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ABSTRACT
The crystallization of sucrose involves complex processes that require the correct design
of vacuum pans and precise operation. Numerous parameters, such as tube dimensions,
downtake size and pan geometry, determine the quality of the sugar produced and the
throughput, which results in certain vacuum pans giving better performance than others. A
particularly important factor is the circulation, which is strongly interrelated with the convectiveboiling heat transfer in the calandria and determines, to a large extent, the velocity of
crystallization and the uniformity of the conditions inside the vessel. In this paper several factors
that affect boiling and circulation in vacuum pans are identified. The use of Computational Fluid
Dynamics in the analysis of circulation and in the evaluation of alternatives for hydrodynamic
optimization is discussed. Options for making changes to batch pans to improve the
characteristics of the pan are identified, either to change the geometry or assist circulation. Some
results with steam-assisted circulation (steam jiggers) are given, which show how the
performance of a pan can be improved.
Keywords: Circulation, vacuum pans, crystallization.
INTRODUCTION
It is widely accepted that the circulation of the massecuite within vacuum pans must be as
high as practically possible in order to achieve the maximum throughput of the equipment and
produce a good quality sugar. The benefits associated with good circulation can be listed as:
Quality: Improved crystal size distribution and lower sugar color due to uniformity of
fluid conditions within the vacuum pan. Good circulation prevents stagnant regions, hot
and cold zones that can induce differences in the super saturation level and crystal growth
rate.
Recovery: A higher massecuite dry substance concentration is possible, leading to a
higher crystal yield and a lower purity of molasses.
Capacity: Improved heat transfer leads to a higher crystallization rate and increased
throughput.
Energy efficiency: Use of vapor from later evaporator effects becomes possible (e.g.
vapor 2 or vapor 3).
The design of batch vacuum pans has evolved to a practically uniform basic geometry
(central downtake, straight side walls, fixed calandria, tubes of diameter 100 mm and length 800
- 1300 mm, bottom angle 18-25), which may be assisted mechanically with an impeller (stirrer)
or by injecting a gas to improve circulation. This design has evolved essentially by trial and
error.
Although valuable experimental work on the sugar boiling process has been done and
technological development has led to proven designs of batch and continuous vacuum pans, there
is still a lack of understanding of the important issues affecting vacuum pans design. This paper
discusses some factors that affect the circulation in vacuum pans, alternatives for the analysis of
flow characteristics and options for enhancing circulation.
HEAT TRANSFER AND CIRCULATION
Convective-boiling heat transfer in the calandria tubes is the driving force for the
circulation of massecuite. The buoyancy that results from the density difference between the
vapor-phase and the surrounding massecuite is the main driving force, following a strong
interaction between heat transfer and circulation. Any mechanism that reduces the evaporation
rate will lower the circulation, and conversely, any reduction in the massecuite velocity will be
detrimental to heat transfer (Bosworth, 1959). The balance between the buoyancy forces and the
resistance to flow determines the circulation rate. The hydraulic resistance or friction depends
essentially on the massecuite viscosity and the geometry of the passages within the pan, which
should be smooth and offer minimum obstruction to flow (Webre, 1959).
The circulation mechanism in vacuum pans has not been completely understood due to
the complexity of performing measurements inside the vessels (Wright, 1966) and the numerous
operational regimes that are possible. Ideally, it is expected that a flow of massecuite and vapor
rises after passing through the calandria tubes and reaches the surface. The vapor formed crosses
the free massecuite surface before going to the condenser, while the liquid moves in a radial
direction towards the center and goes back to the bottom through the downtake, to enter into the
calandria tubes again. However, evidence exists which indicates that serious variations from this
ideal circulation pattern could occur (Wright, 1966).
Using experimental measurements, Rouillard (1985) identified that evaporation rates, and
therefore circulation, are increased as the heating steam pressure, the vacuum and the purity are
raised. Conversely, longer tubes, higher strike levels and high concentrations reduce the
evaporation rate. The evaporation rate changes dramatically during each strike, decreasing
progressively and finding its minimum value at the last stage of each cycle (Table 1).
Table 1. Average evaporation rates measured in South Africa.
Type of Boiling
Grain / Seed
A
B
C
Maximum
kg /(m2 h)
61
38
25
18
Minimum kg
/(m2 h)
8.2
22
6.2
3.5
Disengagement
vapor 1.5-3.0 m
Strike
Height 1.25 m
0.4*Dcalandria
58
Tubes
D 0.1m
10-25
L 0.7-1.2 m
18
Floating calandria
Straight side
Saucer bottom
Start
End
Natural circulation
(W / m2K)
570
32
With stirrers
(W / m2K)
640
224
Mechanical agitators provide the option of achieving an acceptable heat transfer with a
temperature difference as low as 20 C, compared to at least 45-50 C in the absence of a stirrer.
The use of lower pressure vapors becomes possible (e.g. coming from the 2nd or 3rd evaporator
effect), allowing reductions in the factory steam requirements.
A stirrer can be used with a smaller diameter downtake, thus enabling a larger heating
area to be installed for a given pan diameter.
Jigger steam: The installation of a sparge pipe under the calandria to blow low pressure
steam is another option to assist the circulation, reducing the massecuite specific gravity in the
calandria and reducing the effect of hydrostatic head. The simplicity, low cost and absence of
moving parts of this alternative make it particularly straightforward to put into practice. Venting
of incondensables into the jigger arrangement can be done to reduce the consumption of vapor, if
steam economy is important.
It should be noted that the vapor admitted through the ring does not condense, but passes
straight through the massecuite without causing any superheating or dissolution of crystal. The
advantage of jigger steam is that it can be shut off at any time, unlike a stirrer, and can be
adjusted to give the required degree of circulation.
Air injection: The injection of air instead of vapor has been adopted in some Spanish
factories, allowing an increase in circulation with low energy consumption (15 % of that required
by stirrers), low costs, and without breakage of crystals (van der Poel et al., 1998). Injection of
compressed air at 750 kPa preheated to 65-70 C beneath the calandria of A pans was reported to
be effective in reducing the boiling times by 11 % and to increase recovery without an
appreciable effect on the pan vacuum (Stobie, 1999). However this option requires a much larger
vacuum pump or ejector to remove the additional air and is not recommended here.
APPLICATION OF CFD IN THE SUGAR INDUSTRY
The development of numerical techniques and codes for the solution of fluid mechanics
and heat transfer problems has evolved particularly rapidly in the last few years, making it
possible to resolve complex problems through the discretization of the geometry and numerical
solution of the governing equations. This approach is known as Computational Fluid Dynamics
(CFD) and has proved to be a valuable tool for research and analysis of engineering problems in
many different industries. Currently there is a strong trend towards CFD assisted design,
although experimentation still remains important, particularly for the most complicated cases.
1.0
14.0
1490
52.1
11
0.183
1.12E-05
10
0.16
W-bottom
W-flared
W-jigger
V-bottom
0.14
0.12
0.10
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
0.00
1.4
1.6
1.8
2.0
2.2
2.4
2.6
2.8
3.0
3.2
3.4
Radius (m)
Figure 4. Liquid velocity results across the calandria for different pan geometries.
CASE 3. Circulation assisted with steam jiggers.
A simplified steam jigger system is considered, consisting of a single sparge ring under
the calandria. The steam injected below the calandria increased substantially the circulation in
the pan, accelerating the flow particularly in the rings located over the steam jigger (Figures 4
and 5). This indicates that the tubes located closer to the points where the gas is injected will
have a very high circulation. Vorticity over the top tube plate increase, but no significant
reduction in the circulation in the other tubes was observed. The average circulation increased
24% respect the same geometry without steam injection. It also appears to reduce the
recirculation in the downtake and that it may be better to introduce the vapor uniformly below
the calandria to induce a higher flow in all the tubes.
Figure 5. CFD results for vacuum pan assisted with steam jiggers.
11
12
13
14
The pans could be boiled throughout the full cycle using vapor 1. In 2001, the pans were
run on exhaust during the final stages of the boiling.
Average C massecuite Brix increased from 95.6 to 96.8. After the most severe processing
problems in October and November were over, this enabled the mill to achieve their
lowest recorded molasses target purity differences.
Boiling times were roughly the same in both years in spite of conditions which in some
mills led to pans stopping boiling altogether.
It should be borne in mind too that the effect of installing a steam jigger system can be
expected to be most significant in a pan without a circulator.
During November, the stirrer in pan 1 stopped working. Instead of stopping to repair the
stirrer, the mill was able to continue operating the pan with the stirrer in the downtake
representing a restriction to circulation. Figure 7 shows that boiling times increased, but the pan
operation continued
Pan #1 Boiling Time For November 2002
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
Pan without
Circulator, Only Jigger
Nov. 18,2002
1
0
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
Strike #
15
90
100
16
Int. Sugar J.
15. Van der Poel, P.W., H. Schiweck, and T. Schwartz. 1998. Sugar Technology. Verlag,
Bartens, Berlin.
16. Webre, A.L. 1959. Natural and mechanical circulation in vacuum pans. Pages: 394-452.
In: Principles of Sugar Technology, Vol. 2, Crystallization. P. Honig, ed. Elsevier,
Netherlands.
17. Wright, P.G. 1966. Circulation movements in sugar vacuum pans. Proc. Queensland Soc.
Sugar Cane Technol. 33:179-184.
17