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= a2 iab + iab i2 b2
= a2 + 0 (1)b2
= a2 + b2
r2 ei ei
r2 eii
r2 e0
r2
=
=
=
=
X
xj
j=0
j!
X
(i)j
j=0
X
j=0
j!
(i)2j+1
(i)2j
+
(2j)!
(2j + 1)!
2j 2j
X
i
j=0
X
j=0
(2j)!
j=0
i2j+1 2j+1
(2j + 1)!
i2j 2j+1
1j 2j
+i
(2j)!
(2j + 1)!
1j
2j+1
2j
+ i(1)j
(2j)!
(2j + 1)!
1j
X
2j
2j+1
1j
+i
(2j)!
(2j + 1)!
j=0
j=0
= cos() + i sin()
The first step splits the sum into even and odd terms. The rest is just manipulation until the last step indentifies the series expansions found as those of sin()
and cos().
Strictly speaking, we have to prove that all these series converge over what
is called an infinite radius of convergence. But well leave that problem to the
folks who have taken complex analysis.
Exercise 10. Using Eulers Formula, show that the simple rule for complex
conjugation gives the same results in either real/imaginary form or magnitude/argument form. [Hint: take a complex number z = rei and define a
and b such that rei = a + ib. Then take the complex conjugate.]
Using the results from exercises *** and ***, for z we have a = r cos() and
b = sin() in Cartesian (real/imaginary) form. For z = r ei , a = r cos() =
r cos() and b = r sin() = r sin() in Cartesian form. Comparing these, we
have that a for z equals a for z and b for z equals b for z .
Exercise 11. Two other formula are often grouped in with Eulers formula.
They are:
1 i
cos() =
e + ei
2
and
1 i
sin() =
e ei
2i
Prove these using Eulers formula as given in equation ??. [Hint: sin(x) =
sin(x) and cos(x) = cos(x).]
3
The trick is to use Eulers formula twice. For the positive angle, we have
ei = cos() + i sin()
and for the negative angle, we have
ei
=
=
cos() + i sin()
cos() i sin()
where the second step comes from the parity (even/odd-ness) of the sin and cos
functions, which was given in the hint.
Now all we have to do is either add or subtract the functions. If we add
them, we find
ei + ei
i = ei/2
1
i =
ei/2
= ei/2 2
= ei/4
Since 1 = ei(/2/2) , we have
i =
=
=
=
ei(/2/2) ei/4
ei(/2/2+/4)
ei(3/4/2)
ei/4 or e5/4
4
5
1
i
5
e
= cos
+ i sin
=
4
4
2
2
This exercise is part of an interesting subject in mathematics called the nth
roots of unity. M&S give more detail in their exercise ***.
5i/4
1
dx sin2 (ax) cos2 (ax) = 32a
sin(4ax) + x8 )
As the exercise suggests, we first replace the sin and cos functions, then do some
arithmetic:
i
2 i
2
e ei
e + ei
sin2 () + cos2 () =
+
2i
2
2
1
1
2
=
ei ei +
ei + ei
4
4
2
1
i
i 2
=
e e
+ ei + ei
4
1
=
e2i 2 + e2i + e2i + 2 + e2i
4
1
e2i + 2 e2i + e2i + 2 + e2i
=
4
1
=
4=1
4
5
Now, for the show-off version. Ill do the math a little less explicitly, but
you should be able to at least follow the gist:
Z
2 1 iax
2
1 iax
iax
iax
e e
e +e
dx
2i
2
Z
1 2iax
dx
e
2 + e2iax e2iax + 2 + e2iax
16
Z
1 4iax
dx
e
2 + e4iax
16
Z
Z
Z
1
4iax
4iax
dx e
dx 2 + dx e
16
1
1 4iax
1 4iax
e
2x +
e
16 4ia
4ia
x
1 1
e4iax e4iax +
16 4ia
8
x
1
sin(4ax) +
32a
8
Z
=
=
=
=
=
=
=