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    19 199 Tver Sieve LA rights rer Prins in Gret Bran PIE: S0141-0296(97)00187-9 Probabilistic response of prestressed concrete bridges to fatigue Joan R. Casas* and Cesar Crespo-Minguil Technical University of Catalunya, Civil Engineering Department, c/Gran Capitan s/n, Modulo C1, 08034 Barcelona, Spain The paper presents a model for the analysis of the response of prestressed concrete bridges to fatigue. Due to fretting effects, fatigue is mostly important in concrete bridges with post-tensioned tendons where cracking is present due to unexpected external loads or design assumptions (partial prestressing). The model con- siders the non-linear sectional response due to the material consti- tutive laws and cracking. Cracking may be due to service loads, thermal gradient and differential settlements between foundations. The uncertainties inherent to the main variables involved in the fatigue process are also dealt with. The randomness in the fatigue strength of materials is considered through the definition of proba- bilistic S-N curves for reinforcing and prestressing steels, based on the available results of tests involving fretting fatigue in the case of prestressing tendons. © 1998 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved. Keywords: prestressing, fatigue, bridges, relial 1. Introduction Fatigue is a critical effect to consider in the design and evaluation of steel and composite bridges. Many research ‘works have been addressed to the reliability-based analysis of fatigue in those bridges'~*. Therefore, an important data bse for the statistical definition of the main variables alfecting the fatigue resistance of steel and composite bridges is available, both in the case of using S-N curves or Fracture Mechanics. So, when dealing with the cali- bration of fatigue load models* or with the fatigue evalu- ation of existing steel and composite bridges', a reliability based approach is possible. However, fatigue may also endanger the durability of prestressed concrete bridges mainly due to fatigue in rebars and prestressing_ strands, This is the case of concrete bridges designed with partial prestressing or cracked existing bridges, where the sectional stiffness of the structure drops dramatically after eracking occurs. This produces higher stress increments in the rein- forcing and prestressing steels in comparison to fully pre- stressed or undamaged bridges. In post-tensioned bridges, at the zone where cracks appear, the tensile axial force in “Author for conespondence. Tel: M-34OTOSL%: Fax: 3-4-a016504% F mail: easanl@eteceph pees 940 ity the prestressing strand acts combined with high lateral pressures and relative slips between the wires and duct. This phenomenon, called fretting fatigue, reduces signifi- cantly the fatigue resistance of the strands obtained from tests in air. [t was the reason for the decrease of the enthusi- asm of bridge engineers in partial prestressing after the mid 80s. In many cases, because of the fretting fatigue effect, partial prestressing was considered unsafe. Despite several works related to partial aspects of the fatigue effects in pre: stressed concrete bridges were carried out™-*, a comprehen- sive fatigue reliability assessment of partial prestressed bridges was never attempted. Contrary to the situation in steel and composite bridges, a probabilistic definition of the variables involved in the obtention of the safety index to fatigue in prestressed concrete bridges was not yet avail- able. To derive the probability of failure or Reliability Index of these bridges when subjected to fatigue, two main steps are imperative: (1) to develop a probabilistic model for the fatigue response to external variable loads and (2) to derive a probabilistic model for the most important external dynamic actions that may induce fatigue in bridges, For ‘most prestressed concrete highway bridges with short and medium span, traffic is the most important action leading to fatigue. A comprehensive traffic load model for the analysis of fatigue solicitation due to traffic in bridges has, developed. In this paper. the part of the Limit State Response of prestressed concrete bridges to fatigue: J. R. Casas and C. Crespo-Minguillon 941 E(z)=Emttg gz fem) Figure 1 Definition of the plane of strains Function (LSF) dealing with the resistant variables (response) is presented. model ‘The first goal of the model is the calculation of the normal stress at any point of the cross-section of a prestressed con- crete structure subjected to compression and/or bending, Since the deterministic model will be the basis of the proba- bilistic model for safety assessment, it must include all vari ables causing uncertainty in the effect under study. Despite thermal and differential settlement actions are negligible from the point of view of dynamic stress increments, they can play an important role in cracking the sections, which ‘will be determinant for a rapid progress of fatigue dam: under serviceability loads. Therefore, these actions should be also considered in the sectional response model. The basic algorithm of the model consists of the determi- nation of the position of the plane of strains that balances the internal axial and bending forces applied. The main variables are the strain at the bottom of the section (€,,) and the slope () of the plane of strains (Figure 1), With the appropriate constitutive material laws, these strains are converted into stresses and finally in axial force and bend: ing moment. For concrete, the @= © diagram shown in Figure 2 was adopted". For reinforcing steel, the tra ditional diagram with two straight branches and E, = 210.000 MPa was assumed (Figure 2), In the case of pre- Stressing steel strands, the curve in Figure 2 with a Sth power relation between strains and stresses for stresses, higher than 70% of the yielding points was adopted". First, the algorithm is used to study the initial stage correspond- to the prestressing action. In this case, the intemal forces under which the equilibrium must be achieved are the self-weight and the prestressing action. At this stage, the stresses in the prestressing steel ate not considered. The plane of strains represents the initial position to compute 2, Determinis ee te ee = the increment of strain at the prestressing steel level for any further position of the plane of strains due to the remaining external actions. After post-tensioning and duct grouting, @ perfect bound between concrete and steel has been assumed. This in not the case after cracking’. However. the loss of bond between concrete and post-tensioning steel does not play an important role in the development of the fatigue deterioration process! ‘The main goal of the model is the fatigue response of prestressed concrete bridges. Therefore, a main point is the algorithm for the calculation of the stress at any point of the section under the action of any couple axial/bending force. Given that: (1) ufter cracking, the problem of finding the final position of the plane of strains that equilibrates the forces acting on the section iy non-linear: (2) the effects of several thousand bending moments will have to be calcu Jated to evaluate the fatigue effects of traffic, and (3) it is known that the relation between bending moment and stresses at the outer points of the section is almost linear (with different slopes) in the regions below and above cracking, it was decided to compute and store several pairs (bending moment, stress at the point of interest) to charac: terize the tensional response of the section (Figure 3) Then, the effect of any bending moment is computed from an interpolation between two of these points. The pairs are chosen so that they cover all possible bending moments the section could be Subjected to. 3. Probal tic model Based on the deterministic model for sectional response. the probabilistic model is developed accounting for the dif- ferent randomness present. The main random variables con- ditioning the sectional response of the bridge to extemal actions are those dealing with the geometrical and mechan: ical properties of materials, the thermal effect and the dif- ferential settlement. These variables cannot be exactly esti- mated because of their uncertain nature and make the sectional response of the bridge predictable only in proba- bilistie terms. The randomness is taken into account by simulating sev- eral cross-sections based on the nominal values and the stat- istical definition of the different random variables involved The Latin Hypercube’ is the method adopted for the simul- ation. The shape and main parameters of the Probability Distribution Functions (PDF) for the main geometrical and mechanical variables involved were obtained from previous \works dealing with post-iensioned conerete bridges". Inthe following. are described those corresponding to settlement and temperature effects. As an example of the simulation process, different Moment-Stress diagrams are shown in Figure 4 Figure 2. Stress-strain diagrams for concrete, reinforcing and prestressing stee! 942 Response of prestressed concrete bridges to fatigue: J. A. Casas and C. Crespo-Minguillon 1260. —— : 40, i220. 100, 0. Stress (MPa) 1160. 14a, 12 110. MOMENT-STRESS DIAGR. op eee lads 18 17 ah is ad Bending Moment(kN¢m) —(#10°) Figure 3 Example of @ Moment-stress diagram used in the model | 400. 1350. 1300. Stress (MPa) 1250, { Z |} | | M12 03 04 1S 46 19 48 19 2 212223 24 Bending Moment(kN#m) (#10) Figure 4 Mou diagrams of the lowest prestrassing layers at midspan of a continuous bridge obtained for different simulations of the geometrical and material random variables Response of prestressed concrete bridges to fatigue: J. R. Casas and C. Crespo-Minguillon 943 3.1. Differential settlement action Differential settlement is important for fatigue reliability of concrete bridges because of its contribution 10 crack the structure. A probabilistic model of the effect of differential settlements between the foundations of a bridge was derived"’, The final result is the Cumulative Distribution Function (CDF) of the random variable “bending moment at the section of interest due to differential settlement The correct way to describe the random nature of the value of a soil parameter is to use a random function rather than a random variable. In this work, the random function refers to the modulus of compressibility of the soil £. Con- sidering the randomness of this variable in two dimensions, a function that has proved to work well in describing the existing correlation is: » [G76] o en dvds where, @,(A, Ac) is the correlation function between the current point and another placed at a horizontal distance of Ax and a vertical distance of Az; the parameters 6, 6. are called “decay parameters”. These parameters must be com> puted from in situ tests" and describe how rapidly the cor- relation decreases for increasing intervals At, Az. The two exponents, & and /, have been frequently given the values of k= 1,1 1, or k= 2,/= 1. A computer model” based on an algorithm of sequential simulation was used for the simulation of random fields, This model allows to condition the generation to have a set of fixed values at certain points which could represent real in situ measurements, The values k = 1 and [= | were adopted. The mean value and standard deviation of the compressibility modulus are input variables in the model The settlements are evaluated by" peel Ez) where, C1 is a coefficient accounting for the possibility of the foundation not being on surface, and Ap = exerted pressure on the soil. C2 is a coefficient accounting for th slow deformations. B is the shorter dimension of the four dation. £(.2) is the modulus of compressibility at the point x under the studied foundation, along the depth =. 1, is a coefficient of form, ‘Once the statistical properties of the random function E(x) are known, a process of simulation of soil profiles under each foundation of the studied bridge is carried out A\ set of unit settlements under the foundations of the bridge are obtained for a unit pressure. A sampling of correlated realizations of pier and abutment reactions over the four dations is also performed. The final step is to combine the ‘unit settlements” with the sampled pressures under the foundations to achieve sets of “real” settlements. These sets together with a structural model of the bridge, to derive the statistical definition of the internal forces in the different sections caused by the differential settlements. This is later used to sample this intemal action, which is added 10 the self-weight, dead load and_prestressing, Finally, the so-called "permanent state” is obtained adding the effects of thermal aetion. The traffic effects will super- impose to this permanent state. However, as a result of creep in concrete bridges, the differential settlement actions (and the corresponding internal forces due to them) achieve a reduced final effective value. The strain in the concrete at a time f, different from the initial loading f», and under linear creep is: aor) ar Ato }Mtbo) + [Ht 1 Kttu) a)” E E,(4,) = modulus of elasticity of concrete at the initial time of loading fo, B, >, = modulus of elasticity of concrete at 28 days and {ito} = Creep coefficient. Equation (3) can be transformed into": where Jt is the creep function, and ty) i(lto) ty Shay) | Ot) et ia lide Ee (4) (io) where, €.(1) is the final strain at time ¢, €(49) is the initial strain at fp, 0,(1) is the stress at time f, a(%o) is the stress at time fy and E.4y, is an age adjusted modulus of elasticity, for concrete: kun Esto) © a) TE AC 1tg ME My Ec) Kilo) (lo) is the ageing coefficient, which can be approximated by 0.8 for typical loading ages between 10 and 30 days as it is the case of differential settlements on non-cohesive granular soils. Given that the initial plane of strains caused by settle ment action is not going to change, it follows that Oty dblty) Ao, E Ee saf flo) © integrating the stresses with respect to the center of gravity of the section, it follows: AM, = = 928 Bo) Mo ot am where AM, is the part of the initial settlement effect (Moa) that disappears due to creep. It can be shown!” that, taking the most usual values for the coefficients, the final bending moment due to settlement action drops to approx. 304% of its original value. ‘The next step isto find the position of the plane of strains that equilibrates the actual final bending moment on the section, Since creep only affects concrete, the tensional strain redistribution can only affect this material. Conse- quently, two curvatures, different in nature, may be thought, of to exist within the section. One of them is the actual strain curvature that hay not changed due to creep (€ Figure 5), and the other isa fictitious curvature (¢, in Fig- ure 5) giving the actual tensional strains. This second cur- vature is not the same as the initial one because a creep redistribution has occurred since then, The differen between them will be thought as. plastic-non-tensional strains, and will affect only to conerete fibers. These plastic 944 Response of prestressed concrete bridges to fatigue: J. R. Casas and C. Crespo-Minguillon Figure 5 Curvatures caused by settlement. Left: Initial stage. Right: After ervep. («; = total strain, stains are considered inthe calculation of the final Moment-Stress diagram (Figure 3). Given that creep effects usually develop during the early years of service of the bridge. itis assumed for the fatigue assessment (calculation of {otal stress increments) that the sectional properties and behaviour correspond to a stage when total creep has already developed. In this way. the computational effort in the posterior simulation process is dramatically reduced, 3.2. Thermal action ‘Temperature contributes to fatigue deterioration in two ‘ways: on one hand, its variability in time produces stress increments that must be considered in the fatigue analysis, and on the other, the high value of the effects caused in conerete bridges can lead to cracking and a reduction of the cross-sectional stiffness. A new model for the simulation of the thermal action effect on continuous bridges was developed'®, The random variable of interest in the model is the equivalent thermal gradient in the deck of the bridge. ‘This value is computed from the real measured maximum, and minimum gradients. The randomness in the temper ture effect is considered with the use of Normal and Log: ‘Normal distributions for the maximum temperature gradient during the day between top and bottom of the deck, Only the Normal distribution is considered in the case of the minimum daily gradient. From the existing experience, it was decided to set a high coefficient of correlation (0.8) between maximum and minimum daily. gradients. To impose a desired correlation between variables when not all of them follow a Normal distribution, the Latin Hypercube Method was used. The coefficient of variation (C.0.V.) adopted for these variables was 40%, and was deduced from available measured data in existing bridges" Once a realization of the equivalent thermal gradient is obtained by simulation, the corresponding associated ther- mal curvature (¢,, in Figure 6) in all sections of the associ ted isostatic structure (simply supported spans) can be derived. Thermal curvatures are constant along the span in fensional strain.) constant depth decks, and variable in bridges with variable cross-section depths. In continuous bridges, the deck move- ments caused by the thermal curvatures are not compatible with the boundary conditions. Therefore, a tensional curva: ture appears (c, in Figure 6), that can be easily computed imposing the continuity of the spans. The tensional curva ture at all sections iy added to that caused by permanent loads (self-weight, dead load, prestressing and differential settlement). The internal forces corresponding to the final equilibrium of the section under this total curvature are computed, Therefore, for a given bridge, the same thermal effect may result in different total internal forces depending on the closeness of the permanent state to decompression of the cross-section. With this procedure, the mechanical non-linear behavior due to cracking is taken into account. ‘The model implemented for the simulation of the thermal action’ yields the equivalent thermal curvatures for the 24h of the total number of simulated days. So, at the end 24 different hourly permanent states are obtained. Finally, the simulated traffic action’ is added to each corresponding hhourly permanent state yielding the final stress variation at any point of the eross-seetion along time. 4. Process of simulation of stress histories The number of different thermal days and differential settlement effects to simulate is taken equal to the total number of cross-sections chosen to account for the ran- domness in the geometrical and mechanical variables, At the end, 1... realizations of the main variables involved in the problem (mechanical, geometrical and internal forces due to thermal and differential settlement effects) are sampled, All effects are combined independently in trios to form n,,.. simulated Moment~Stress diagrams. The number of realizations, ‘ic in the Latin Hypercube method was chosen equal to 50, Each simulated cross-section will be accompanied by 2 set of 24 hourly permanent states corre- sponding to the different hourly effects caused by tempera- ture, Figure 6 Thermal ang tensional curvatures in 8 constant depth deck Response of prestressed concrete bridges to fatigue: J. R. Casas and C. Crespo-Minguillon 945 Then, each simulated basic interval of traffic (aan) iS combined with the simulated permanent state of the corn sponding hour. The basic interval adopted for the simul- ation of traffic action is one week, and a total of 200 weeks are simulated (Mae = 200). The history of bending moments due to traffic” is added to the corresponding hourly permanent states of each simulated section to obtain the total bending moment in the section, Using the Moment-stress diagram (Figure 4), a history of stresses is derived. At the end, a total Of thyage * Mase = 10 000 histor ies of stresses (o-1) will result from the simulation. The next step is the calculation of the stress increments using the rainflow algorithm, The increments are classified into, groups according to the different branches of the cor sponding SN curve for reinforcing or prestressing st 5. Fatigue resistance of steel components in prestressed conerete bridges Traditionally. there have been two approaches to deal with fatigue strength: Fracture Mechanics and S-N curves jointly with the Palgrem-Miner hypothesis. Due to the fret- ting fatigue effect”. post-tensioned concrete bridges are ‘more prone to fatigue related problems. The tensional field in the strands in the curved zones of the tendons’ layout is very complex. At this moment, a reliable and suitable model to study this effect from the point of view of the Fracture Mechanics is not yet available, Therefore, it was decided 10 use the S-N curves and the Palgrem—Miner hypothesis. The expression for the Damage of Miner due to variable amplitude stress cycles is: pM= > “ where 1, is the aumber of stress cycles of stress range i: and 1, is the number of stress cycles to failure in the structural component if the stress range Ao, were constant, and is obtained from the S-N curve. The curve is drawn from the ifferent tests performed, that show an important scatter The design S-N curve is related to a specified confidence level. The general form of the S-N curves is Nido" 0) where K isa constant for a given material and fatigue gory and nr is a material parameter. N is the number of cycles to failure and Ac is the applied stress increment. ‘The S-N curves of reinforcing and prestressing steel are composed of several branches, each of them with an expression similar to (9). 6. Probabilistic model for fatigue strength A statistical definition of the SN curves and the Miner summation at failure was derived to deal with the uncer: tainty in the prediction of the number of cycles to failure of a reinforcing or prestressing. steel specimen under a determined constant stress increment. The Weibull distri- ‘bution was adopted for the random variable Number of cycles to failure, The expression of the Cumulative Distri- bation Function (CDF) is nintaeaf (228) Jaze uv where @ = shape parameter, w= characteristic extreme value, ny = minimum value. For fatigue analysis, ny is usu ally taken equal to zero". Assuming a constant deviation, s, of the variable log NV for a given value of log Ao, for all possible stress increments, the parameters of the distri expressions”: ‘The values K and m correspond to the proposed S-N curve according to the experimental tests available. 7. Probabilistic S-N curves for post-tensioning, steel under fretting conditions and for reinforcing steel To derive the parameters «and u in the case of prestressing steel under fretting conditions, two experimental works? were reviewed. Some tests* were not considered because ey only cover stress increments higher than 100 MPa, The curve adopted® has two branches, one for stress increments leading to failure for less than 10° cycles and another Ao leading to an upper performance. No limit of endurance was found in the tests. For stress increments leading to a number of cycles to failure less than 10* cycles, a value of 5 = 0.30 was adopted”. Several fatigue tests have shown a larger scatter in the values of N for lower stress increments, So a value s = 0.40 was adopted for this second branch. The values of er and u ar (1) Por Aor> 165 MPa (N < 10° cycles), the correspond ing S-N curve and standard deviation are: 165-10" dor * y= 0.30, 12) ‘Then u 0.5772 a= gH 4275 w = exp] <3) ster] aoa and the mean and variance: pint=ut(1+! 0" Aor * var[N] (4) afr +2) (0-2) -c0mms0-7 where P is the gamma function (2) For Aor < 165 MPa (N > 10° cycles) N= 1657-10. So" «sy = 3.206 0.5772 wsexp] “+ Inka") (16) = exp(49.737)-Ao-7 946 Response of prestressed concrete bridges to fatigue: J. R. Casas and C. Crespo-Minguillon EIN] = 10° So-7 var[ N] = 102 "-Ao «ayy ‘The S-N curve adopted to express the fatigue strength of reinforcing steel bars is composed of three straight lines in a log N ~ log Ao plot’!. The parameters of the three branches are shown in Table 1, where the parameters of the Weibull distributions for the number of cycles to failure are also summarized, 8. Damage of Miner at failure in steel components of prestressed concrete bridges AL this point, the statistical SN curves of reinforcing and post-tensioning steel have been derived. In their definition appears the term Agr corresponding to the solicitation, This means that in the case of fatigue analysis, resistance and solicitation are coupled in the Limit State Function, To complete the statistical definition of the fatigue response, it just remains to define the random variable DM of the steel components, S-N curves measure the fatigue resistance of « material subjected to constant amplitude stress cycles. If the cycles amplitude is variable, the performance of the member is studied through the Palgrem-Miner hypothesis and the Damage of Miner [equation (8)]. From different fatigue tests made on the same material, different values of DM at failure will be obtained. Therefore, DM is not a determin- istic value but a random variable. In this paper, the defi- nition of DM is based on the idea of explaining the uncer- tainty in DM on the basis of the uncertainty of the number of cycles to failure under any constant amplitude stress increment®, If tests with constant amplitude stress cycles, Ag, were carried, DM at failure would be: n «sy DM "N, where 1 is the actual number of cycles needed to break the component and J, is the known number of cycles to failure predicted by the S-N curve, Then, n, could be thought as, random variable for all tests carried out. On the other hhand, the S-N curves are usually defined for a 50% cont. dence level, Therefore, the value N; derived from the S-N curve represents the median of the variable number of cevcles ar failure for any given stress increment Ag, Follow- ing this reasoning, it results that the random nature of DM, comes from the randomness in 1, From equation (18), we (20) The relation between n, and DM becomes clear. This is the reason for assuming the Weibull distribution to describe the randomness in DM. It also follows that the moments of DM will depend on the level of the stress increments’ amplitude in constant amplitude tests [see equations (14) and (17)]. A problem with this formulation arises when variable amplitude loading case is being analysed, A method is proposed to obtain the moments of DM in the case of variable amplitude loading. In fact, for a constant Stress level we have: _Flnl_ _ vari] EIDM| =" = EDM vata) = "8" (2ty = var[DM)} Then, for a spectrum of variable amplitude stress cycles, the moments can be expressed as a weighted average of the moments that each stress cycle would lead to. The ‘weights should be the contribution of each cycle to the total fatigue damage in the clement. The corresponding expressions are: E(DM var[ DM] (22) where I/N, is the elementary damage caused by a stress cycle o;, and DM, is the variable Damage of Miner in a test where only stress cycles of constant amplitude = Avy were applied. This procedure is reasonable and very simple to apply According to equation (22), it hecomes very easy to com- pute the two first moments of DM. If the calculation is done in each branch of the S-N curve, the moments of the basic variables (Z[DM,} and var|DM,]) are constant within the corresponding stress increments intervals, Note that the can derive: methodology proposed can be applied to any material. The expressions for E[DM,] and varlDM,] for the different median(n,) _ median(n,) materials were derived according to the experimental SN median OM = edianany = -2 (19) curves for prestressing steel subjected to freeting fatigue® i nd for reinforcing steel"! and are presented in Tuble 2. It el eo is imteresting to notice how the Variability increases as the ‘E[DM|= - var[ DM | = . stress range “ases. (OMT egianin,y “OMI crmedian( 1) nan Table 1 Parameters of the probability distributions for coinforcing steel so (MPa) Nk mos 2 . am var} 206 2x10 433410 6 050 287 eP%de © 10MM #10 May OE <8 240 bae~ 18 O57 2185 Gy © tommmay © (Ie ae oe > 208 io 308 1° 268x109” 11 0.60 1973 eae TOF (HOR w HVE Response of prestressed concrete bridges to fatigue: J. R. Casas and C. Crespo-Minguillon 947 Table 2_ Moments of the veriables OM, Material Branch Incorval limits ADM) varDMy* Prostressing steel 1 > 185MPa 1041 0274 2 ur = 185. MPa 1072 0.367 Reinforcing steel 1 er > 285 MPa 1108 0.463 2 208

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