency ‘of fault displacement can he constrained by comparison with recent nd historical data (eg, Wallace 1985) (Channel Diversion (Avalsion) Avulsion isthe process whereby a channel belt shifts abruptly from one location to another on the locdplain surface in favor ofa new gradient. Evidence for avulsion of channel belts i recorded by the presence of| abandoned channel telts on Holocene floodplains and observations from a Displacement 6, (m) © 2000” 4000” «6000 eoto 10000 Distance from Foult Center r, (m) Fo, 8.—Faul placement profile with increasing distance from alt center Dis maximum displacement athe fault center. 3.0 min hs example. Displac- ‘ment along the ult race decreases with increasing distance along the ft lane fom the faut enter, modern rivers (eg, Yellow River, Todd and Eliassen 1940; Chinese Acad em of Sciences 1980; ile 1991; Cheng eta. 1991; Li and Finlayson 1993; Mississippi River, Fisk 1944, 1947, 19S1; Frazier 1967; Saucier 1974,1981;Autin etal. 1991; Anabusga River Speight 1965; Indus River, Holmes 1968; Schumm 1986; McDougall I988; Brtzes River, Berard et al. 1970, Po river, Nelson 1970; Hungarian Plain, Mike 1975; Brahma- putra River, Coleman 1969: Bristow 1987; Kosi Fan, Gole and Chitale 1966; Welland Dorr 1987a,1987b; Gohain and Parkash 1990, Singh et al. 1993; Saskatchewan River, Smith etal. 1989; Thomson River, Bzgz and Finlayson 1960; Okavango Fan, McCarthy etl. 1992; Gandak Fan, Mohindra etal 1992; Rhne-Meuse River, Tornqvst 1993, 1994). Avalsions may be initiated from a preexisting crevase splay and occur uring period of high ow c,Coleman 1969; Smith etl. 1986). Spatial and terporal changes in channel geometry are poorly understood during the initial phase ofan avulsion, and itis generally assumed thatthe new course ofthe river wll follow the direction of maximum slope. However, colder abandoned channel belts may influence the position of subsequent channel els, and preexisting channel belts may be taken over by the avulsing channel ¢g, Coleman 1959; Wells and Dor 19874, 1987b Gotain and Parkash 1990). Mean avulsion periods are on the oder of 10 to 10° years. The transfer of flow from the cld channel to the new channel may be instantaneous or may occur gradually over 10! 10 102 years with more than one channel belt active concuretly (eg. Cinese ‘Acaderny of Sciences 1980; Holmes 1968; Nelson 1970; Gole and Chitale 1966, Wells and Dore 98a, 1987b: Tirnqvst 1993, 1994 In this model, there ate three types of avulsion: upstream, nodal and ‘random. Upstream avulsion occurs upsteam ofthe simulated foodsiain, and the channel belt enters the upstream (ist) transect othe food atthe point oflowest mean elevation, Nodal avulsion is where all avusions are initiated from a fixed nodal point on the floodplain surface, located in the upstream (Girt) transect. The timing ofboth upstream and nodal avulsion i determined stochastically by Monte Carlo sampling from ‘Weibull distribution (Bridge and Leeder 1979). Random avulsion may ccur from any point along the active channel belt within the length of the simulated floodplain, Random avulsion are simulte in two diferent ways: 1) independent (sochastic|—avalsion location and frequency are determined randomly, or 2) dependent—avulsion frequency and location are determined asa function ofthe acl cross-valey slope relative tothe dow-alley channel-bet slope and return period of flood discharge in «exces of some threshold vale. THREE-DIMENSIONAL MODEL. OF ALLUVIAL STRATIGRAPHY B Inthe case of a dependent randoa: avulsion, the probability of an avulsion is calculated foreach cross-valley transet as ryt ror-(2) (6) where Q,is maximum flood discharge fora given year, Q, isthe threshold ischarge necesary for an avulsion, S, isthe cossvaley slope atthe edge cof the channel bel, S, isthe local down-valley channel-belt slope. fs the slope proportionality constant. and eg and e, ae the avulsion discharge and slope exponens, respectively. Use of the heuristic expression 25 is ‘based on the following assumptions: (1) avulsions ae initiated during periods of extreme discharge when erosive power of the stream is greatest, and (2) a sufficient gradient advantage exits 1 establish a new course on the floodplain. ‘The magnitude and frequency of fod discharge are simulated using ‘the Gumbel extreme value (EV!) function (Gumbel 1958; National En- vironment Research Council 1975). The cumulative distribution funetion is described by 09) PQ) = ee 26) ‘where PQ) isthe probability that a random sample from a maximum annual discharge population wil be less than discharge Q, and 05972 a where O77966 a Here, Qs the mean, Qx isthe mode, and ois the standard deviation of the maximum annual discharge population (Morel-Seytoux 1979) In- sertng Eqs 278 and 27b into Eq 26 and solving fr discharge sields =O + 0.779%60{—in(—In P(Q)) - 05772] 2B) ‘where Qis the maximum flood discharge fora given year. In the model, values of Q, are obtained by Monte Carlo sampling ftom a distribution cof maximum annual discharges. The threshold discharge Q, for avulsion is determined by calculating the maximum flood discharge value for a specified return period (say 500 or 1000 years), ie. Q.= 0 + 0.7%o|—In{—Ini1 — 1/7] 05772) 29) ‘where 7, isthe return prio in years. Note that the actual discharge values sed are not important, because the discharge ratio Q/CQ, controls the probability of avulsion. For cach transect, the local crossvalley slope $., at each side of the channel belts calculated over the width ofa single cell in the = direction. ‘The down-valey slope Sof the channel belts estimated over the down. valley distance between grid points in the x direction. Inthe model, cross- valley slopes atthe edge of the channel belt may exceed down-valley channel-belt slopes by 2 factor of up to 10. This is caused by differences in edimentation rate between the channel bet andthe adjacent floodplain sutfce and the efects of diferential compaction. When S/S, exceeds unity, the slope component is ample by the exponent e, and becomes very large (..,on the order of 10" to 0). The model detects this condition and sets K,-S.S, to unity when calculating P{a) Values for the slope proportionality constant &; typically range from 0.5 to 0.1. k, is used to reduce the influence of large cross-valley slopes immediately adjacent 10 the channel belt, and to emphasize the influence of smaller cross-valley Slopes farther asay from the alluvial ridge. From extensive simulations, reasonable avulsion periods are obained when values of ey and e, are ‘reater than one, and typically range from I 10 5. Avulson probabilities are calculated for each crest-valey transect be Upstream Downstreem Fa, 9.~Maximum crossaley slopes, i citer ~2 and + directions are ‘alclated and compared with the maximum dow-aley slopes S. When the rato 5./9,-exceds unity an avulsion may ocur. The drecion of channel belt ‘movement is determined by the ews of maximum floodplain slope, which wil be citer cos valley, oblique cross valley, or down valle. caus it is assumed that an avulsion may be initiated from any point along the active chanel belt. The calculated probabilities are then compared vith a pseudorandom number from a unform distribution ranging from 0 to 1, Ifany Pia) exceeds this pseudorandom number, an avulsion is initiated [there is more than one posible pont of avulsion, the location With the highest avulsion probability s selected a the new point of zvul- sioa, When there are multiple locations withthe same (highes! probability, ‘the avulsion will occur from the coss-valley transect tha is farthest up- stream, To conserve computing resoures (primarily CPU time) channel- bolt and floodplain surfaces are aggraded atthe end of «specified ager dation interval, Avusion probabilities are based on the maximum food lischarge ratio and slope ratio calculated within that interval For all types of avulsion, the location ofthe new channel bet fllows the locus of maximum Roodplain slope (eg. Allen 1965; Leeder 1978; Bridge and Leeder 1979; Crane 1982; Smith etal. 1989; Brizga and Fin- layson 1990), The locus of maximum floodplain slope is calculated from the pot of avulsion in incremental distances equal tothe grid cell spacing in either cross-valley, oblique crss-alley, or down-vally direction (Fig. 9). Slope components in both down-valley and oblique cross-valley di- rections are based on the mean slope calculated across the width of the channel bel at cach cross-valley transect. The cross-valley width ofthe channel belt is adjusted to maintain an appropriate channel-belt width ‘normal tothe channe-belt centerline when there is @ change in channel- belt direction Fg. 10), In this model, the geometry ofthe new channel belt is acquired instan taneously, even though in natural systems it may take on the order of 10: to LO years fora distinct channel belt to be created. Representation of crevasse-splay deposits and possible transitional channel forms during inital stages of an avulsion (€, Smith et al. 1989; Bria and Finlayson 1990) ate beyond the capabilities ofthe current mode! oe. ouput ‘Upon completion ofa simulation, the overall mean Moodplainaggra- ation rate, channe!-deposit proportion and connectedness and sandstone ‘ody dimensions are calculated foreach cross-vally transect and the total fenerated succession. The mean floodplain aggradation rater, for an in- ividual crossvalley transect is calculated by dividing the mean thickness ofthe sucession by the total time elapsed. The total volume mean lood- “ SCUDDER D. MACKEY AND JOHN S. BRIDGE Upstream Chonnel—Belt Centerline 0° : eueme eae ene a6 eno a6 56 a6 ener a6 ener el — Exponded Edge Downstream Fe. 10.~Expansion ofcrosvaiy chanel width compensate for change in channel belt iection. The downstream outside ae of the channel belts ‘shied o tha the width normal the channel ceaterine remains appron- ‘mately equal: plain deposit thickness is cleulated by averaging the mean thicknes (in meters) ofeach crss-valley transect. The total Volume mean floodplain aggradation rate 7 is calculated by dividing the total volume mean flood Dlain thickness bythe total time elapsed. These parameters include both ‘overbank and channel-belt deposits and ae compacted values The channol-deposit proportion CDP, within a single eoss-valleytran- sect or within a single down-valley transect CDP. is defined as the area ofchannel-bet deposits relative to the total aea of the transect. The total volume channel-depost proportion CDP, is defined as the volume of channel-belt deposits relative to the total volume ofthe generated suc- cession. Values for channel-leposit proportion range fom 0.0 (ll over- ‘bank deposits) to 1.0 (ll channel-belt deposits). Channel-deposit propor- sion is calulated by summing the proportion of coarse-grained channel- ‘belt deposits at each reference vertical ina transect and diving by the ‘otal numberof reference verticals that are sampled, The coanecedaess ratio CR, within a single cross-valley transect or within a single down-valley transect CR isthe length of horizontal contact between connected channel belts divided by the total horizontal width (or length) of channel-belt deposits in the transect. The total volume con neciednes ratio CR, is tbe area of horizontal connection between channel belts relative tothe total potential ares of connectedness forall channel belts in the generated succession (Fig. 1A). The connectedness ratio, as used here, doesnot include the area of vical conact between channel belts. Conneciedness values range from 0.0 (isolated channel belts) to 1.0, {al chane! belts are connected along their surface area), The fist channel belt is not included inthe connectedness calculation because i is uncon- nected by definition. [channel belis are solted in any cros section, the connectedness rato is zero even if they are connected in an up-valley ot

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