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NZ General Rescue Manual 2006 PDF
NZ General Rescue Manual 2006 PDF
NZ General Rescue Manual 2006 PDF
March 2006
Table of contents
Table of contents
1
1.1
1.2
Introduction .................................................................................................. 1
Purpose ......................................................................................................... 1
Definition of USAR ......................................................................................... 1
2
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8
2.9
2.10
3
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7
3.8
3.9
3.10
3.11
3.12
3.13
3.14
3.15
3.16
3.17
3.18
4
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
Table of contents
4.6
4.7
4.8
4.9
4.10
4.11
4.12
4.13
4.14
4.15
4.16
4.17
5
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5
5.6
5.7
5.8
5.9
5.10
5.11
5.12
5.13
5.14
5.15
5.16
5.17
5.18
5.19
5.20
5.21
5.22
5.23
5.24
5.25
5.26
5.27
5.28
5.29
5.30
Ropes.......................................................................................................... 36
Objectives .................................................................................................... 36
Introduction .................................................................................................. 36
Types of rope ............................................................................................... 36
Synthetic ropes ............................................................................................ 37
Kernmantle Construction ............................................................................. 37
Characteristics of Static Kernmantle Rope .................................................. 38
Characteristics of rescue ropes.................................................................... 38
Breaking force.............................................................................................. 39
Safe working load (SWL) ............................................................................. 39
Care and maintenance................................................................................. 39
Washing ropes ............................................................................................. 40
Inspection .................................................................................................... 40
Retiring a rope ............................................................................................. 41
Terminology ................................................................................................. 42
Rope packaging ........................................................................................... 43
Identification................................................................................................. 44
Record systems ........................................................................................... 44
Climbing tapes ............................................................................................. 45
Construction................................................................................................. 45
Size.............................................................................................................. 46
Abrasion....................................................................................................... 46
Tape strength............................................................................................... 46
The use of tape ............................................................................................ 46
Care and maintenance................................................................................. 47
Safety........................................................................................................... 47
Flexible steel wire rope ................................................................................ 47
Safe working load (SWL) ............................................................................. 47
Construction................................................................................................. 48
Precautions in operations ............................................................................ 48
Inspection of steel wire rope ........................................................................ 48
ii
Table of contents
5.31
6
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
6.6
6.7
6.8
6.9
6.10
6.11
6.12
6.13
6.14
6.15
6.16
Knots........................................................................................................... 50
Objectives .................................................................................................... 50
Introduction .................................................................................................. 50
Stopper knots............................................................................................... 50
Figure 8 knots .............................................................................................. 50
Figure 8 knot (Single figure 8)...................................................................... 51
Figure 8 on a bight (Double figure 8) ........................................................... 51
Rethreaded figure 8 ..................................................................................... 51
Figure 8 joining knot (Figure 8 bend) ........................................................... 52
Double figure 8 on a bight (Anchor 8 or Industrial 8).................................... 53
Round turn and two half hitches................................................................... 53
Alpine butterfly ............................................................................................. 54
Double fishermans knot .............................................................................. 54
Prusik knot ................................................................................................... 55
Clove hitch ................................................................................................... 55
Friction hitch................................................................................................. 56
Joining ropes................................................................................................ 56
7
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.7
7.8
7.9
7.10
7.11
7.12
7.13
7.14
7.15
7.16
7.17
7.18
7.19
7.20
Ladders....................................................................................................... 57
Objectives .................................................................................................... 57
Introduction .................................................................................................. 57
Construction................................................................................................. 57
Terminology ................................................................................................. 58
Extension ladders ........................................................................................ 59
Step ladders................................................................................................. 59
Inspection of ladders.................................................................................... 60
Maintenance of ladders................................................................................ 60
Single rescuer ladder raise .......................................................................... 60
Erecting and extending the ladder (2 rescuer) ............................................. 61
Erecting and extending the ladder (3 rescuer) ............................................. 61
Angle of ladder when raised ........................................................................ 62
Overlaps ...................................................................................................... 63
Securing ladders .......................................................................................... 63
Securing the head of the ladder ................................................................... 63
Securing the foot of the ladder ..................................................................... 63
Halving ladders ............................................................................................ 64
Ladder climbing............................................................................................ 64
Rules of 3..................................................................................................... 65
Helping a casualty down a ladder ................................................................ 65
8
8.1
Managing casualties.................................................................................. 66
Objectives .................................................................................................... 66
iii
Table of contents
8.2
8.3
8.4
8.5
Introduction .................................................................................................. 66
START ......................................................................................................... 66
Labelling ...................................................................................................... 67
Consumer Code of Rights- Health and Disability Commission .................... 68
9
9.1
9.2
9.3
9.4
9.5
9.6
9.7
9.8
9.9
9.10
9.11
9.12
9.13
9.14
9.15
9.16
9.17
9.18
9.19
9.20
9.21
9.22
9.23
9.24
9.25
9.26
Stretchers ................................................................................................... 69
Objectives .................................................................................................... 69
Introduction .................................................................................................. 69
Folding or pole stretchers ............................................................................ 69
Board rescue stretchers............................................................................... 70
Basket stretchers ......................................................................................... 71
Wrap-around stretchers ............................................................................... 71
Blanketing the stretcher ............................................................................... 72
Blanketing - Lateral/Recovery position......................................................... 72
Loading the stretcher ................................................................................... 73
The four rescuer method.............................................................................. 73
Blanket lift (four or six rescuers)................................................................... 74
Clothing lift (Three rescuers)........................................................................ 75
Webbing bands (Five rescuers) ................................................................... 75
Specialist lifting/loading devices................................................................... 76
Summary of stretcher types and uses.......................................................... 76
Lashing the casualty to the stretcher ........................................................... 76
Lashing the folding stretcher ........................................................................ 77
Lashing - Lateral/Recovery position............................................................. 77
Lashing - Board rescue stretcher ................................................................. 78
Alternate Board rescue stretcher lashing ..................................................... 78
Securing a basket stretcher with securing straps......................................... 79
Securing a basket stretcher by lashing ........................................................ 79
Improvised casualty harness ....................................................................... 80
Moving a stretcher over uneven ground....................................................... 80
Moving a stretcher in restricted spaces........................................................ 81
Improvised stretchers................................................................................... 82
10
10.1
10.2
10.3
10.4
10.5
10.6
10.7
10.8
10.9
10.10
iv
Table of contents
10.11
10.12
10.13
10.14
11
11.1
11.2
11.3
12
12.1
12.2
12.3
12.4
13
13.1
13.2
13.3
13.4
13.5
13.6
13.7
13.8
13.9
13.10
14
14.1
14.2
14.3
14.4
14.5
14.6
14.7
14.8
14.9
14.10
14.11
14.12
14.13
14.14
14.15
14.16
Table of contents
15
15.1
15.2
15.3
15.4
15.5
15.6
15.7
15.8
15.9
15.10
15.11
15.12
15.13
15.14
15.15
15.16
15.17
vi
Section 1: Introduction
Introduction
1.1
Purpose
The purpose of the General Rescue Manual is to provide guidelines for standard
methods of training for General Rescue techniques in New Zealand. It is written to
accompany the USAR Awareness Student Manual and reference to this manual is
made frequently.
The development of the USAR structure in New Zealand has provided the impetus
for the review in 2004 of the General Rescue Manual. This, with an increased
emphasis on safety, has meant some techniques have been modified, others deleted
or replaced. Interestingly, some of the core skills developed over the years in New
Zealand have stood the test of time and are a credit to the pioneers of general rescue
in New Zealand.
USAR Awareness and General Rescue combine to provide rescue workers with a
range of core skills to safely and effectively locate, extract and rescue victims from a
variety of events. It is not intended to be exhaustive, but rather provide a framework
for the development of individual rescue workers, and ultimately rescue teams.
NOTE: This manual has been developed to support and accompany practical
training sessions delivered by suitably qualified trainers.
1.2
Definition of USAR
An integrated multi agency response which is beyond the capability of normal rescue
arrangements, to provide initial medical care and removal of entrapped persons from
damaged structures or other environments in a safe and expeditious manner.
New Zealand has made some significant steps in the development of the USAR
structure in recent years. The USAR Awareness Manual covers more about the
history and structure of USAR in New Zealand, but of particular note are:
Individuals receive Responder certification, and an Orange Card when they have
completed recognised, unit standard based training in USAR Awareness, the Coordinated Incident Management System (CIMS), First Aid and General Rescue.
A USAR Awareness course should, in most cases, be completed in conjunction with
training in General Rescue.
Section 1: Introduction
2.1
Objectives
2.2
To save the greatest number of lives in the shortest possible time and to minimise
further injury to people and damage to property.
2.3
Functions
WARNING NOTE:
In order to achieve the aim of rescue, all rescuers must be trained in
basic life sustaining first aid to recognised standards.
2.4
A moments reflection is all that is needed to realise that any situation requiring a
rescue operation, by definition is one which contains either dangerous or potentially
dangerous elements.
People tend to react differently to danger, but the most general responses are
anxiety and fear, perhaps the most powerful of all emotions. It must be remembered
that it is not just the victim who faces the danger; in order to rescue the victim the
rescuer must first enter the site of the dangerous situation and face the same danger.
Section 1: Introduction
Even if the main danger has struck and passed, additional dangers are still often
present. The difference between the victim and the rescuer is that the rescuer is
better able to cope with, or handle, the situation. This is because the rescuer has the
knowledge and the resources to minimise risk and remedy the situation.
It is normal to be anxious and feel fear in the face of danger. These are emotional
reactions common to both victim and rescuer. Many other emotional responses may
become manifest during a rescue situation - pity, disgust, contempt, pride, concern,
and many more. These are often exaggerated beyond all reason by the urgency and
pressures of the situation, thus lowering the efficiency of the overall operation.
The rescuer must be aware of the psychological needs of the victims, not just their
physical needs, and be prepared to meet these psychological needs.
2.5
Rescue workers
An event requiring rescue operations will usually create three categories of rescue
workers:
Category 1 Survivors
The immediate reaction of survivors in a major incident, once they have discovered
that they are not injured, is to help their neighbours and families. They often do not
know what to do, but obviously it is a serious situation and thus they feel they must
do something.
These good intentions could aggravate the conditions of those being helped to the
point where the loss of life may be greater than it should be. They could also get in
the way and interrupt the functioning of trained rescue teams. However, uninjured
and slightly injured survivors could well be the only hope of survival for many victims
(e.g. if toxic gases, dangerous chemicals, fire, or danger of fire exist at the site of the
emergency). The first group to commence rescue work at a site consists of those
survivors still physically capable of doing so. The potential for good is enormous but
the danger inherent in rescue work by untrained personnel is also enormous.
Category 2 Untrained personnel
The second wave of rescue workers is drawn from people either witnessing the
event from the immediate vicinity, or are drawn to the site by curiosity and a desire to
assist the victims. Although not quite as emotionally involved as the survivors, the
danger inherent in utilising untrained personnel is still a factor which must be
considered. On the positive side, they often bring necessary resources with them and
can be effective if brought under control and properly supervised.
Unfortunately, a large number of the curious are just that. They have no desire to
help, but just look. They get in the way, shout advice, and generally add to the
excitement of the site the very thing that is least needed, especially from the
standpoint of victims.
2.6
Rescue work is not an easy task, nor is it necessarily a glamorous one. Certainly not
all people are suited to such work. Physical fitness, personality, and emotional
stability are all factors in determining ones suitability.
Ideally, the rescuer will have the following qualities:
Interest- A genuine interest in rescue work, not just because of peer pressure,
trying to impress etc.
Training- The will to continually undergo training to maintain a professional
standard.
Cooperation- Rescue work is usually a team effort, hence cooperation with
others is vital.
Dependability- The lives of victims and team members rely on the rescuer.
Initiative- The nature of rescue operations is such that it is often impossible to
closely supervise each team member. Each must be able to see what needs
doing, set priorities and do the tasks at hand.
Versatility- Each situation is unique. An individual must be able to apply a
wide range of skills and knowledge to new situations.
Physical fitness- Rescue work of any kind is physically demanding and often
continues for long periods. Any physical limitations must be recognised and
taken into consideration.
Leadership qualities- Required by all rescuers at various times and to
varying degrees. Through the capable leadership of trained rescuers, many
more untrained personnel may be utilised.
Control over fears and phobias- It is important that rescuers know what they
can and cannot do. Part of this knowledge consists of being aware of any
phobias. It is also vital that the leader of a rescue team knows of any phobias
in team members. Some phobias that could seriously affect a rescuer and
which may be identified in training are:
o The fear of the sight of blood (Hemophobia)
o The fear of heights (Acrophobia)
o The fear of confined spaces (Claustrophobia)
Section 1: Introduction
2.7
Personal behaviour
The conduct of individuals says a lot about their psychological makeup and
personality. The nature of rescue work is such that it is particularly important that
personal conduct does not aggravate matters, but rather assists in creating a feeling
that the situation is in competent hands, and everything possible is being done to
rescue and care for the victims. Bad behavior by an individual, e.g. bad language,
reflects negatively on the whole team and its leadership.
A few of the more important general areas of conduct or behaviours follow:
AttitudeA serious, professional attitude must be maintained to gain
confidence and support. Arrogance and superiority create instant antagonism.
Loud talking, joking, and horseplay reduce credibility; they create a feeling of
resentment and disgust and add to the confusion, thus hindering the work and
adding to the state of anxiety of the victims. Rescuers cannot consider
themselves professional if they add to the confusion by loud shouting or
frantic gestures.
EmotionsEmotions are hard to control in the best of circumstances. In a
disaster the control of emotions is a very difficult task but every effort must be
made to prevent emotions from influencing good judgement and competence.
Regardless of the excitement and the severity of the incident, the rescuer
must be able to remain calm, and be sympathetic without becoming
emotionally involved.
CourtesyCourtesy, tact, and good judgement are vital if the rescue task is
to be completed quickly and effectively. Courtesy must be given to all
concerned.
ConfidentialityDuring rescue activities and training there may be times
when rescuers will see and hear things which will be deemed confidential. It is
essential that they understand this, be professional and do not discuss these
matters with others.
A Code of Ethics for rescue workers is currently being developed by the International
Search and Rescue Advisory Group (INSARAG) and when finalised should be used
as a guiding document.
2.8
Team composition
Team composition will be determined by the various organisations within each area
on the basis of safe accomplishment of set tasks. Regardless of the team
composition, a team leader must be appointed. A team of 6 8 members is required
for effective general rescue teamwork. Teams may be larger, but these are often split
into squads of 6-8 rescuers to allow them to be easily managed.
2.9
Activation
Each team should have a callout system established, and have determined the time
necessary to ensure a full team response. This system should include such details
as:
Who calls out the team
Who will be responsible for them
Where to report
What functions the team will perform
What equipment to take
Likely duration of task or event.
2.10 Deployment
On call-out, teams should clearly state to the organisation requesting their support
details of accommodation and any feeding assistance that may be required. If
practical, each team should be self-sufficient in the provision of food for the first 24
hours.
Note: Minimum requirements for team number, structure, activation and deployment
are established for teams wanting to register as a New Zealand Response
Team.
3.1
Objectives
3.2
Introduction
The task of rescue involves the training of individuals and teams in a variety of skills,
some of which, unless properly carried out, may well prove dangerous to the
individual rescuer, the team, casualties, or bystanders. In all cases, the safety of
rescuers is of prime importance.
It is therefore necessary, particularly in the early stages of training and exercises, to
pay a great deal of attention to safety measures, and to emphasise the need to
strictly observe and enforce these measures.
WARNING NOTE:
All rescue training and operations must be carried out with due regard to
safe work practices, occupational health and safety requirements, and
codes of practice and guidelines.
Many of the safety precautions to be observed are merely common sense.
Unfortunately, they are so basic and simple they are often overlooked.
3.3
Safety is the principal consideration in any rescue activity and it is the responsibility
of each rescuer to ensure that safety procedures and Occupational Health and
Safety requirements are followed, instructions observed, and operations carried out
with a minimum of risk.
8
There are a number of guidelines, codes of practice, regulations, and procedures that
relate to safety, and to operational aspects such as critical incident stress, and risk
management. These are constantly being amended and updated it is the
responsibility of organisations to keep their procedures and policies in line with the
current guidelines, codes of practice and regulations. Reference to the most relevant
of these are made throughout this manual, and were correct at the time of printing.
Additionally, individual services have procedures for the management of these
factors, and for determining individual and organisational responsibilities. All of these
factors must be taken into account in the management of rescue activities.
This section covers the key points of safety in training and operations as they affect
the rescuer, the casualty, or the bystander. Specific safety points will be covered with
each rescue technique, as they affect how the particular rescue technique is
conducted.
3.4
There are a number of strategies/systems that have been developed to improve the
safety of rescue operations. No matter what system is used, the objectives are the
same: Identify hazards and risks and take steps to:
eliminate
isolate or
minimise the risk
For example:
Risk Assessment Management System (RAMS)
RAMS is a process where the activities planned to be undertaken are evaluated for
their hazard/risk and the steps that can be taken to reduce the risk are identified in a
systematic way.
Safe Person Concept (SPC)
The safe person concept provides a framework for the application of the risk
assessment and management process. It is used extensively by the New Zealand
Fire Service, and can easily be adapted for the general rescue environment.
The SPC uses a 5-step risk assessment and review:
1. Identify potential hazards and risks
2. Likelihood - what is the likelihood of these occurring - certain, very likely,
unlikely or rare
3. Consequences - what are the likely consequences - catastrophic, major,
moderate or insignificant
4. Level of risk - what is the level of risk? Risk = likelihood x consequence
5. Actions - what actions can be taken to eliminate, isolate or minimise the risk.
3.5
Likelihood
Consequences
Level of risk
(Certain, Very
Likely, Unlikely,
Rare)
(catastrophic, Major,
Minimal, Low)
(Extreme, High,
Mod, Low)
Rare
Major
Moderate
Actions to be
taken
All ropes used to
meet standard (M)
Only approved
knots used (M)
Basic precautions
Safety Officers should be appointed for any rescue activity. Team Leaders and
Safety Officers are responsible for safety at all times, but every team member needs
to be aware of their responsibility to raise safety concerns at any time. The orders
given by these officers are to be obeyed without question or delay, as they are vital to
safety. In general, the Safety Officer should not undertake any other role - their focus
is on safety.
Equipment must be regularly and carefully checked both before and after use.
Ropes can wear and rot, batteries can corrode equipment, and machinery can break
down. Faulty equipment can cost lives.
Any faulty or suspect equipment must be labeled immediately and removed for repair
or replacement (e.g. the rope that a rescuer used, inadvertently damaged, but did not
check, may kill someone next time it is used).
Personnel at risk by working at heights or depths must be protected by properly
established and monitored safety lines and systems.
Wherever possible, rescuers should adhere to standard techniques and practices.
In any rescue technique, safety limits and margins have been built in for casualty and
rescuer protection. These must never be ignored or exceeded.
WARNING NOTE:
Under no circumstances is smoking permitted in the rescue environment.
3.6
PPE should be issued/made available to each rescuer and is a key in ensuring the
safety of rescue personnel.
10
The following is a list of basic PPE for rescue workers - consistent with USAR
Awareness Student Manual:
Helmet
Whistle
Full-length clothing
Headlamp
Torch
Goggles
Dust masks
Gloves
First aid kit
Knife or shears
Boots
Hearing protection
Knee and elbow pads (advised for USAR Awareness)
It is important that each piece of PPE is appropriate for the task being undertaken,
and meets the appropriate AS/NZ or international standard.
Helmets, in particular, must be worn at all times of risk, whether great or small.
All safety equipment must be maintained and replaced in accordance with the
manufacturers recommendations.
3.7
Rescue personnel who work in situations where they could fall three meters or more
are required, under the Health and Safety in Employment Act 1992 to protect
themselves from this potential fall. Consideration should also be given at heights of
less than three meters if the result of the fall could lead to an injury.
Personnel should wear a harness if there is a potential risk of falling. This harness
should meet the requirements of AS/NZS 1891.1: 1985 Safety Belts and Harnesses
or equivalent standard, and preferably be of the full body type.
As there are many types of harnesses available including sit harnesses, fall arrest
harnesses and rescue harnesses. Advice should be sought when deciding on what
type of harness you require.
Fall protection can be provided under two basic categories. The first of these is fall
prevention where the person is restricted from gaining access to the edge where they
could fall, i.e. guardrails or a length of line attached to an anchorage and the persons
harness which is short enough to stop them reaching the edge. The second method
is fall arrest where some device is used to stop a person from hitting a lower surface
after a fall i.e. using a shock absorbing lanyard or rope grabbing device.
11
For further information regarding safe work at height the Occupational Safety and
Health Services Guidelines for the Prevention of Falls should be consulted.
3.8
Casualty safety
The safety of casualties is very important. Every effort, including the use of protective
equipment, must be made to ensure that casualties come to no further harm once a
rescue team arrives at the scene.
WARNING NOTE:
Horseplay or casual handling of casualties is unsafe and must not be
tolerated.
For the sake of realism in training it is an advantage to use live casualties in
exercises and drills. Teams should bear in mind the added safety required when
dealing with heights, water, and contaminated areas, where dummy casualties may
be substituted. In most cases, it is only by handling live casualties in training and
exercises that rescuers will appreciate the problems they will encounter on
operations.
3.9
In rescue operations, many environments may fall within the definition of confined
spaces as laid down in Standard ASNZ 2865:2001 (Safe Work in Confined Spaces).
A confined space is defined as an enclosed or partially enclosed space which:
Rescue activities in such environments must be carried out with particular regard to
the problems of breathing in dangerous atmospheres.
12
The RAPID programme, has produced a self-paced training module for confined
space awareness.
RAPID is a join initiative of the Ministry of Civil Defence & Emergency Management
(MCDEM) and the Local Government Industry Training Organisation (LGITO).
13
WARNING NOTE:
Rescue workers should only enter smoke/dust filled room if required for
their evacuation from a building during an emergency situation.
If you need to leave a smoke-filled room,
crawl on your hands and knees. In this
position you are below dangerous heated
gases and the bulk of the smoke.
You will also be above toxic, heavierthan-air gases that may have been
generated by burning plastics and
natural materials.
If moving in upright position, shuffle, dont walk. The weight of the body should be
kept poised on the rear foot until the advancing foot has tested that it is safe to move
forward; do not lift the feet from the ground they should slide forward as this will
help detect obstructions and dangers.
As you move forward raise your free hand in front of your face, lightly clenched, with
the back uppermost, to feel for obstructions. If the back of your hand touches a live
electric wire, shock will throw it clear. Your hand will not grasp the wire as it would if it
were open.
14
As a final precaution, the room should be crossed diagonally to make sure that
no-one is lying in the centre.
In a larger open-plan area (office, etc.), adopt this method with diagonals to
the centre of the room from each corner. Partitions and furniture will also
hamper movement.
Safety goggles and gloves must be worn when using power tools or
hammering pickets.
Careful safety consideration must be given before any modification of
equipment, or method of use, is attempted.
Only blades, fuel, oil, hydraulic fluid, and parts that are recommended by the
manufacturer should be used.
Petrol driven motors must never be refueled while they are hot, and they must
be kept apart from fuel supplies and casualties.
All specific safety procedures for rescue equipment must be adhered to, and
regular and careful safety checks must be carried out both before and after
use.
15
16
Dont twist
Dont walk backwards
Dont step over things
17
Action Required
Signal
Evacuate
3 short blasts
Cease operations
1 long blast
Resume operations
Signals can be given using portable air horns, vehicle horns and whistles.
The evacuation signal should be relayed by members of the team to ensure that
everyone has heard it.
Note: ASTM Rope Rescue and other signal systems exist that conflict with the
above.
18
4.1
Objectives
4.2
Incident management
The first team arriving at an incident site will, at least initially, assume control. This
will require the set-up of an Incident Management System. The type of Incident
Management System used will depend on many factors including:
19
4.3
Following the bombing of the Murrah Federal Building in Okalahoma City, a series of
initial action strategies were developed. These need to be considered at the initial
stage of the incident response:
Constantly gather information
Set up communication quickly
Limit supervisory staff
Establish inventory control system
Centralise logistics
Determine length of incident
4.4
Site control
Site control will be set up in a suitable area close to the event. The Site Control Area
is a vital area to ensure the efficient and effective control and management of an
event.
Site Control can be set up anywhere where it is safe from the effects and
influence of the event and it must be at an appropriate location to work from.
Site Control will manage and control the personnel at the event site.
It will handle information flow both in and out of the event and take care of all
safety issues.
It will be responsible for situation reports being sent and received from the
Incident Control Point (ICP).
Site Control in general is responsible for the efficient running of the event site.
It is a good idea to cordon off the Site Control Area, make it visible, well
identified and easy to find.
Identifying the Site Control Area well saves time for personal entering the event area.
In any major event all actions taken at Site Control will be under the guidance of the
Incident Controller (IC) who will be working to an Incident Action Plan, all instructions
received from the ICP must be acted on.
The only variation to this is if there is no ICP established, in that case the first to
arrive at the event will be responsible to set up Site Control, secure the site and start
on an initial Incident Action Plan.
4.4.1
Safety Officer
A Safety Officer must be appointed to take care of safety issues at an event.
20
The Safety Officer will be responsible for all safety issues that may effect team
members and casualties at the event site. This will include being responsible for
checking on any movement of walls, rubble material etc, and looking out for hazards
either present or evolving that could be a danger to personnel or casualties. The
Safety Officers responsibility is the safety of all personnel and casualties at the event
site and the Safety Officer must not get involved with other tasks such as rescue etc.
Note: A Safety Officer may also be required at the Safe Forward Point and/or at
operational sites of teams.
Information boards
Sufficient information boards will be required to display all information such as: Registration Information.
Situation Reports.
Reconnaissance Information.
Map.
Incident Action Plan.
Registration
All personnel entering Site Control must be registered in and out and a permanent
record kept.
A record must be kept of team members entering the event scene as well. This is
particularly important with team members entering into the danger areas of the event.
Reconnaissance teams and rescue teams must be accounted for.
The information required is: Name of the person entering.
The team or organisation they belong to.
Time in.
The time they registered out of the Site Control Area.
Stipulate the importance to register in and out when leaving the site.
Some form of registration may also happen at the Safe Forward Point.
Situation reports
Situation reports are a vital part of site control, they should be sent direct to the ICP
on a regular basis.
It is imperative that the ICP be kept informed about the status of the event.
Requests for resources will be included in the situation reports and the reports should
be done at fifteen-minute intervals, sooner if necessary.
21
Only relevant information should be sent and the content of the reports documented.
Any medium (radio, runner, phone etc) can be used to deliver reports.
Situation reports will include: The number of the report.
Information sent.
Time sent.
Method sent.
All incoming information from the recipient e.g. the ICP, must be documented.
Reconnaissance
Reconnaissance teams will be deployed and information gained will be recorded.
This information will be used in the Incident Action Plan and all necessary relevant
information relayed back to incident control.
Record all relevant information on the map such as hazards encountered, location of
found casualties, landmarks and any dangers.
Record all relevant information on the information board and keep a permanent
record as well.
Map
A map of the event area must be made. It must be precise and show as much detail
as possible and highlight known features, landmarks and any other relevant
information. It is also important to show where hazards are on the map and identify
any other dangers that could affect both rescue team member and casualties. Show
on the map the location of all known identified casualties and their condition, Green,
Red, etc. This will save time for future teams going to rescue them. Add landmarks to
the map, these will act as reference points for those entering the event.
Highlight on the map the location where the Site Control has been set up and send a
copy to the Safe Forward Point, this will aid personnel entering the event area to find
the Site Control after deployment from the Safe Forward Point (SFP).
Incident Action Plan (IAP)
The plan to rescue the maximum number of casualties in the shortest possible time.
If a team is the first to arrive at an event and the event is not under control from an
ICP, the team will need to start to create an Incident Action Plan. The plan is based
on information gathered from all sources since the onset of the event.
The plan will be taken over by the Incident Controller as soon as an ICP has been
established providing the size and nature of the event warrants it.
Incident Control will be in operation at all major events.
22
The plan will initially be oral instructions but as the management of the incident
becomes organized, written plans will be created and administered by the Incident
Management Team (IMT).
The plan must be achievable and establish the incident objectives.
The Incident Action Plan will: Describe the overall operational objectives and strategies
Ensure continuity of control operations
Provide for effective use of resources
Identify total anticipated resources
Safe Forward Point (SFP)
The Safe Forward Point is the area where arriving personal and equipment assemble
before being deployed into the event proper.
It is important to remember that registration in and out is done at both the Safe
Forward Point and at Site Control. The Safe Forward Point will be established at a
safe location near to the event. It may be inside or just outside the inner cordon.
The primary function of the Safe Forward Point is a place where teams and
resources will assemble safely at an event.
Security will be undertaken at the Safe Forward Point and a safety officer must be
appointed to take responsibility for safety issues at the Safe Forward Point.
Factors to consider when establishing the site are.
Access to the event for all services.
Safety in the area selected. (Is it safe from all hazards)?
Is it safe from the factors causing the event?
Protection from the elements.
Large enough to cater for manpower, equipment and casualties.
Security
Security personnel should be deployed to ensure that only authorised persons enter
the Safe Forward Point and Inner Cordon.
Only personnel wearing and equipped with all personal safety gear may enter the
inner cordon.
It is important to establish security as soon as possible, utilize some of the first
personnel to arrive for this task.
Security is important to deter unwanted people from the site who could hinder or
impede the rescue process.
23
4.4.2
Staging area: An area where resources will be accumulated, this should be well away from the
administration and casualty handling area.
Such things as trailers, rescue equipment, vehicles etc will be located there.
Welfare area: An area where the welfare of all the personnel involved with the event can be catered
for.
Food, water, shelter and a rest area will need to be provided.
A welfare area may have been established outside the event area, however if this
has not been done a welfare area must be established to cater for all personnel and
casualties being effected by the event.
Weather:Weather conditions will influence an event. Weather reports must be obtained and
weather conditions considered. Cold and wet weather will have a detrimental effect
on all personnel and casualties.
Time of day:Depending on the time of day an event takes place. Rescue Personnel arriving at an
event could require specific resources such as lighting and water etc.
24
Plan ahead to make sure that all the required resources are requested and are in
place well before it is too late.
4.4.3
1.
The inner cordon may or may not have been established by the ICP for the
event.
If it hasnt it is important to establish the inner cordon on arrival at the event
and secure the area.
The first personnel to arrive will start setting up Site Control.
The area for Site Control will be defined taking into consideration factors such
as suitably and safety.
Registration area to be established.
Casualty handling area to be established.
Resource and Welfare areas to be established.
Information boards put in place for: Map (showing hazards, victim location, landmarks, dangers, site control
location)
All information received including reconnaissance.
Incident Action Plan. (Planning will start immediately)
Situation reports sent to and received from the ICP.
Hard copies should be made of all information written on any of the boards.
A Safety Officer appointed as soon as possible.
Reconnaissance teams deployed.
Incident Action Plan (now becoming more precise and detailed)
Deployment of rescue team and equipment etc.
Prepare to receive and treat casualties.
Removal of casualties for professional treatment.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
4.5
Rescue by stages
No set of rules can be devised to give leaders specific guidance on how to tackle
every job, but by proceeding in stages in accordance with a regular plan they are less
liable to overlook important points and more likely to appreciate, and organise,
appropriate action.
R.E.P.E.A.T.
This method of Rescue by Stages is consistent with the International Search And
Rescue Advisory Group (INSARAG) rescue response guidelines.
25
Elimination of Utilities
26
T
C
H
A
R
D
Task
Casualties
Hazards
Access/Exits
Resources available
Damage extent
2. Elimination of utilities
All utilities must be evaluated and controlled for the safety of all those involved.
It does not involve any treatment to, or rescue of, victims, as the main need is
for information at this stage. (It is expected that some rescue activities will be
taking place simultaneously.)
3. Primary surface search & rescue
Surface and lightly trapped victims should be removed as quickly and safely, as
possible.
Extreme care must be taken during this phase to ensure that rescuers do not
become victims. It is at this stage that many of the techniques in Chapters 9,10
and 11 of this manual will be put to use.
Where a number of structures have to be searched, it is vital to adopt a
disciplined Priority Structure Assessment (PSA). The hazard marking system,
and the victim marking system must be applied at this stage.
4. Exploration of all voids and spaces
All voids and accessible spaces created as a result of the event must be
explored for live victims.
Audible call systems can be used during this phase, e.g. line and hail search
technique (as described in Urban Search And Rescue (USAR) Category 1,
Awareness).
WARNING NOTE:
Only suitably trained dog units, or specially trained rescue personnel
should be used in void and space searches.
27
4.6
Continuing action
Having made decisions and deployed personnel, Team Leaders must ensure
reconnaissance is continued with a view to allocating priorities for the further
deployment of resources.
Rescuers deployed on a particular building, damaged by blast or natural causes,
should make careful observation of how that building has collapsed. The art of
rescue lies in being able to identify and exploit, all debris formations such as voids
etc, which can be used to facilitate access to casualties once their whereabouts have
been fixed by firm information or inference.
All rescuers should attempt to locate and identify the parts of the building, especially
those parts where reconnaissance indicates casualties are likely to be. This will
provide a rough idea of where casualties might be found in relation to the various
parts of the damaged structure.
At times such as this, a leader will need to call upon all accumulated experience and
training and combine them with effective decision-making.
4.7
Precautions in operations
In the interest of safety to both trapped victims and rescuers, a thorough appreciation
must be made before any rescue operation is commenced. The main safety
considerations are as follows:
Do not move any debris in contact with the collapse without assessing its
importance to the stability of the site.
Always stabilise a collapse with shoring before entering a void.
28
4.8
Entry and rescue procedures for confined spaces must comply with the
provisions of ASNZ 2865:2001.
Always appreciate the forces and their possible direction of movement in all
types of collapse.
Pack and support vertically, horizontally, and laterally whenever and wherever
possible.
In all materials used, consider their strength in relation to the loads to which
they will be subjected.
Any disaster will invariably result in ruptured electrical water, gas, and sewer
lines and, although these will be primarily the responsibility of the public utility,
it is essential that rescue personnel be trained to deal with such problems in
the initial stages.
Crush injuries
It should be remembered that casualties may be found who have suffered severe
crush injuries. These people will be suffering from shock and their breathing
passages may be clogged by the dust contained in the debris. Rescuers must take
immediate steps to provide a clear airway for such casualties and treat for shock.
People trapped in debris and suffering from crush injuries need urgent, expert
medical attention. These victims should be treated, if possible, before release from
entrapment.
4.9
Debris clearance
Two methods by which people trapped under a pile of debris can be extracted are:
By clearance of debris, ie: by removing the debris piece by piece until the
casualties are uncovered and freed.
By the construction of tunnels and linking of voids (complying with confined
space rules)
If anyone survives at all, inside or under a large pile of debris after a building has
collapsed, it is because some heavy timber, steel or concrete (a floor, or other portion
of the structure) has fallen or remained fixed, in such a way as to protect this person
from the main impact and weight of the debris. Furniture can sometimes protect a
casualty. Unless something of this kind has happened, it is unlikely that the casualty
will survive. This protection may be of a very unstable nature, and, unless great care
is exercised, it may collapse.
The chances of an internal collapse occurring can be minimised only by disturbing
the debris as little as possible during rescue operations, and by making sure that, as
one portion of the debris is removed, the remainder is not dislodged and allowed to
slide or fall.
29
Careful observance of these principles reduces the risk of further injury to trapped
people, resulting in greater speed in the rescue operation. The ideal is speed with
safety.
When debris clearance is undertaken for rescue purposes, the debris should
be moved clear of the demolished building, and not merely from one part of
the site to another.
Debris can be removed by hand or by using other receptacles found on the
site. In a confined space or over obstacles, it is best to form a human chain.
It may sometimes be necessary when clearing debris, to cut a lane through it
to reach a casualty. Great care must be taken in so doing, to ensure that the
sides of the lane do not collapse. These can be made safe, where necessary,
by a simple form of shoring.
30
Deduction
Each factor should be thoroughly examined and care should be taken not to
introduce irrelevant facts into the examination.
31
G or NG
Name of Team
Time/Date of Start
32
A site control system will then be used to gather information on the teams actions,
hazards, and other information found eg number of missing people.
For general rescue teams, once primary surface search and rescue is completed
then they will summarise the teams actions, any additional hazards found, and some
indication of people still unaccounted for, and place this information on the search
marking.
G or NG
Number of live
removed
Number of dead
Name of Team
removed
Time/Date of Start
Time/Date of Finish
Once the team has completed its task and is leaving the site a circle is place around
the search marking.
Victim Markings are used primarily in the reconnaissance phase to mark potential
and confirmed victim locations whenever the victim is not being immediately
removed. They are updated as victims are removed, and can also be used to identify
whether the victims are alive or deceased eg:
V
Potential Victim location
V
Confirmed victim location
V
Only dead victims
V
Victims removed
Search and Victim Marking is covered more thoroughly in the USAR Awareness
Student Manual.
33
If you are in any way suspicious as to the cause of death (suspecting either
murder or suicide), do not disturb the body and surrounding area, but record,
secure, and then notify the nearest Police.
Where there is danger of further damage to the body, (by fire, flood, or
collapse of the building or structure, or danger to rescue workers and Police),
then the body may be removed to a safe place which can be secured.
Give the Police all vital information (covering the location and position of the
body, cause of death, suspicions, circumstances, personal belongings, etc.)
included in a full report as soon as possible.
Photographic records of the original position and surrounding area would be
beneficial, where available.
34
35
Section 5: Ropes
Ropes
5.1
Objectives
5.2
Introduction
Rope is one of the most important tools of the rescue team. Rescuers will use a
range of rope types for specific applications. All types have their advantages and
disadvantages, but provided the rescuer has thorough knowledge of the
characteristics and capabilities of each type, all will give valuable service if they are
appropriately cared for and maintained.
New Zealand does not have a specific rope standard. All ropes used for rescue
should meet an existing international standard, appropriate for the purpose for which
they are being used. The existing rope standards include:
AS 4142 Australian Standard for Fibre Rope
ASTM F1740 Standard Guide for Inspection of Nylon, Polyester, or
Nylon/Polyester Blend Kernmantle Rope
NFPA1983:2001 National (US) Fire Protection Association Standard for
Rescue Lines
EN1891 Personal protective equipment for the prevention of falls from a
height. Low stretch kernmantel ropes
5.3
Types of rope
36
Section 5: Ropes
5.4
Synthetic ropes
Construction
The manufacture of synthetic fibre rope commences with a chemical process that
produces the raw material, such as Nylon or Terylene. The material is then melted
and extruded through holes in a metal disc to produce long and fine filaments.
The filaments are then stretched and cooled, with the amount of stretch determining
some subsequent rope properties. In basic terms, higher stretching during filament
manufacture will result in a rope with higher tensile strength and lower stretch in use.
These filaments are then bunched to form multi-filament yarns. Synthetic rope
should be of continuous filament or multi-filament construction, with each filament
being a continuous length throughout the rope. It is generally easier to detect a
continuous filament rope, as it will be smooth and shiny in appearance, without the
hairy appearance of stable or short filament ropes.
The multi-filament yarns are twisted to form primary strands and twisted together
again to make plied strands. The plied strands are then laid together and encased
in a plaited sheath. Ropes of multi-filament kernmantle construction are
manufactured from Polyamide fibre with a limited stretch factor and high static
strength making them ideal for rescue purposes.
Note: Natural fibre lines are normally of Hawser Laid construction and are a pale
brown/cream color. On closer inspection you will see the small natural fibres
that are twisted together- not the continuous thread of synthetic line.
Rescuers need to know what they look like so they can be sure to avoid them.
5.5
Kernmantle Construction
Individual filament
Primary strands
37
Section 5: Ropes
5.6
Elongation
A static rope is one designed with low elongation characteristics. These ropes
normally elongate around 3% under one persons body weight and not more than
10% to 20% at ultimate breaking point.
Elasticity
The stretch of a static rope is normally attributable to the elasticity of the rope
filaments. Static ropes have poor shock absorbing qualities and any shock loading
subjects the rescuers body, the equipment in the system and the anchor system, to
high impact forces.
Strength vs handling
Static ropes tend to have thicker sheaths for greater core protection. The increased
sheath contributes more to the overall rope strength, but results in a stiffer rope with
poorer rope handling characteristics.
ADVANTAGES of static ropes are:
Low stretch
Resistance to abrasion
High tensile strength
DISADVANTAGES of static ropes are:
Poor capacity for shock absorption
Stiffer handling and knotting.
WARNING NOTE:
All ropes used in a rescue system must have identical characteristics
to avoid unequal stretch and load reactions.
5.7
There are a wide range of kernmantle ropes available on the market with variations in
manufacturer, colour, sheath characteristics.
The criteria for synthetic fibre rescue ropes are laid down in Australian Standard
AS4142.3-1993, (Fibre ropes- Part 3 Man-made fibre rope for static life rescue lines):
Minimum diameter 11mm
Static kernmantle construction
Minimum rated strength 3000kg
100% Polyamide (Nylon)
Spin resistant
38
Section 5: Ropes
Abrasion resistant
Good handling and knotting properties
Maximum 3% elongation at 80kg load
Maximum 10% elongation at 375kg load
Maximum 20% elongation at 3000kg load
Contrasting core and sheath colours
Coded with an identification tape in the core. NB: this required characteristic
limits the number of ropes considered appropriate, as this is not generally
required internationally. For this reason a number of organisations are
complying with alternative international standards.
Rope with a very low (preferably 0%) sheath slippage is also desirable.
5.8
Breaking force
The averaged ultimate breaking point of rope. Expressed in kilograms (kg) or in kiloNewtons (kN) following rigorous testing. Also referred to as Breaking Strain, Mean
Breaking Strain (MBS) or Mean Breaking Load (MBL).
5.9
The maximum working load that should be applied to a rope. This is consistent with
the factor of safety recommended for the conditions under which the rope is to be
used (the breaking force divided by 10).
E.g. Breaking Force of 3000kg = safe working load of 300kg
39
Section 5: Ropes
Ropes that have been hauled through mud, sand or grit should always be
cleaned after the work has been completed. This is best managed by washing
the rope in fresh, running water and following any manufacturers
recommendations.
Do not dry ropes in front of a fire or other heat source. Sread the rope on a
ladder, laid horizontally off the ground in a cool, shady area to enable the air to
circulate freely around the rope.
Store ropes under cover, off the floor, preferably in racks, in a place free from
extremes of temperature and out of contact with any contaminating materials.
Damaged or defective ropes must be appropriately labelled and removed from
service immediately. Details must then be entered on the rope history record
card.
Ropes should not be exposed to direct sunlight for prolonged periods as the
fibres will degrade due to ultra-violet radiation. If a rope has to be stored in an
exposed location, cover it with a tarpaulin or some other form of protection.
Ensure no contact is made with contaminants such as grease, oil, petrol,
hydraulic fluid, acids, alkalis, and chemicals.
5.12 Inspection
All ropes should be inspected before, during and after use. The inspection should be
carried out by visually examining the rope and by thoroughly feeling the rope.
Visual examination should check for the following signs:
Discolouration of the filaments - Any changes in the original colour of the
rope filaments could indicate contamination by chemicals.
40
Section 5: Ropes
Melting - Any smooth areas could indicate the rope has been damaged by
heat fusion.
White filaments - Where the sheath has been damaged, the white core
filaments may protrude.
Size uniformity - The rope may be damaged by mechanical impacts or over
stressing. This may be evidenced by an obvious change in the shape and
diameter of the rope.
Abrasion - Excessive signs of abrasion may indicate the breaking of a sheath
bundle and localised weakness.
Stiffness - Any inconsistency in the texture of a rope and its stiffness. A bight
of rope should have uniform radius around the bend, and inconsistencies may
be soft spots that indicate core damage.
Thoroughly feeling the rope should check for these additional signs:
Stiffened filaments - This indicates possible overloading or contamination.
Changes in diameter - Depressed irregularities in the rope diameter (soft
spots) may indicate core damage, while increases in the apparent diameter
may be due to severe twisting of the core, or the protrusion of core filaments
through the sheath.
Contamination - Presence of dirt or other materials.
WARNING NOTE:
Load testing of ropes is not recommended as a safe practice.
Abrasion - As a general rule when more than half of the sheath yarns are
broken, or the abrasion fuzz stands out from the sheath more than 25% of the
rope diameter.
Contamination - Unless the material with which the rope has come into
contact with is harmless, it should be considered contaminated.
41
Section 5: Ropes
Sheath protection - Where the white core filaments are visible through a hole
in the sheath, or where the core protrudes through the sheath as a white
filament puff.
Whilst some services may have a policy on the life or limit of use of a rope, the
bottom line with regard to rope retirement must be:
IF IN DOUBT, THROW IT OUT
Note: Further information on rope inspection and service life can be located in ASTM
F1740-96 Standard Guide for Inspection of Nylon, Polyester, or Nylon/Polyester
Blend Kernmantle Rope.
5.14 Terminology
For the purpose of this manual, the following terms are used in reference to rope and
rope management. Other terms may be used in specific organisations.
Anchoring: Fastening a rope to some suitably secure object.
Belaying: Controlling a safety rope attached to personnel or equipment.
Bight: A simple bend in which the rope does not cross itself.
Hauling: The act of pulling on a rope.
Half-Hitch: The closed loop on a rope; a simple fastening of a rope around some
object by winding and crossing one turn so that one section of the rope bites on the
other without actually knotting the rope.
Kernmantle: A style of construction of synthetic fibre rope, consisting of a core (kern)
and a sheath (mantle).
Loop: A simple bend in which the rope crosses itself.
Mousing: Tying a piece of cord or wire across the jaws of a hook to prevent a rope
or sling from jumping out of the hook.
Parcelling / Edge protection: Wrapping a section of the rope to prevent chafing
against some object.
Paying out / Easing: Reducing the tension on a rope.
Reeving: Threading a rope through pulley blocks.
Round turn: One complete turn of a rope around a spar or another rope.
42
Section 5: Ropes
Loop
Bight
Running End
Round Turn
Rope
Pack
Turn
Standing Part
43
Section 5: Ropes
Chaining
Chaining involves creating a series of loose loops in multiple
strands of rope to form a chain which can then be hung up
or stored.
The diagram to the left shows the process of forming a
multiple strand chain.
5.16 Identification
A system of marking each end of a rope for identification of length, and with a
reference number to the rope history card, is recommended.
Colour coding can be used to quickly identify ropes, and should be located at each
end of the rope. The suggested colour coding is:
GREEN - OK to use for all activities.
RED - not suitable for live work.
Discard damaged rope immediately.
It is important you know the colour coding that your team uses as this may differ from
team to team.
If faults are found during any rope inspection, immediate steps must be taken to
rectify the problem(s) in accordance with Standard - AS4142.3 (or EN1891).
44
Section 5: Ropes
Length :
Diameter :
Colour :
SWL :
IMPORTANT: Inspect ropes for damage or excessive wear each time it is deployed
and again after each use. Retire all suspect ropes immediately.
Date Used
Location Used
Type of Use
Date Cked
Inspector
Comments
5.19 Construction
There are two broad design categories of tape - flat and tubular. Both types are
actually flat in appearance. However, if tubular tape is viewed in cross section, it
forms a hollow tube. Standard tubular tape is normally the strongest and most flexible
form, and is therefore recommended for vertical rescue. Tubular tape is preferred for
rescue as it is less prone to damage on an edge or rough area than is flat tape.
45
Section 5: Ropes
Tape is woven in many different ways and the characteristics that can be affected by
the style of construction are: strength, elongation, abrasion resistance and ultra-violet
resistance. All of these factors are affected by the fibre used and the weave tension
in particular. While a tape with a very tight weave will be strong, knot retention and
suppleness will be poor. Obviously a good rescue tape is a compromise of factors.
5.20 Size
Tape is sized by a flat width, with 25mm and 50mm being the most commonly used
sizes. Smaller tape sizes are available, often as sewn slings. If they are used in
General Rescue they must be certified or rated by the manufacturer.
5.21 Abrasion
Under certain circumstances, tape is liable to abrade or wear more rapidly than rope
and it has no sheath for extra protection. Additional attention must be paid to wear or
friction areas and tapes must be discarded when doubt exists as to its safety.
46
Section 5: Ropes
WARNING NOTE:
Always check Tape Knots before using slings.
5.25 Safety
The following safety points relate to tape:
When slings are carried on operations, they should preferably be carried on
the harness, or diagonally around the neck and under one arm. (Many
rescuers carry spare slings around their necks, and it must be recognised that
this is a potentially lethal practice; should the rescuer fall, the loose slings can
snag, resulting in serious or fatal injury.)
Knots must be regularly checked for signs of overstrain or loosening, and
properly retied, or cut, heat sealed then retied, where necessary, with
minimum tails of 100mm.
All tape must be regularly and carefully inspected for signs of damage or
abrasion, and where damage is suspected, or serious abrasion has occurred,
the tape must be withdrawn from service. Where a sling has been subjected to
a severe loading, it may be seriously damaged but the damage may not be
obvious. ALL SUCH SLINGS MUST BE DESTROYED.
47
Section 5: Ropes
The safe working loads for these ropes can be calculated by dividing the MBL by a
safety factor of 10 which is considered to be an appropriate factor for rescue
purposes.
Mean Breaking Load (kg) = SWL
10
5.28 Construction
Steel wire rope consists of a number of strands (normally six) with a fibre core.
Each strand consists of a
number of steel wires the
most common form of
construction being 6/19,
indicating six strands, each
of nineteen steel wires and
with a fibre core.
During manufacture, wires and strands are coated with lubricant to prevent corrosion
and friction in the rope, or they are galvanised.
48
Section 5: Ropes
left. To save time and trouble, simply bend the wire backwards and forwards
with the fingers until it breaks.
Look for kinks. When a rope has been kinked, the kink may pull, but when the
rope is stressed, and although it may appear reasonably sound, the structure
of the rope has been distorted and damaged. The length affected by the
kinking may only be small, but this becomes the weakest part of the rope.
The presence of a kink is best detected when the rope is lying slack on the
ground. Rope of any sort found defective should be labelled and placed apart
from good ropes until they can be examined by a competent person.
49
Knots
6.1
Objectives
6.2
Introduction
Rescue personnel should be familiar with the following knots and by constant
practice learn how to make and adapt them with speed and proficiency. Knots must
always be tied tightly, dressed down, and inspected. As a good rule of thumb, any
knot that does not look neat and correct is almost certainly incorrectly tied.
6.3
Stopper knots
Stopper knots are not required if adequate tails are left on knots (more than 150mm)
and the knot is dressed (tightened to the correct position as it would when taking a
load). Individual teams may have Standard Operating Procedures that require the
tying of stopper knots.
6.4
Figure 8 knots
The figure of 8 knots are the preferred knots for forming end loops in synthetic
kernmantel ropes, and are highly suited for this purpose in all ropes. They are used
to form a non-slip loop that is easy to undo, with a low percentage reduction of the
safe working load of the rope.
50
6.5
This knot can be used in the same manner as the thumb knot, to prevent a rope end
running through a pulley, or fraying, or to secure a knot tied in a synthetic rope. In
general, it is more useful than the thumb knot as it is easier to untie.
To tie the knot, hold the rope away from you, take
the standing part in one hand, palm upward, and
the running end in the other hand.
Pass the running end over the top of the standing
part making a loop, then carry on with the running
end down and then up around the standing part,
then down through the first loop which you have
formed.
Draw the running end tight and the knot will be a
figure 8.
6.6
The figure 8 on a bight knot is used to form a non-slip loop, which can be placed
over a spike, bar, etc.
To tie a figure 8 on a bight:
Double sufficient rope to allow the knot to be tied.
Hold the doubled rope away from you, take the
doubled standing part in one hand, palm
upwards, and the doubled running end in the
other hand.
Pass the doubled running end over the top of the
doubled standing part making a loop, then carry
on with the doubled running end down and then
up around the doubled standing part, then down
through the first doubled rope loop which you
have formed.
Draw the doubled running end tight.
6.7
Rethreaded figure 8
The rethreaded figure 8 knot is used to form a non-slip loop, which must be tied
around a bar, through a stretcher, hand-hold, etc.
51
6.8
Take the running end and pass it around the object, then follow exactly the
path back through the knot that the running end took when forming the original
Figure 8.
Dress and tighten to form the rethreaded figure 8.
52
6.9
This is an exceptionally strong knot to form 2 loops at the end of a rope. It allows you
to independently adjust the loops, so that each loop can be
used as an anchor point.
To tie, start with a basic figure 8 on a bight, except
do not pass the bight through the final loop.
Form a new bight in that end, and place this through
the final loop.
53
54
55
56
Ladders
7.1
Objectives
By the end of studying and undertaking training on this chapter of the General
Rescue Manual individuals should be able to, with other similarly trained people:
Check a ladder
Erect a ladder (three rescuer)
Secure the ladder, both top and bottom
Climb the ladder
Lower the ladder
7.2
Introduction
Ladders are readily available at most rescue sites and during a disaster may be used
for improvised rescue techniques. It must be remembered however, that ladders
have been constructed to be used in a specified load bearing position and should
normally be used in accordance with AN/NZS Standards and the Manufacturers
specifications.
Some guidelines for the use of ladders are contained in the OSH Publication Guidelines for the Prevention of Falls.
7.3
Construction
Ladders come in a variety of styles, lengths and materials. Aluminium, timber and
fibreglass are the three most commonly in use.
57
7.4
Terminology
Stiles/Strings
Stiles
(Strings)
Latching device/Pawl
Metal hooks fitted to extension ladders to lock the
ladders in extended form.
Pulley
Guide
Rungs/Rounds
Cross members used in climbing a ladder.
Hauling rope
Pulling line for raising extension ladders.
Foot/Heal
The bottom or ground end of a ladder.
Latching
Device
(Pawl)
Single ladder
A one-piece ladder.
Hauling
Rope
Extension ladder
A ladder built in sections, one or more of which can
be extended.
Rung
(Round)
Foot (Heal)
58
7.5
Extension ladders
Extension ladders are commonly in two sections, with the upper section sliding on
and between the stiles of the lower section. Latching devices are fitted to the lower
end of the upper section and operate on a movable shaft. Hauling ropes are taken
through a sheave fixed near the top of the lower section, brought down and fastened
to hooks or cleats at the bottom of the upper section. One cleat is attached to the
latching device thus providing an endless line by means of which the top section can
be extended or lowered and the latching devices, which are mounted on the upper
section, can be engaged or released.
To easily distinguish them in the dark, the stiles of the top section can have a white
line to indicate the limit of safety when extended for use.
Timber ladders are strengthened on the underside of the stiles by galvanised wire or
fibreglass which is stretched tautly in the groove along the edge of the strings being
secured top and bottom. Timber ladders are further strengthened by cross ties from
stile to stile at intervals.
Ladders should not be painted as paint could hide defects. A small section, at each
end, may be painted for identification purposes. Timber ladders may be treated with
linseed oil.
Defective ladders must be withdrawn from service and labelled: Dangerous - Do not
use and either repaired or destroyed as soon as possible.
WARNING NOTE:
A hazard exists when using ladders in the vicinity of electrical wires as all
ladders have the potential to conduct electricity from wires or live roofs or
structures. Rescuers must ensure overhead clearance when erecting a
ladder.
7.6
Step ladders
59
7.7
Inspection of ladders
Every ladder should be visually inspected before each use. The main points for this
inspection are:
That there are no cracks in any part of the ladder
No evidence of rungs being loose (can be tested for twisting) where they are
attached to the strings
All bolts are secure
Rungs should be checked for wear, particularly where the pawl crosses the
rounds
The rubber feet should be checked to see that there is no deterioration
The hauling rope and pulley should be checked for defects that would affect
use.
WARNING NOTE:
Aluminum ladders conduct electricity, and are liable to excessive twisting.
7.8
Maintenance of ladders
Extension ladders must be regularly and carefully checked for damage or defects, in
accordance with the relevant Standards. Particular attention must be paid to those
ladders that are stored on vehicle roof racks and thereby exposed to the weather
regularly.
The ladder should be visually inspected for cracks in the timber, the security of the
rungs and reinforcing wires, and for general appearance.
Pulleys, latching devices and extension guides should be checked for lubrication and
security, and the latching device pivot points and pulleys lubricated as necessary.
Hauling ropes should be checked and replaced as necessary.
Ladders should never be painted as the paint can cover quite serious cracks and
defects. Better that timber ladders be left in a natural condition, and regularly oiled
with linseed oil, which will keep the ladder flexible, and prevent water damage or rot.
7.9
60
61
The ladder is then laid back by the first person, who walks backward until the
top of the ladder comes to rest where required - against sill, wall etc.
Please note: Communication within the ladder team is very important. While the
actual calls may vary between agencies, what is important is that each member of
the ladder team knows what is happening and what their job is.
62
7.13 Overlaps
Normal two part extension ladders must be extended with sufficient overlap for
safety.
For small ladders (up to 3 metres not extended) an overlap of at least three (3)
rungs is recommended.
A five (5) rung overlap is recommended for large ladders.
Wherever possible, ladders should be erected so that the head of the ladder
projects or overlaps the window, roof or other landing point by at least one
metre (4-5 rungs).
63
64
7.19 Rules of 3
Some of the key features of working with ladders can be summarised as the:
3 rules of 3
1. 3 people to raise/lower ladder
2. 3 rungs over/above entry/access point
3. 3 points of contact when climbing up and down
65
Managing casualties
8.1
Objectives
8.2
Introduction
Using General Rescue techniques contributes to the overall goal of rescuing the
maximum number of people in the minimum amount of time. To achieve this
rescuers need methods of prioritising casualties for ongoing treatment and rescue.
The initial assessment and prioritisation will be done in the reconnaissance phase,
but will be ongoing, as conditions, both of the casualties and the environment, will
often change throughout the rescue process.
In this section we describe one method that has been developed to sort, or triage, a
large number of casualties in a short period of time and with little medical knowledge.
The method explained below is known as START.
Please note that other groups/emergency services may use other, often more
complex, methods of triaging based on their advanced medical skills and knowledge.
Co-ordination and liaison between groups will be needed, if multiple agencies are
working on a site.
8.3
START
START was developed in California in the early 1980s by Hoag Hospital and
Newport Beach Fire Department.
S
Simple
Triage
And
Rapid
Treatment
Those with minor injuries are immediately tagged GREEN - often referred to as
walking wounded.
START allocates all other casualties a triage category based on assessment.
66
RED
8.4
Labelling
Whatever triage system is used, it is important that all casualties located during a
rescue operation are labeled with a casualty tag. There is no nationally recognised
casualty tag and many regions have developed their own casualty tags.
Whatever tag is used the basic information that should be included is:
Identifier for each casualty - their name and/or an assigned number.
The location they were found
The identification of the person who found them
67
8.5
The Code of Health and Disability Services Consumers' Rights became law on 1 July
1996 as a regulation under the Health and Disability Commissioner Act. It is
obviously intended for everyday service provision as opposed to during an
emergency, however during rescue activities where care is being provided to a
individual the Code should be considered.
The Code is very wide and extends to any person or organisation providing, or
holding themselves out as providing, a health service to the public, or a section of the
public, whether that service is paid for or not.
The obligation under the Code is to take "reasonable actions in the circumstances to
give effect to the rights, and comply with the duties.
There are 10 rights in the Code:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
68
Section 9: Stretchers
Stretchers
9.1
Objectives
9.2
Introduction
9.3
The folding stretcher must be set up as follows before a casualty can be transferred
to it:
Unfasten the straps that hold
the stretcher closed.
Spread open the stretcher
and lock the spreaders in
place by pushing on each bar
with your foot, from the side
to avoid standing on the bed,
until it locks into place.
Do not use your hands as
they can be pinched by the
hinges.
69
Section 9: Stretchers
9.4
Where it is possible that the centre hinge of the spreader bar may be snagged,
causing the hinge to unlock and collapse the stretcher, a securing rope should
be used.
A short length of rope can be tied from one stretcher handle to the centre
hinge and then to the other stretcher handle in V pattern.
70
Section 9: Stretchers
WARNING NOTE:
A rope lashing system should be used at all times other than when the
stretcher is moved over smooth and flat ground.
Care must be taken if this stretcher is used for lowering as the high centre
of gravity can cause the stretcher to invert, particularly when using the twopoint suspension method.
9.5
Basket stretchers
There are two types of basket stretcher commonly in use. The older type has a
strong tubular aluminium frame covered with chicken wire, whereas the newer has a
formed plastic, fibreglass, or aluminium basket attached to a tubular aluminium
frame.
The newer designs have an advantage in that they are less likely to be snagged or
penetrated than the wire model.
Other than the very old wire designs, these stretchers can accommodate a scoop
style stretcher, or spinal board, thus making the transfer of a spinal casualty easier.
Basket stretchers provide good protection for casualties and are ideally suited to a
range of rescue techniques. The main drawback is the relative expense in
comparison to other types of stretchers.
9.6
Wrap-around stretchers
Wrap-around style stretchers such as the Sked and the Fallright Evacuation Splint,
whilst quite different in design and construction, share the same critical feature in that
71
Section 9: Stretchers
they conform very closely to the casualtys body, thus adding very little width or bulk
for confined space operations.
Each of the wrap-around style stretchers has its own advantages and
disadvantages that must be weighed up prior to use.
Each has its own individual casualty securing system. Manufacturers
recommendations about methods of attaching lowering and guide ropes must
be followed.
9.7
9.8
In addition to warmth, comfort, and immobilisation, the blanket is used for padding to
keep the patient in the required lateral/recovery
position.
The following is the recommended method:
Before folding the blanket around someone :
72
Section 9: Stretchers
9.9
Roll a blanket end to end and position it on the stretcher so that the roll is used
to pad the patients back.
A second blanket is placed on the opposite side of the stretcher to support
arm and stop patient rolling onto stomach.
73
Section 9: Stretchers
WARNING NOTE:
Suspected spinal injured casualties can be safely transported by this
method with correct immobilisation of the spine and with particular attention
paid to the head and neck.
74
Section 9: Stretchers
75
Section 9: Stretchers
Board
Basket
Wraparound
Advantages
Large quantities
available.
Compact.
Easy for one
person to move.
Comfortable.
Moderate
quantities
available.
Protection from
below.
Disadvantages
Relatively scarce.
Cost.
Bulk.
Cost.
Limited access to
casualties to
monitor/treat.
Usage
Moving casualties
over level ground.
Make good beds in
mass casualty
situation.
NOT to be used
for rescue from
height.
High center of
gravity when used
for lowers.
Uncomfortable for
long periods of
time.
Spinal injuries.
Rescue from
heights using
General Rescue
Techniques.
MUST use lashing
line when moving
over uneven
ground or lowersDO NOT rely on
webbing straps.
All purpose.
Restricted or
confined space.
Special notes
Use additional
lacing when
used for rescue
from height.
76
Section 9: Stretchers
The position of the three securing Half Hitches can be varied according to the
location of the injuries that the casualty has sustained. In the case of a female
casualty, the top securing hitch should be placed just above the breast line.
Bricks or timber placed under the stretcher Ds before lashing commences, will
enable the rope to be passed under the stretcher more easily.
77
Section 9: Stretchers
78
Section 9: Stretchers
When this lashing is used and the stretcher is going to be lowered consideration
should also be given to the Improvised Casualty Harness shown in 9.23.
Note: This technique is shown without a blanket for clarity- a blanket would normally
be used.
The casualty can be lashed securely to a basket stretcher with a 12m length of
11mm rope, or tape, with the lashing pattern dictated by the casualtys injuries
and size and by the attitude through which the stretcher will move.
If the basket stretcher has no foot plate, the casualtys feet should be secured
to prevent them from sliding down the stretcher.
If the casualty is to be shifted in a vertical position the head of the patient must
be secured. Pack soft material on either side of the casualtys head and tie a
length of bandage to one lower rail, lay it over the casualties head (not
covering the eyes) and tie the other end to the opposite lower rail.
It is important to continually reassure any casualty who is secured to a
stretcher in such a confining manner.
79
Section 9: Stretchers
80
Section 9: Stretchers
81
Section 9: Stretchers
Pole stretchers
These stretchers are very simple to make and require two poles about two metres
long. Stout broom handles, water pipe or 50mm x 50mm timber are quite appropriate
for this job.
82
Section 9: Stretchers
The poles should be laid parallel on the ground and about 600mm apart. The bed of
the stretcher can be formed from a blanket, sacks, overalls or coats. The weight of
the casualty will hold the blankets in place.
Ladders
Where for any reason, a very narrow
stretcher is required, such as for passing
through small window openings, tunnels
etc. a small ladder or one half of a small
extension ladder can be used to an
advantage.
A decking of boards should be placed on
the ladder (if available) and it is then
blanketed in the normal way.
The lashing line is attached to a ladder
string using a rethreaded Figure of eight,
and then the lashing done at same
positions as board rescue stretcher.
Chairs
A strong style kitchen chair can be used for carries
of casualties without serious injuries.
83
10.2 Introduction
In any disaster occurring in an urban environment, it is likely that large numbers of
casualties could be trapped in upper floors of buildings, in basements or other
depths, or in many other difficult or inaccessible areas. In each case, the method of
rescue will be dictated by the circumstances. This section attempts to provide some
of the alternative methods of rescue for the low and steep angle situation. The simple
option of carrying a casualty up or down an inside stairway must not be overlooked.
10.3 Definitions
Low angle rescue
Low angle rescue techniques are used to undertake rescues on slopes of less than
30 degrees, e.g. gentle slope or rubble pile. They are used when the persons injuries
require them to be in a stretcher. The main weight of the patient is taken by the
rescuers positioned on the side of the stretcher, but allows control in the event that
the rescuers may slip or trip.
Steep angle rescue
Steep angle rescue techniques are used when the situation requires the lowering, or
raising, of the stretcher in an angle generally between 30 and 60 degrees. In this
situation the weight of the patient and stretcher is taken by the lowering lines.
Because of their specialist nature, steep angle rescue techniques are not covered in
this manual. Anyone interested should consult the USAR Best Practice Guideline:
Rope Rescue Tier Model.
High angle rescue
High angle rescue is used for rescues above 6 metres and or where the angle of the
incline exceeds 60 degrees. It requires specialist equipment and highly trained
rescuer. Because of their specialist nature, high angle rescue techniques are not
covered in this manual. Anyone interested should consult the USAR Best Practice
Guideline: Rope Rescue Tier Model.
84
CONTROL MECHANISM
Slipping/unstable rubble
Surface hazards
Injury to rescuers
Rope breaking
Low angle rescue techniques have two main components: the attachment of a line to
the stretcher, and the creation of friction to allow the stretcher to be caught in the
case it is dropped, or builds up too much speed.
85
Option two: This option works well for small distances and when you only have one
rescue line.
Make a large loop by tying a Figure of eight on the
bight.
86
CONTROL MECHANISM
Stretcher breakage
87
stretcher
Loss of control of lower
Pass the line along the side of the stretcher and form
another hitch on each side at one of the bottom
handholds
Bring the running ends up to the centre and connect to
the first figure of 8 on the bight by either:
88
89
ready? and waiting for a reply. This is followed by bottom team ready?. If all
rescuers are, the rescuers who are lowering the stretcher are directed to
tension their lines.
The leader of the top team, and or any rescuers at the top who are free to
assist, ease the stretcher over the edge of the wall with the tension maintained
on the lowering lines.
The two rescuers on the ground guide the stretcher clear of any obstruction
and walk in, while still pulling on the guide lines, to support the stretcher on
either side as it comes down.
This technique can be used equally well inside a building, using a hole found
or cut in the floor.
The minimum team size for this lower is six, but as the weight is taken by two
points a hard belays should be used rather than a waist belay whenever
possible.
90
Where it is essential to keep the casualty horizontal, the four-point lower can
be used. With four points of suspension it also is more desirable for very
heavy patients, particularly if hard belays are not available.
The stretcher is rigged and lowering lines are attached in exactly the same
way as for the two-point suspension, except that the guide lines may not be
required if the drop to the ground is clear of obstacles.
The casualty is then, or sometimes may already be, placed in the stretcher,
blanketed and lashed appropriate to their injuries.
Once all rescuers are ready, and lines are tensioned if the hole allows, place
the stretcher diagonally across the hole.
As instructed the stretcher is then straightened up and lowered evenly.
If the hole does not allow this the rescuers on the far side pull the stretcher
across until it is located over the centre of the hole.
Four rescuers are required to lower and at least one at the bottom to receive.
NOTE: An alternate method of performing the four point off a ledge involves the
addition of two lines on the inside edge of the stretcher which are passed
underneath the stretcher to two rescuers on the ground who pull the
stretcher clear of the wall.
91
The stretcher is then pushed up the ladder by a rescuer who climbs up the
ladder, until such time as the head end passes clear of the opening.
Rescuers at the top who are not holding the raising lines can then pull the
stretcher in and move away from the edge/window.
WARNING NOTE:
In the ladder slide technique, the ladder is used in a manner other than that for
which it was designed and manufactured. This is an improvised technique.
As the load on the centre of the span will be close to 150kg, the span must be
propped by one or two rescuers, or shored.
92
93
11.2 Introduction
This chapter describes a technique, the Vertical Lift Knot (VLK), that can be used to
rescue casualties without the use of a stretcher. It can also be very useful for rescuer
entry into and/or exit from sites.
The advantages of the VLK is that it requires minimal equipment and is relatively
quick to set up. Often the same anchors can be re-used, meaning a large number of
people can be rescued quickly.
The main disadvantage is that it provides little or no protection for the person being
rescued. It may also worsen injuries, so its use is generally limited to the walking
wounded.
HAZARD ID AND CONTROL
HAZARD
Rope failure/not long enough
94
CONTROL MECHANISM
Only 11mm static Kernmantle lines used
(see chapter 4)
Line lengths checked before each lower,
after passed around hard belay point.
A safety line is used- a re-threaded figure
8 around the chest.
All rescuers to be tied off if within 2m of
edge, or to be behind fence or solid barrier
no less than 900mm
Use hard belays whenever possible
Use of series of standard commands for
lower control
Have someone at the bottom to receive.
Note: An alternate method of tying the VLK is commonly taught and used, where
there is only a single twist on each side behind the neck. This method is safe
and acceptable. It is important that both sides are the same, and not a mix of
the two methods.
95
12.2 Introduction
Improvised casualty movement covers techniques using no rescue equipment.
It must be clearly understood that the following techniques are for use in an
emergency and that seriously injured casualties should, where possible, be placed
on a stretcher.
Conditions such as fire or imminent danger of building collapse, may however dictate
that removal from the scene is the first priority. In some cases this may even take
precedence over life sustaining first aid.
This subject is covered under two headings:
1. One Rescuer Handling Techniques
2. Two Rescuer Handling Techniques
96
WARNING NOTE:
All single rescuer techniques involve the risk of injury to the rescuer.
Firefighters crawl
This is an useful method for when a casualty has to be removed from a smoke filled
building in an emergency - noting that rescuers will not enter a smoke filled building.
Both rescuer and casualty have their heads
low down where the clearest and coolest air
is found if the building is on fire.
The entire weight of the casualty does not
have to be supported by the rescuer.
97
98
Four-handed seat
This is a method where each rescuer
grasps their left wrist and the hands are
joined up.
This provides a comfortable seat for the
casualty and places a minimum strain on
the rescuers. However, the casualty must
be sufficiently conscious to hold on.
It is again stressed that the one and two rescuer techniques are generally confined
to emergencies where removal from the scene is the first priority.
99
13.2 Introduction
Anchors and holdfasts are used in rescue for the purpose of securing a line, rope, or
wire that will be under load. They fall into three main classes:
Natural - Trees and boulders
Constructed - Those that have to be set up (eg. by use of pickets and
lashings, anchor devices, buried baulks, or timber)
Improvised - Those found on the site, (eg. Reinforced concrete or metal
standards, metal framework of buildings, baulks of timber across door
openings, etc).
1:1
100
3:2:1
from the load, and with two-thirds of their length into the ground.
The strongest picket/s should be nearest the load.
The lashings connecting the pickets should be at 90 degrees to the pickets
and should go from the head of the one in the front to ground level on the one
behind. This determines the distance between the pickets, which should be
more than 700mm apart.
Anchor systems should be monitored at all times.
As a rough guide to safe working loads a 1.5m x 25mm mild steel picket driven
into ground with good holding qualities will safely support a load of
approximately 350kg.
As the number of pickets in the holdfast is increased, the load it will support is
increased by approximately 350kg for each picket.
NOTE: When using angle iron pickets, the V of the picket must face the load.
Padding must be used.
From above the picket placement for the 3:2:1 picket holdfast (before lashing) look
like:
h
h
h
h
h
Load
Placement of pickets
Pickets are placed either using heavy hammers or impact drivers.
Pickets should be positioned and held by two rescuers, each holding one end
of a short cord taken around the picket in a Clove hitch, whilst a third rescuer
hammers the picket into the ground.
Rescuers must wear safety glasses/goggles and leather gloves.
Picket drivers can be used. These are simply a tube with handles attached
and used in place of hammers to drive the picket by impact.
Picket removal
Pickets can be removed from most placements with a large Stilson or pipe
wrench.
The wrench is fitted to the shaft of the picket and used to wind the picket
around and out of the ground as the rescuer exerts an upward pressure on the
wrench handle.
NOTE: For angle iron V pickets, reverse hammering, leverage or high lift jacks are
suitable for removal.
101
Picket lashings
Each lashing is formed using a 12m rope.
The lashing should be started by a clove hitch about 180mm from the head of
the front picket.
Four turns should be taken around the base of the back picket and the head of
the front picket, placing these above the clove hitch.
Turns should be applied around the lashing, (known as frapping turns)
finishing with a clove hitch around the lashing, using up whatever spare rope is
left.
The lashing must be tightened before commencing the frapping turns.
Ground anchor plates
A number of designs for ground anchor plates exist but the principle is the same using a series of long pins are used to anchor a plate onto the ground that can then
be used as an anchor point, with a rated shackle or Karabiner attached to the front
edge.
LOAD
Buried holdfasts
With this holdfast, a stout piece of timber, a length of steel girder, a large diameter
water pipe or a vehicle spare wheel is required.
A trench is dug to accommodate the
material used and a small outlet made at
right angles to the trench to allow the rope
or wire to come to the surface.
The greater the load applied, the deeper
the trench should be.
The buried holdfast is only satisfactory
where the angle between ground level and
the rope is small.
This being the case, the trench need not be
filled in, but a rescuer should be detailed to check the holdfast when the initial
load is applied.
Where a round section of material such as a log or pipe is used for the buried
holdfast, the positioning of the rope is
critical.
The rope should be taken around the
holdfast so that the standing part comes
to the bottom of the holdfast and the
102
103
Angle
between
anchors
(a)
0
10
20
30
40
45
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
130
140
150
160
170
104
Resultant
load on
each sling
in kg
(b)
500.0
501.9
507.7
517.6
532.1
542.0
551.7
577.4
610.4
652.7
707.1
777.9
871.7
1000.0
1183.1
1461.9
1931.9
2879.4
5736.9
Relative
tension on
each side
relative to
load %
50.0
50.2
50.8
51.8
53.2
54.2
55.2
57.7
61.0
65.3
70.7
77.8
87.2
100.0
118.3
146.2
193.2
287.9
573.7
Load (b) kg
Load (b) kg
Angle
1000 kg
6000
5000
4000
DANGER ZONE
3000
2000
1000
0
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
Operationally, 90 degrees is a safe relationship between the two legs of the system,
and the smaller the angle, the lower the load on each leg. At an angle close to zero
the load on each leg is around 50% of the original load, but care must be taken to
ensure the load does not pendulum onto one of the anchors.
WARNING NOTE:
The angle at which anchor slings meet must never be more than 120
degrees, and should preferably be less than 90 degrees.
105
All karabiners used in a rescue environment should be of the locking type and be
oriented with the gate up.
106
1.
Select points which are suitable, strong and safe, and check angles
between anchors.
2.
3.
14.2 Introduction
Pulley systems are used to gain a mechanical advantage in hauling, lifting and
lowering operations.
A system is formed by threading the pulleys with rope and all rescuers should be
familiar with the correct terms, applications, capabilities and maintenance of this
equipment.
The traditional forming of ropes and pulleys into block and tackle systems has largely
been overtaken by the more modern Z-rig pulley techniques utilising Kernmantel
rescue ropes and lightweight high strength rescue pulleys.
14.3 Terminology
Haul
The act of pulling on the running end of the rope to operate the system.
Mousing
Securing the hook of a pulley by wrapping small diameter cord or duct/electrical tape.
Pulley
A sheave in a frame or shell, provided with a connection point by which it may be
attached to another object.
Redirection pulley
A pulley used in a system to change the direction of the pull without affecting the
mechanical advantage.
Running end
The free end of the rope to which the pulling power is applied.
Running pulley
The pulley attached to the object being moved. A pulley that travels up or down as
the system is used.
General Rescue Manual March 2006
107
Sheave
The grooved wheel over which the rope is run in a pulley.
Shell
The frame or part of the pulley which holds the sheave and to which the strap, hook,
or eye is attached.
Snatch block
A single sheave pulley with an opening or gate in one
side of the shell, through which a rope can be engaged
or snatched into the sheave without threading the end of
the rope through. This opening is secured by means of a
hinged or pivoted portion of the strap.
Standing block
The system pulley which is fastened to an anchor.
Strap or cheek
The side plate of the pulley to which the hook or eye is attached.
Swing cheek pulley
A pulley design in which the side plates or cheeks can be pivoted on the axle to open
the pulley and permit access for the rope to the sheave.
108
They should also extend beyond the edge of the sheave to protect the rope
from abrasion.
The axle should have rounded ends which will not snag on ropes, other gear
or objects.
The bearings should be of such construction as to allow the sheave to turn
freely when loaded.
A rated strength in excess of 1500kg and preferably greater then 2500kg.
109
For a 3:1 mechanical advantage, exerting 100kg of force on the running end will
produce 300kg of force on the load. The flipside to this is that the rescuer needs to
pull three metres of rope for the load to move just one metre.
The Actual Mechanical Advantage (AMA) is less than the theoretical one due to
the amount of friction caused by the ropes passing over the sheaves or contacting
each other in the returns. The actual efficiency of the pulleys in the system is also
taken into account.
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The device should be constructed with a length of rope which is sufficient for
normal applications in the area of response. This must take into account the
rope required to form the returns required for the specific device.
When used for life rescue purposes, the device should be rigged with rope
that complies with New Zealand Standard AS4142.3:1993 - Static Rescue
Lifelines.
The devices must be used strictly in accordance with the manufacturers
guidelines.
These systems can be anchored overhead for direct lift/lower operations, or
can be used for horizontal hauling. When used horizontally, additional care
must be taken to ensure that the device is clear of all contact.
Safety brakes or cams must be active or fitted for all lift/haul operations.
Standard procedures must be followed with respect to anchoring, crew
operations, commands and the wearing of gloves.
WARNING NOTE:
For all mechanical winches, when steel wire rope (SWR) is under load, a
heavy blanket or similar should be placed across the rope so as to identify
rope location and in case of failure of rope will assist as a rope brake.
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14.14 Levers
The purpose of all lifting techniques is to gain sufficient power to lift or hold a large
load with a small, suitable applied force.
The simplest appliance for gaining this power is the lever.
= Fulcrum point
L
= Load
Force applied
L
3x
1x
In this example, when the ratio between the lever before and after the fulcrum point is
3:1, 1/3 effort is needed to lift the load (L), but it only goes 1/3 of the distance the
force applied travels. This is known as a Type 1 system.
Another way this principle can be used is a Type 2 system:
14.16 Lifting
Power should be applied as near to the end of the lever as practicable. When more
than one lever is used, the load should be lifted evenly.
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Appendix One:
15.2 Introduction
Most response teams will have a variety of other equipment that is intended for use
in General Rescue and/or relating to areas of specialization, e.g. High Angle, Swift
Water. This chapter is to introduce people to some of the common equipment being
used. For specific information reference should be made to the manufacturers
instructions. There is some equipment necessary for teams wanting to register as
New Zealand Response Teams (NZ-RTs). Information on this equipment can be
found on www.usar.govt.nz.
15.3 Karabiners
Also known as carabiners, krabs or biners these are
the most common item of hardware used in vertical
rescue. They are normally a D or modified D shaped
metal link, having a spring loaded opening section (the
gate) in one of the long sides. The gate allows ropes
and slings to be clipped into the Karabiner for
attachment purposes.
Karabiners are manufactured from either high-tensile steel or alloy, and may have
either a plain opening gate, or one fitted with a screw locking device or autolocking
gate, which prevents the gate from accidental opening. Consequently, Karabiners are
referred to as snaplinks, screwgates, twistlocks, or autolocks.
NOTE: Triple Action Auto-locking Karabiners are considered to be Best Practice in
rescue situations.
Most manufacturers stamp the rated strength of the Karabiner into the metal for easy
reference. Rescue Karabiners should be of minimum rated strength of 2500kg.
WARNING NOTE:
Snaplink style Karabiners are NOT recommended for rescue.
113
Appendix One
As these devices are made of specialised steel or alloys, care should be taken not to
drop them or knock them on hard surfaces. Small stress points can be introduced
into the metal that may then cause deterioration of the device.
114
Appendix One:
15.7 Shackles
There are two principal types of shackle: D and Bow. With
D being the most commonly used in the rescue environment.
Almost all are made from a plain round steel bar and all are
secured by a round section steel pin, and should comply with
New Zealand Standards.
The pin is located through one eye of the shackle and screws
directly into the other (threaded) eye to secure the attachment
in the shackle.
Shackles must be selected which are large enough to accept the slings or other
attachments, and which are appropriately rated for the loading and the task.
WARNING NOTE:
Only the shackle pin should be used to secure the shackle.
The practice of replacing the proper pin with a nut and bolt is highly
dangerous and may cause failure of the shackle.
15.9 Generators
Numerous brands and types of generators are available commercially, but all are
basically similar in construction. They have a frame or case, and for safety reasons
are fitted with some form of Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker (ELCB) or Residual
Current Device (RCD) and a motor driven alternator to produce 240 volts AC
(Alternating Current). The ability of the alternator to deliver current is measured by its
power output rating in WATTS. This is a power rating that is also often rated in
KILOWATTS (kW), ie:
1 Kilowatt = 1000 Watts
115
Appendix One
Option one
Floating (isolated) windings, without an ELCB/RCD.
With an isolated winding there is no loss of power in the event of a single fault in
the generator or in the load. Nor is there any indication of such fault.
Accordingly, it is ideal for lighting. A person touching live parts will receive no
shock.
Option two
Polarised (frame connected) windings, with an ELCB/RCD
With a frame connected winding plus RCD, a single fault on load-side equipment
will trip the RCD and cause loss of power. A person touching the live parts will
receive a minor shock, but will be protected by the RCD.
Portable ELCBs/RCDs must be tested three (3) monthly as per AS3760. Other
devices must be tested twelve (12) monthly. If frequently used in harsh or severe
environments they should be tested at three (3) monthly intervals using the
procedures set out in AS3760.
116
Appendix One:
This particular chainsaw can be run from a 2500 Watt (2.5 kW) generator, but not
from a 1000 Watt (1.0kW) generator.
Rescue teams should calculate the power rating of each appliance likely to be
used and clearly mark this figure in Watts on the appliance to save time and
possible overload problems during an emergency.
WARNING NOTE:
Motor starting current is approximately five times the rated full load current
of electric motors. When selecting generators for motor starting, this factor
should be considered to avoid overloads.
117
Appendix One
Drain the fuel from both the tank and the carburettor.
Fuel left for long periods in the carburettor can cause a chemical reaction that
adversely affects carburettor components.
118
Appendix One:
15.16 Lighting
Working at night can increase the dangers involved with rescue work due to
shadows, glare, and poor vision associated with artificial lighting systems. Rescuers
should experience night rescue situations in training and experiment with various
lighting arrangements, so as to eliminate as much as possible the three hazards
mentioned.
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Revision Sheet
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