LESSON 1 LIQUID PENETRANT TESTING IS A NONDESTRUCTIVE MEANS OF LOCATING SUR- FACE DISCONTINUITIES BASED ON CAPILLARITY OR CAPILLARY ACTION. IN THE LIQUID PENETRANT METHOD, THE LIQUID IS APPLIED TO THE SURFACE OF THE SPECIMEN, AND SUFFICIENT TIME IS ALLOWED FOR PENETRATION OF SUR- FACE DISCONTINUITIES. IF THE DISCONTINUITY IS SMALL OR NARROW. AS IN A CRACK OR PINHOLE, CAPILLARITY ASSISTS THE PENETRATION. a AFTER SUFFICIENT TIME HAS PASSED FOR THE PENETRANT TO ENTER THE DISCONTINUITY, THE SURFACE OF THE PART IS CLEANED. CAPILLARY ACTION IS AGAIN EMPLOYED TO ACT AS A BLOTTER TO DRAW PENETRANT FROM THE DISCONTINUITY. PENETRANTPT Lecture Guide Lesson 1 TO INSURE VISIBILITY, THE LIQUID PENETRANT CONTAINS EITHER A COLORED DYE EASILY SEEN IN WHITE LIGHT, OR A FLUORESCENT DYE VISIBLE UNDER BLACK (ULTRAVIOLET) LIGHT. A. PENETRANT APPLIED TO SURFACE. B. TIME ALLOWED FOR PENETRANT TO SEEP INTO THE OPENING. C. SURFACE PENETRANT REMOVED. D. DEVELOPER APPLIED TO DRAW PENETRANT OUT OF OPENING. E. SPECIMEN VISUALLY EXAMINED. F. POST-CLEANING.PT Lecture Guide Lesson 1 DISCONTINUITIES THAT ARE SUBSURFACE IN ONE STAGE OF PRODUCTION COULD BE OPEN TO THE SURFACE AT ANOTHER STAGE, SUCH AS AFTER GRINDING OR MACHINING. NONMETALLIC INCLUSIONS AND POROSITY IN THE INGOT MAY CAUSE STRINGERS, ‘SEAMS, FORGING LAPS, COLD SHUTS, AND THE LIKE AS THE BILLET OR SLAB IS PROCESSED IN THE MANNER SHOWN BELOW: > 7s > ad as vouuer aay Or sta 3 4 oF rg ROLLING AF -oncms casting SEAR STOCK * SHEET METAL é ForceD scast snricues of were“ PLATE MATERIAL “*WELDING. *GRINDING zs * LIQUID PENETRANT CAN BE USED AT THESE POINTS WITH GOOD RESULTS, * COMPLETED ARTICLE[PENETRANTS CAN BE FURTHER CATEGORIZED BY THE PROCESSES USED TO FEMOVE THE EXCESS PENETRANT FROM THE SPECIMEN 2. POSTEMULSIFID PENETRANTS REGURE A SEPARATE EMULSIFIER TO MAKE THE PENETRANT WATER WASHABLE. \WHaCH IS TYPCAL WHEN USING VSELE OVE IN PRESSURED SPRAY CANS. "He FLOW CHART SELOW LLUSTRATES THE PROCESSING SEQUENCE WITH VIS [LE DYE AND FLUORESCENT PENETRANTS. Soe a sat ; - Site | [ReeDUAL SENSITIVITY PENETRANTS: WOULD FOLLOW A PROCESSNG SEQUENCE [SMUAR TO THAT SHOWN BELOW.{THE SELECTION OF THE BEST PROCESS, AS LISTED ON PAGES 5 ANO 6, OEPENDS 4. SENSI REQURED. ‘3. SURFACE CONOTON OF PART BENG NEPECTED. ‘& CONFGURKTION OF TEST SPECNEN. 5. AVALABLITY OF WATER, ELECTRICITY. COMPRESSED AM, SUTTABLE TESTING PENETRANT TESTING IG SUCCESSFULLY USED ON METALS SUCH AS ALUMINUM, MAGNESIUM, RASS, COPPER, CAST IRON, STANLESS STEEL, TTAMUM. AND MOST OTHER COMMON ALLOYS. IT CAN ALSO BE USED TO TEST OTHER MATERIALS. NCLLONG CERAMICS, PLASTICS, MOLDED RUBBER, POWDERED METAL PRODUCTS. OF GLASS. [PENETRANT TESTING 18 LMMTED GY TS NABLITY TO TEST MATERIALS WAH TREMELY PORCUS SURFACE.‘he err mgon nate an no ites ps ‘pene comon arto et nt pao pare ge. (Gum etegbvneter et rene mee anton aru pt ne Sonnet tbe wth py at Tye nm ‘het cmwg ns coment tn Garp tie et ng ‘bs ow mano et gale pt ao ‘eros ect im ea nr. ate ub pn oe ce "cad erga rem ovLESSON 2 THIS LESSON DISCUSSES THE EQUIPMENT AND MATERIAL REQUIRED TO PERFORM THE VARIOUS PENETRANT TESTS AND THE REQUIRED PRE- AND POST-TEST CLEAN- ING. PROPER CLEANING IS ESSENTIAL TO LIQUID PENETRANT TESTING FOR TWO REASONS: 4. IF THE SPECIMEN IS NOT CLEAN AND DRY, PENETRANT TESTING IS INEFFEC- TIVE. 2. IF ALL TRACES OF PENETRANT MATERIALS ARE NOT REMOVED AFTER THE TEST, THEY MAY HAVE A HARMFUL EFFECT ON THE SPECIMEN. (CHLORINE AND SULFUR MAY AFFECT SOME ALLOYS.) IMMERSION TANKS AND DETERGENT SOLUTIONS ARE COMMON MEANS OF ASSUR- ING THAT A SPECIMEN SURFACE IS BOTH PHYSICALLY AND CHEMICALLY CLEAN. VAPOR DEGREASING IS PARTICULARLY EFFECTIVE.IN THE REMOVAL OF OIL, GREASE, AND SIMILAR ORGANIC CONTAMINATION. HOWEVER, CERTAIN ALLOYS HAVE AN AFFINITY FOR SPECIFIG ELEMENTS USED IN VAPOR DEGREASING AND IF EXPOSED TO THEM MAY BECOME STRUCTURALLY DAMAGED. STEAM CLEANING IS PARTICULARLY ADAPTABLE TO THE CLEANING OF LARGE, UN- WIELDY ARTICLES. SOLVENT CLEANING MAY BE USED IN IMMERSION TANKS OR MAY BE USED IN A WIPE-ON AND WIPE-OFF TECHNIQUE. SOLVENT CLEANING IS USUALLY LESS EFFEC- TIVE THAN THE PREVIOUS METHODS OF CLEANING. RUST AND SURFACE SCALE CAN BE REMOVED BY ANY GOOD COMMERCIALLY AVAILABLE ACID OR ALKALINE RUST REMOVER FOLLOWING MANUFACTURER'S DIRECTIONS. PAINT REMOVAL IS OFTEN DONE IN DISSOLVING-TYPE HOT-TANK PAINT STRIPPERS. BOND RELEASE, OR SOLVENT PAINT STRIPPERS. ETCHING IS EFFECTIVE FOR USE ON ARTICLES THAT HAVE BEEN GROUND OR MACHINED. THIS PROCESS USES AN ACID OR AN ALKALINE SOLUTION TO OPEN UP GRINDING BURRS AND REMOVE METAL FROM SURFACE DISCONTINUITIES.SURFACE CLEANING PROCESSES TO BE AVOIDED INCLUDE BLAST (SHOT. SAND (ORT Om PRESSURE), LOUD HONING, EMERY CLOTH, WIRE SRUSHES AND METAL 'SORAPERS. THESE PROCESSES TEND TO CLOSE OSCONTUTIES BY PEENNG OF (COLD WORKING THE SURFACE OF THE SPECMEN PENETRANT TEST EOUPMENT (STATONAAY) [STATIONARY EQUIPMENT USED N LOUIOPENETRANT TESTA VARSESIN SE AND IS LARGELY DEPENDENT UPON THE SIZE OF THE TEST SPECIMEN. DEPENDING ON THE TYPE AND PROCESS USED, A STATONARY SYSTEM COULD NGLUDE THE 1. PRECLEANNG STATIN (USUALLY 7, DRYING STATION USUALLY OVEN) IN REMOTE AREA) {8 NSPECTON STATIN (ENCLOSEC 2, PENETRANT STATON (FAC) ‘200TH Of TABLE WT: PROPER 8. GRAN STATION usin) {4 EMULSFICATION STATION (TANK) 9. POSTCLEANING STATION (USUALLY '5 NSE STATION atc) IN REMOTE AREA) 18. DEVELOPNG STATEN (TAN)PENETRANT TEST EQUIPMENT (PORTABLE) [OTH VISBLE ANO FLUORESCENT OVE PENETRAKTS ARE AVAABLE W KITS \WeScH CAN BE USED AT A REMOTE LOCATION OR WHEN TESTING A SMALL POR: THON OF A LARGE ABTCLE, | VILE DYE PENETRANT KIT USUALLY CONTAINS: 1 PRESSURZED SPRAY CANS OF CLEAUING OR REMOVAL FLUO. 2. PRESSURZED SPRAY CANS OF VISBLE OYE PENETRANT. ‘3. PRESSURZED SPRAY CANS OF NONAGUEDUS DEVELOPER. 44 PIG CLOTHS 10 BRUSHES. A FLUORESCENT OYE PENETRANT KIT USUALLY CONTANS: 4. APORTASLE BLACK LIGHT AND TRANSFORMER, 2. PRESSURIZED SPRAY CANS OF CLEAWNG OR REMOVAL FLUD. ‘5. PRESGURZED SPRAY CANS OF FLUORESCENT DYE PENETRANT. “4 PRESSUAZED SPRAY CANS OF NONAQUEOUS DEVELOPER, 5. WIPNG CLOTHS AND BRUSHES. BLACK LGHT EOUPMENT REQUIRED IN FLUORESCENT PeNETRANT TESTING [SINCE IT SUPPLIES UCIT OF CORRECT WAVELENGTH TO CAUSE THE PENETRANT TO rLUOnesce. A DEEP RED-PURFLE FLTER IG USED TO PASS OMLY THOSE WAVELENGTHS OF UGHT THAT WILL ACTIVATE THE FLUORESCENT MATERAL. AT LEAST A FVEMAUTE HEATUP TME &§ REQUIRED TO REACH THE CORRECT ARC "TOWPERATURE WHEN USING MERCURY ARC LAMPS “THE BLACK LIGHT EMITS A SPEGAL UGH WITH WAVELENGTHS THAT FALL 8: {TWEEN VSLE AND ULTRAVIOLET, PROVIDED THAT THE FLTER HOT BROKEN (Of CRACKED, THERE IS NO OANGER OF JURY TO THE HUMAN EVE 18 SU [GESTED THAT THE PLTER BE CHECKED PRIOR TO EACH USE.PT Lecture Guide: Lesson 2 PENETRANT TESTING MATERIALS CAN BE USED IN A VARIETY OF COMBINATIONS. MOST MATERIALS ARE AVAILABLE IN EITHER PRESSURIZED SPRAY CANS OR IN BULK QUANTITIES. THE FLOW CHART BELOW ILLUSTRATES THE DIFFERENT MATERIAL COMBINATIONS. HOWEVER, CARE SHOULD ALWAYS BE TAKEN TO ASSURE THAT MANUFACTURERS" SPECIFICATIONS OR COMPANY PROCEDURES ARE CLOSELY FOLLOWED. ——— | wisiste | [rvuonescenr PENETRANT SOLVENT EMULSIFIER Ga) = Ee WATER OtVELOPER r ' 1 [ wer ony eae ! [Taare WATER ! | SUBPENDED | SocueLe L PARTICLE lLPT Lecture Guide Lesson 2 PENETRANT TESTING MATERIALS PENETRANT MATERIALS ARE OFTEN RESTRICTED TO SPECIFIC GROUPS. THE ESTABLISHED GROUPS OF PENETRANT MATERIALS WILL USE THE FOLLOWING IN A VARIETY OF COMBINATIONS TO OBTAIN THE BEST RESULTS: 1. WATER-WASHABLE PENETRANTS—CONTAIN AN EMULSIFYING AGENT WHICH MAKES THEM EASILY REMOVABLE BY A WATER RINSE OR WASH. THIS PENETRANT MATERIAL CAN BE OBTAINED WITH EITHER A VISIBLE OR FLUORESCENT DYE. . POST-EMULSIFIABLE PENETRANTS—ARE HIGHLY PENETRATING, OILY VISIBLE OR FLUORESCENT PENETRANTS WHICH ARE NOT SOLUBLE IN WATER. THESE PENETRANTS MUST BE TREATED WITH AN EMULSIFIER BEFORE THEY CAN BE REMOVED BY A WATER RINSE OR WASH. }. SOLVENT-REMOVABLE PENETRANTS—ARE OILY PENETRANTS THAT DO NOT CONTAIN AN EMULSIFYING AGENT AND ARE REMOVABLE ONLY BY SOLVENTS SPECIFICALLY DESIGNED FOR THAT PURPOSE. . EMULSIFIERS—WHEN APPLIED TO A PENETRANT-COATED SPECIMEN MAKE THE RESULTANT MIXTURE REMOVABLE BY WATER RINSE OR WASH. EMULSIFIERS HAVE LOW PENETRANT CHARACTERISTICS AND DO NOT REMOVE INDICATIONS FROM THE SPECIMEN SURFACE. . REMOVERS (SOLVENT)—ARE DESIGNED TO BE USED IN CONJUNCTION WITH SPECIFIC PENETRANTS. TYPICAL REMOVERS ARE AVAILABLE IN BULK OR PRESSURIZED SPRAY CONTAINERS. . DRY DEVELOPERS—ARE A FLUFFY, ABSORBENT WHITE POWDER THAT IS USED IN BOTH FLUORESCENT AND VISIBLE DYE PENETRANT TESTS. IT FUNC- TIONS TO DRAW THE PENETRANT INDICATIONS TO THE SURFACE THUS MAK- ING THEM VISIBLE. . WET DEVELOPERS—FUNCTION SIMILARLY TO ORY DEVELOPERS EXCEPT THAT THEY ARE A MIXTURE OF A DEVELOPING POWDER AND WATER.PT Lecture Guide Lesson 2 8. NONAQUEOUS WET DEVELOPERS—DIFFER FROM WET DEVELOPERS IN THAT THE DEVELOPER POWDER IS MIXED WITH A RAPID-DRYING LIQUID SOLVENT. 9. LIQUID OXYGEN (LOX) COMPATIBLE MATERIALS—MUST BE USED WHEN AR- TICLES INSPECTED ARE SUBJECTED TO CONTACT WITH EITHER LIQUID OR GASEOUS OXYGEN. THESE MATERIALS ARE SPECIFICALLY DESIGNED TO BE INERT WHEN IN THE PRESENCE OF LOX. 10. LOW SULFUR AND LOW CHLORINE—PENETRANT MATERIALS MUST BE SPECIFICALLY DESIGNED TO AVOID THE HARMFUL EFFECTS CAUSED ON SOME NICKEL AND TITANIUM ALLOYS BY THE SULFUR AND CHLORINE CON- TENT. SAFETY PRECAUTIONS IN GENERAL, THE MATERIALS USED IN PENETRANT INSPECTION CAN BE FLAM- MABLE AND CAN CAUSE SKIN IRRITATIONS. IN ADDITION, THE ULTRAVIOLET SPECTRUM OF LIGHT RAYS GENERATED FROM THE MERCURY ARC LAMP CAN CAUSE SUNBURN AND MAY BE INJURIOUS . 0 THE EYES. HOWEVER, IF THE PROPER FILTER FOR FLUORESCENT DYE INSPECTION I$ USED. THE HARMFUL RAYS WILL BE FILTERED OUT. FIRE—MANY PENETRANT MATERIALS ARE FLAMMABLE. SAFE PRACTICE REQUIRES THAT PENETRANT MATERIALS USED IN OPEN TANKS HAVE A FLASHPOINT OF GREATER THAN 120° F. SKIN IRRITATION—SKIN IRRITATION CAN BE AVOIDED BY PREVENTING UN- NECESSARY CONTACT AND BY THE USE OF GLOVES. APRONS. AND PROTECTIVE HAND CREAMS. AIR POLLUTION—THE DEVELOPING POWDERS ARE CONSIDERED NONTOXIC BUT EX- CESSIVE INHALATION MUST BE AVOIDED. EXHAUST FANS SHOULD BE INSTALLED IN ANY CONFINED AREA WHERE DRY DEVELOPERS OR VAPORS FROM THE PENETRANTS ARE PRESENT._10. 212. 11 name _kely LESSON 2 uiz . Wire brushing is 8 common and acceptable method of surface cleaning « test pert that is to be penetrant inspected. A good exhaust system is recommended when working with cleaning solvents. Vapor degreasing is often used to remove oxidation, rust, and scale before & part Is penetrant inspected. . Parts that have been painted usually cannot be inspected with penetrants because suitable paint femoving techniques have not been developed. Detergent cleaning is acceptable for postcleaning but should never be used for preclesning because it may affect the emulsifier during the penetrant test. Etching is often effective in precleaning a pert that hes been machined to a specitic tolerance by surface grinding. ‘Only visible dye penetrants are available in portable kits because fluorescent dyes wi not Hane: lon in pressurized spray cans. . Ory developers are usually only used with visible dye penetrants. Emulsifiers and solvents are both commonly used in penetrant testing as postoleaners. Wet developers should never be used when they will come into contact with gaseove er Haid ‘oxygen because of the results caused by oxygen and water mixing. Emulsifiers must have high penetrating characteristics to emulsify penetrants that He in Mies ancl comers. ‘The black light used in fluorescent penetrant inspection is not hazardous to the humen eyes it the correct filler is in place and not broken or cracked. . Penetrant materials are often placed in groupings thet will assure a valid teat with materiale thet ‘are compatible with each other. . Nonaqueous developer refers to 8 powder that is applied dry. |. Post-emulsifiable penetrants are usually soluble in water after the appicaten ef an emulsifier Water-washable penetranis are commoly used with either a visible or fuoreseent Se. . Flashpoint refers to the lowest temperature at which vapors will ignite when exposed 40 Heme.LESSON 3 THIS LESSON DISCUSSES SURFACE PREPARATION AND PENETRANT APPLICATION. abel ETL. CLEANING THE EFFECTIVENESS OF LIQUID PENETRANT TESTING IS BASED UPON THE A@WLITY OF THE PENETRANT TO ENTER SURFACE DISCONTINUITIES. ALL PAINT, CAR@ON, OIL, VARNISH, OXIDE, PLATING, WATER. DIRT, AND SIMILAR COATING MUST 8€& REMOVED BEFORE APPLICATION OF THE PENETRANT. LIQUID PENETRANT PLACED ON THE SURFACE OF A SPECIMEN DOES NOT MERELY SEEP INTO DISCONTINUITIES, IT IS PULLED INTO THEM BY CAPILLARY ACTION. THiS \S THE REASON ONE CAN COVER THE UNDER SURFACE OF AN ITEM WITH A PENETRANT AND STILL HAVE A VALID TEST. PENETRANT CROSS SECTION THE FOLLOWING ARE TYPICAL CLEANING METHODS DISCUSSED EARLIER: 1. DETERGENT CLEANING 5. RUST AND SURFACE SCALE 2. VAPOR DEGREASING REMOVAL 3. STEAM CLEANING 6. PAINT REMOVAL 4. ULTRASONIC CLEANING 7. ETCHINGPT Lecture Guide Lesson 3 APPLICATION OF PENETRANTS ALMOST ANY LIQUID COULD BE CONSIDERED A PENETRANT, BUT MODERN PENETRANTS MUST HAVE: ; 1. THE ABILITY TO HOLD A DYE MATERIAL IN SUSPENSION. 2. THE ABILITY TO SPREAD THE DYE EVENLY OVER THE SURFACE. 3. THE ABILITY TO CARRY THE DYE INTO ANY DISCONTINUITY OPEN TO THE SUR- FACE. 4, THE ABILITY TO BRING UP THE DYE AS IT IS “COAXED” BACK TO THE SUR- FACE. 5. THE ABILITY, WHEN DESIRED, TO BE EASILY REMOVED. THERE ARE TWO TYPES OF DYE USED IN MODERN PENETRANTS: 1, VISIBLE—A BRIGHTLY COLORED DYE THAT IS HIGHLY VISIBLE UNDER NORMAL LIGHTING CONDITIONS. THIS TYPE OF DYE IS NORMALLY CALLED VISIBLE DYE. 2. FLUORESCENT—AN ALMOST COLORLESS DYE WHICH EMITS VISIBLE LIGHT RAYS WHEN REVIEWED UNDER BLACK LIGHT. A DYE WITH DUAL SENSITIVITY CONTAINS BOTH A VISIBLE DYE FOR EXAMINA: TION IN WHITE LIGHT AND A FLUORESCENT DYE FOR A MORE SENSITIVE EVALUA- TION OF SMALL DISCONTINUITIES. PENETRANTS, EITHER FLUORESCENT OR VISIBLE, CAN BE APPLIED BY ANY ONE OF THE FOLLOWING MEANS: 14. SPRAYING—USUALLY USING A LOW PRESSURE CIRCULATION PUMP OR FROM PRESSURIZED SPRAY CANS. 2. BRUSHING—USUALLY APPLIED WITH RAGS, COTTON WASTE. OR BRUSHES, 3, IMMERSION—THE ENTIRE PART IS DIPPED INTO A TANK OF PENETRANT. 4. POURING—THE PENETRANT IS SIMPLY POURED OVER THE SURFACE.PT Lecture Guide Lesson 3 PENETRATION (DWELL) TIME THE PERIOD OF TIME DURING WHICH THE PENETRANT IS PERMITTED TO REMAIN ON THE SPECIMEN IS A VITAL PART OF THE TEST. TIGHT CRACKLIKE DISCONTINUITIES MAY REQUIRE IN EXCESS OF 30 MINUTES FOR PENETRATION THAT WILL GIVE AN ADEQUATE INDICATION. HOWEVER, GROSS DISCONTINUITIES MAY BE SUITABLY PENETRATED IN 3 TO 5 MINUTES. THE TEMPERATURE OF THE SPECIMEN AND TEMPERATURE OF THE PENETRANT CAN AFFECT THE REQUIRED DOWELL TIME. WARMING THE SPECIMEN TO 70° F OR HIGHER ACCELERATES PENETRATION AND SHORTENS DWELL TIME. HOWEVER, CARE SHOULD BE TAKEN NOT TO OVERHEAT THE SPECIMEN SINCE TOO MUCH HEAT MAY CAUSE EVAPORATION OF THE PENETRANT FROM THE DISCONTINUITY. DWELL TIMES ARE BASED ON THE ASSUMPTION THAT THE PENETRANT WILL RE- MAIN WET ON THE PART SURFACE. ADDITIONAL PENETRANT MAY BE APPLIED DURING DWELL TIME. THE PENETRANT MANUFACTURER WILL PROVIDE SUGGESTED DWELL TIMES FOR THE VARIOUS PENETRANTS THAT IT PRODUCES. PENETRANT TESTING PROCESSES WE PREVIOUSLY MENTIONED THE TWO TYPES OF PENETRANTS, VHW@LE ANC FLUORESCENT. FOR BOTH CATEGORIES THERE IS A FURTHER BREAKDOWN: 1. WATER-WASHABLE (VISIBLE OR FLUORESCENT) 2. POST-EMULSIFICATION (VISIBLE OR FLUORESCENT) 3. SOLVENT-REMOVABLE (VISIBLE OR FLUORESCENT) WATER-WASHABLE PENETRANTS HAVE A BUILT-IN EMULSIFIER ANO THE PENETRANT IS EASILY REMOVED BY A WATER RINSE. CARE MUST BE TAKEN TO INSURE THAT THE SPRAY VOLUME AND FORCE DOES NOT WASH PENETRANT OUT OF THE DISCONTINUITY. WATER TEMPERATURES ABOVE 110° F ARE NOT RECOMMENDED BECAUSE THIS MAY SPEED UP THE EVAPORIZATION OF THE PENETRANT.PT Lecture Guide Lesson 3 SOLVENT-REMOVABLE PENETRANTS—THEY HAVE THE ADVANTAGE OF PORTABIL- ITY AND CAN BE USED OUTDOORS WITHOUT USING HEAVY, COMPLEX EQUIPMENT. THEY ARE EXCELLENT FOR MANY MAINTENANCE INSPECTIONS AND FOR CHECK- ING PORTIONS OF A LARGER STRUCTURE. PENETRANT IS OFTEN APPLIED FROM A PRESSURIZED SPRAY CAN WHICH MAKES THE SYSTEM VERY PORTABLE. AFTER THE SPECIFIED DOWELL TIME. THE EXCESS PENETRANT IS FIRST REMOVED BY WIPING WITH ABSORBENT TOWELS AND THEN CLEANED WITH TOWELS DAMPENED WITH SOLVENT. SOLVENT IS NEVER APPLIED DIRECTLY TO THE SPECIMEN AS IT MIGHT WASH OUT OR DILUTE THE PENETRANT IN THE DISCONTINUITY. (SEE PAGE 6 FOR ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF SOLVENT-REMOVASLE PENETRANTS) POST-EMULSIFICATION PENETRANTS REQUIRE A TWO-STEP REMOVAL PROCESS. THE EMULSIFIER IS USUALLY APPLIED BY DIPPING OR IMMERSION. THE AMOUNT OF OWELL TIME IN THE EMULSIFIER iS IN THE RANGE OF ONE TO FOUR MINUTES IN AC- CORDANCE WITH MANUFACTURERS’ RECOMMENDATIONS AND THE TYPE OF DEFECTS EXPECTED. THE RESULTANT EMULSIFIER-PENETRANT MIXTURE IS REMOVED BY WATER RINSE. (EMULSIFICATION WILL BE COVERED IN MORE DETAIL IN LESSON 4)1. WATER-WASHABLE ADVANTAGES EASILY WASHED WITH WATER GOOD FOR QUANTITIES OF SMALL SPECIMENS 6000 OW ROUGH SURFACES GOOD GN KEYWAYS AND THREADS 6000 ON WIDE RANGE OF DISCONTINUITIES FAST, SINGLE STEP PROCESS RELATIVELY INEXPENSIVE AVAILABLE IN OXYGEN COMPATIBLE FORM 2. SOLVENT-REMOVABLE PORTABILITY WO WATER REQUIRED GOOD ON ANODIZED SPECIMENS 6000 FoR SPOT CHECKING SPECIMENS CAN BE RERUN 3. POST-EMULSIFICATION ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES es aaa PT Lecture Guide Lesson 3 DISADVANTAGES, NOT RELIABLE FOR DETECTING SCRATCHES AND. SIMILAR SHALLOW SURFACE DISCONTINUITIES, NOT RELIABLE OW RERUNS OF SPECIMENS. NOT RELIABLE OW ANODIZED SURFACES ACIDS AND CHROMATES AFFECT SENSITIVITY EASILY OVER-WASHED PENETRANT SUBJECT TO WATER CONTAMINATION FLAMMABLE MATERIALS REMOVAL OF EXCESS SURFACE PENETRANT 15, TIME CONSUMONG MATERIALS CANNOT BE USED IN OPEN TANKS DIFFICULT TO USE ON ROUGH SURFACES SUCH AS CAST MAGNESIUM AOVANTAGES. HIGH SENSITIVITY FOR VERY FINE DISCONTINUITIES. 6000 ON WIDE SHALLOW DISCONTINUITIES EASILY WASHED WITH WATER AFTER EMULSIFICATION SHORT PENETRATION TIME CANNOT BF LA LY OVER WASHED | Se Se DISADVANTAGES TWO STEP PROCESS EQUIPMENT REQUIRED FOR EMULSIFIER APPLICATION DIFFICULT TO REMOVE PENETRANT FROM THREADS, KEYWAYS, BLINO HOLES AND ROUG™ SURFACESa LESSON 3. quiz « A dual sensitivity penetrant contains a special dye that is visible In white light and wil fluoresce without the use of @ black light. .. A part being penetrant nspacted must stay immersed in the penetrant tank for the entire ‘specilied dwel time. |. The liquid penetrant leak-through test refers to the ability of a penetra.it to spread through the ry developer evenly. . Visible dye penetrants are ususlly considered to be less sensitive than fluorescent penetrants. . Water-washable penetrants have a built-in emulsifier that permits good reauils in penetrant ‘removal from parts suspected of having wide or shallow discontinuities. . Solvent-removable penetrants are available in both visible and fluorescent dye. - Excess post-emulsifiable penetrant is commonly removed by spraying the surtace of the part with clesner (solvent) and then wiping with a lint-free towel. }. Water-washable penetrant systems ere usually very portable because the materials ere com- monly used in pressurized spray cans. ). Warming the specimen to temperatures up to about 70° F tends to accelerate penetration and shoriens dwell lime. ). For the dwell time to be accur the entire time specified. «The typical dwell time for most penetrant Inspections is about 20:30 minutes. the surtace of the specimen must stay wet with penewrent fer 12, Ust two (2) of the commonly used methods of applying penetrant 1 « apesimen shu that is fo be Inspected. alo. Inmersitr, frurn? Lust Seak y 13. Uist lou of the commonly used Methods of preclesning the apesmen bolere A penetrant inspection. tag hy BameviNg Ptebg 4.14, It you were asked to examine 200 steel bolls, each % x 3 inches with roked reeds, woh Denetrant method would you choose? (@) post-emulsitication {b) water-washablo 27LESSON 4 THIS LESSON DISCUSSES EMULSIFICATION, PENETRANT REMOVAL, AND DEVEL- OPER APPLICATION. POST-EMULSIFICATION PENETRANT (P. E. PENETRANT) THIS TYPE OF PENETRANT EMULSIFICATION IS ACCOMPLISHED BY DIPPING THE PART IN A CHEMICAL EMULSIFIER PRIOR TO WASHING. THE EMULSIFIER WILL BREAK DOWN THE PENETRANT AND MAKE IT WATER SOLUBLE. THE EMULSIFIER CAN BE APPLIED BY DIPPING OR SPRAYING, BUT NOT BY BRUSHING. THE BRISTLES OF THE BRUSH MAY ENTER THE DISCONTINUITY. EMULSIFIER Lop UT NEVER BYPT Lecture Guide Lesson 4 THE SKETCH BELOW REPRESENTS THE STEPS IN A POST-EMULSIFICATION PENETRANT TEST. Ww ‘A. FLUORESCENT PENETRANT SEEPS INTO B. EMULSIFIER APPLIED TO PENETRANT DISCONTINUITY < €. SURFACE PENETRANT IS EMULSIFIED 0, WATER SPRAY REMOVES EMUL SHED. PENETRANT NA £. DEVELOPER ORAWS PENETRANY OUT OF F. BLACK LIGHT CAUSES INDICATIONS TO DISCONTINUITY FLUORESCE WHEN VIEWED IN DARKPT Lecture Guide: Lesson 4 IF TOO SHORT AN EMULSIFICATION TIME IS USED, NOT ALL PENETRANT WILL BE REMOVED, WHICH WILL CLOUD OVER DISCONTINUITIES. IF TOO LONG A TIME IS USED, PENETRANT WITHIN THE DISCONTINUITIES WILL ALSO BECOME WATER SOLUBLE AND BE WASHED AWAY WITH EXCESS PENETRANT. THE P. £. PENETRANT MAKES THE WATER WASH LESS CRITICAL. THE SKETCHES BELOW COMPARE THE EFFECTS OF WATER-WASHABLE AND POST- EMULSIFICATION PENETRANTS. EVEN WHEN MOST CAREFULLY WASHED, ‘SOME PENETRANT WILL BE LOST FROM VIEW *A'S* DISCONTINUITIES, AS SHOWN BELOW. (A) WATER-WASHABLE ‘CROSS-SECTION BUT AFTER CAREFUL EMULSIFICATION CONTROL, AND THE WASH, View "8" LOOKS LIKE THis! (B) POST-EMULSIFICATION a”PT Lecture Guide Lesson 4 DEVELOPER APPLICATION SOME INDICATIONS MAY BE VISIBLE PRIOR TO THE APPLICATION OF A DEVELOPER. BUT THIS STEP WILL ENSURE THAT ALL DISCONTINUITIES ARE VISIBLE TO THE NAKED EYE. DEVELOPING IS ACCOMPLISHED WHEN A HIGHLY ABSORBENT POWDER IS APPLIED TO THE ITEM BEING TESTED AFTER EXCESS PENETRANT IS REMOVED. THE PENETRANT IS ACTUALLY DRAWN OUT OF THE DISCONTINUITY BY THE STRONG CAPILLARY ACTION OF THE DEVELOPER. DISCONTINUITY INDICATION DISCONTINUITY AS SHOWN ABOVE, THE IMAGE OF THE DISCONTINUITY IN THE DEVELOPER WILL ACTUALLY BE LARGER THAN THE ACTUAL SIZE OF THE DISCONiINUITY. THERE ARE TWO COMMON TYPES OF DEVELOPERS IN USE TODAY—WET AND OHY. BOTH USE A WHITE POWDER AND THE PRIMARY DIFFERENCE IS IN THE METHOD OF APPLICATION. 1. WET DEVELOPERS A. THE NONAQUEOUS DEVELOPER IS HELD IN SUSPENSION IN A SOLVENT BASE AND 1S USUALLY SUPPLIED IN PRESSURIZED CANS. B. ANOTHER. TYPE OF WET DEVELOPER HOLDS THE WHITE POWDER IN SUSPENSION IN A WATER BASE. THIS TYPE OF WET DEVELOPER IS GENERALLY USED WITH WATER- WASHABLE OR P. E. PENETRANTS AND IS APPLIED BY DIPPING OR SPRAY- ING. AFTER APPLICATION. A SHORT TIME IS ALLOWED FOR THE WATER TO EVAPORATE LEAVING A THIN LAYER OF WHITE POWDER IF AN OVEN IS USED, THE TEMPERATURE SHOULD NOT EXCEED ABOUT 225° F AS THIS COULD EVAPORATE PENETRANT IN THE DISCONTINUITYPT Lecture Guide Lesson 4 2. DRY DEVELOPERS A DRY DEVELOPER IS A FLUFFY WHITE POWDER THAT IS NOT CARRIED IN A LIQUID. DRY DEVELOPERS ARE APPLIED DIRECTLY TO THE ARTICLE AS A POWDER. THIS IS USUALLY DONE WITH SLIGHT AIR PRESSURE OR ARTICLES MAY BE DIPPED INTO A CONTAINER OF DRY DEVELOPER. IT IS VERY NECESSARY TO HAVE A DRY SURFACE PRIOR TO APPLICATION OF A DRY POWDER. A WET SURFACE WILL RESULT IN UNEVEN LAYERS OF POWDER. DRY DEVELOPER IS USUALLY USED ON FLUORESCENT PENETRANTS. ADVANTAGES OF ‘‘WET’’ DEVELOPERS BETTER ON SMOOTH SURFACES WHERE THE DRY DEVELOPER WILL NOT ADHERE. WHEN A WIDE, SHALLOW DISCONTINUITY IS SOUGHT, A WET DEVELOPER WILL LEAVE A MORE EVEN COAT OF DEVELOPER. ADVANTAGES OF “‘DRY” DEVELOPERS ON ROUGH SURFACES, AND ON SHARP FILLETS, HOLES, AND THREADED AR- TICLES, THE WET DEVELOPER TENDS TO LEAVE TOO MUCH DEVELOPER.NAME. keg LESSON 4 Quiz ‘When using @ post-emulsified penetrant, if too long a time is used for emulsification, penetrant within the discontinuities will be washed away with the excess penetrant. During the rinse cycle, an emulsifier is added to a solvent-removable penetrant to make it water soluble. Water-washable penetrants have a builtin emulsilier. Post-emulsificalion penetrants are commonly available in both visible and fluorescent dyes, Post-enuusification penetrants usually require a two-step penetrant removal process, ‘The penetrant removal process with water-washable penetrants is very critical because of the danger of over-wash. Solvent-removable penetranis are commonly used because they will withstand a very forceful water wash without the danger of over-wash. ‘An advantage of the solvent-removable penetrant is that the excess penetrant is easily removed ‘by dipping the part in a tank of solvent solution. Wet developers are usually chosen over a dry developer for use on a smooth surlace. A major advantage of the dry developer over wel is that it wil not leave the same amount of ex- cess build-up in threads and filets. ‘The emulsification time required to detect wide or shallow discontinuities is usually longer than for finding narrow and deep discontinuities. To avcid over-wash when using water washable penetranis the water spray nozzle is usually held at a 90° angle to the surtace |. When using a water-washable penetrant, the part must be completely dried in an oven {not in ‘excess of 225° F) belore the wel developer can be applied. ‘A major advantage of a nonaqueous developer is that it can be applied to a part that is heated above 225° F without evaporation on the developer vehicle Solvent-removable fluorescent penetrants require the use of a rather time-consuming method of ‘excess penetrant removal. Post-emuisitied visible dye penetrants commonly use both wet and dry developers,LESSON 5. THIS LESSON DISCUSSES THE FINAL STEPS IN THE PENETRANT PROCESS: INSPEC- TION, EVALUATION, POSTCLEANING, AND MATERIAL CONTROL. Pe INSPECTION PROPER LIGHTING SHOULD BE THE FIRST CONSIDERATION IN THE INSPECTION OF AN ARTICLE. 1. IF A FLUORESCENT DYE PENETRANT IS USED, A ROOM OR BOOTH WITH DIM LIGHT AND A BLACK LIGHT WITH PROPER INTENSITY ARE REQUIRED. 2. IF A VISIBLE DYE PENETRANT IS USED, ADEQUATE NORMAL LIGHTING iS. NECESSARY. TYPICAL INDICATIONS IN PENETRANT INSPECTION ALL INDICATIONS FOUND WITH THE LIQUID PENETRANT METHOD WILL BE SUR- FACE DISCONTINUITIES, BUT THE INDICATIONS MAY OR MAY NOT AFFECT THE USEFULNESS OF THE ARTICLE. FALSE INDICATIONS THE MOST COMMON SOURCE OF FALSE INDICATIONS IS POOR WASHING. THE OPERATOR CAN EASILY TELL WHEN A GOOD RINSE !S OBTAINED BY US- ING A BLACK LIGHT DURING AND AFTER THE FLUORESCENT PENETRANT REMOVAL PROCESS. 7PT Lecture Guide Lesson 5 TO AVOID FALSE INDICATIONS, CARE SHOULD BE TAKEN SO THAT NO OUTSIDE CONTAMINATION SUCH AS THE FOLLOWING OCCURS. 1. PENETRANT ON OPERATOR'S HANDS. 2. CONTAMINATION OF DEVELOPER. 3. PENETRANT TRANSFERRED TO CLEAN SPECIMEN FROM OTHER INDICATIONS. 4. PENETRANT ON INSPECTION TABLE. PATCH FROM CONTACT WITH ANOTHER ARTICLE MARK FROM HANDLING: t™ Toot FINGERPRINTS LEFT Y OPERATOR [et i morearion Typical False Indications NONRELEVANT INDICATIONS NONRELEVANT INDICATIONS ARE ACTUAL SURFACE DISCONTINUITIES THAT IN MOST CASES ARE THERE BY DESIGN. THEY ARE CAUSED BY SOME FEATURE OF ASSEMBLY SUCH AS ARTICLES THAT ARE PRESS-FITTED, KEYED, SPLINED, OR RIVETED. NONRELEVANT INDICATIONS COULD ALSO INCLUDE LOOSE SCALE OR A ROUGH SURFACE ON A FORGING OR CASTING.PT Lecture Guide Lesson 5. TRUE INDICATIONS (SOME TYPICAL INDICATIONS ARE SHOWN IN CHAPTER 6, PAGES 8-19 IN THE TRAINING HANDBOOK) TRUE INDICATIONS ARE THOSE CAUSED BY SURFACE DISCONTINUITIES THAT HAVE BEEN INTERPRETED AS NOT BEING FALSE OR NONRELEVANT. 7 TRUE INDICATIONS ARE SUBJECT TO EVALUATION AS TO THE CAUSE AND THE EFFECT THEY WILL HAVE ON THE SERVICE LIFE OF THE ARTICLE. TRUE INDICATIONS COULD BE DIVIDED INTO FIVE BASIC CATEGORIES: 1. CONTINUOUS LINE—THIS TYPE OF INDICATION IS OFTEN CAUSED BY CRACKS, COLD SHUTS, FORGING LAPS, SCRATCHES, OR DIE MARKS. 2. INTERMITTENT LINE—THESE INDICATIONS COULD BE CAUSED BY ANY OF THE DISCONTINUITIES MENTIONED ABOVE PROVIDED THEY WERE VERY TIGHT OR WHERE THE PART HAD BEEN PEENED, MACHINED, OR GROUND. 3. ROUND—USUALLY CAUSED BY POROSITY OPEN TO THE SURFACE. 4. SMALL DOTS—TINY ROUND INDICATIONS CAUSED BY THE POROUS NATURE OF THE SPECIMEN, COARSE GRAIN STRUCTURE, OR MICROSHRINKAGE. 5. DIFFUSED OR WEAK—THESE INDICATIONS ARE DIFFICULT TO INTERPRET AND OFTEN THE PART MUST BE CLEANED AND RETESTED. IN MANY CASES THE DIFFUSED OR WEAK INDICATIONS TURN OUT TO BE FALSE INDICATIONS CAUSED BY AN IMPROPER PENETRANT PROCEDURE. DEPTH DETERMINATION OF PENETRANT DISCONTINUITIES. THE GREATER THE DEPTH OF A DISCONTINUITY, THE MORE PENETRANT IT WILL HOLD AND THE LARGER AND BRIGHTER THE INDICATION. POSTCLEANING AFTER THE SPECIMEN HAS BEEN INSPECTED IT IS VERY IMPORTANT THAT IT BE THOROUGHLY CLEANED. POSTCLEANING USUALLY WILL INVOLVE THE SAME TYPES OF CLEANING OPERATIONS AS WERE USED IN PRECLEANING.PT Lecture Guide Lesson 5 QUALITY CONTROL OF PENETRANT TEST MATERIALS. ALUMINUM TEST BLOCKS—THEY PROVIDE A GOOD MEANS OF EVALUATING GENERAL PURPOSE PENETRANTS. THEY SHOULD BE USED FOR COMPARISONS ONLY AND NOT FOR ABSOLUTE EVALUATIONS. THESE BLOCKS ARE NONUNIFORM, AND THE DEPTH AND WIDTH OF CRACKS ARE UNCONTROLLED. THE SIZE OF THE BLOCKS MAY VARY BUT ARE ABOUT 3/8 BY 2 INCHES OF 2024-T-3 ALUMINUM, ABOUT 3 INCHES LONG. THE BLOCKS ARE HEATED AND QUENCHED TO PRODUCE AN OVERALL CRACK PAT- TERN. THEY CAN BE REUSED BY REHEATING, QUENCHING, AND CAREFUL CLEAN- ING. PENETRANT #2 PENETRANT #1 SLOT IN TEST BLOCK SENSITIVITY TESTS—WHILE THERE HAVE BEEN NO SIMPLE QUANTITATIVE TESTS DEVELOPED FOR MEASURING PENETRANT SENSITIVITY. A SIMPLE COMPARATIVE TEST IS USUALLY ADEQUATE. A SMALL SAMPLE OF THE PENETRANT FROM THE TESTING AREA IS PLACED ON ONE SIDE OF AN ALUMINUM TEST BLOCK, AND A SMALL SAMPLE OF NEW PENETRANT ON THE OTHER SIDE. BY VISUAL OBSERVATION IT IS DETERMINED IF THE OLD PENETRANT IS CONTAMINATED TO THE POINT WHERE IT MUST BE DISCARDED.PT Lecture Guide Lesson 5 MENISCUS TEST—PROVIDES A PRACTICAL TEST FOR EVALUATING THE DYE CON- CENTRATION IN THIN-LIQUID FILMS. THE TEST UTILIZES A FLAT GLASS PLATEN AND A CONVEX LENS. WHEN A DROP OF SOLUTION IS PLACED BETWEEN THE LENS AND PLATEN, A COLORLESS OR NONFLUORESCENT SPOT IS FORMED AROUND THE POINT OF CONTACT. THE RESULTANT CONTACT ANGLE SIMPLY INDICATES THE ABILITY OF A LIQUID TO WET A SURFACE. THE DIAMETER OF THE REMAINING ‘‘SPOT’’ OF COLORLESS PENETRANT PROVIDES A MEASURE OF FILM THICKNESS WHICH CAN BE USED TO COMPARE THE DYE CONCENTRATION OF PENETRANTS. PROLONGED EXPOSURE OF A FILM TO ULTRAVIOLET LIGHT OR ACCIDENTAL CONTAMINATION BY ACIDS OR ALKALIS WILL AFFECT THE DYE CONCENTRATION AND THEREFORE CHANGE THE SPOT DIAMETER. contact spot angle Tens penetrani aten CERAMIC BLOCK TEST—CONSISTS OF AN UNGLAZED CERAMIC DISC WHICH HAS THOUSANDS OF MICROPORES AND CRACKS ON ITS SURFACE. A PENCIL MARK IS MADE ON THE BLOCK AND A SMALL AMOUNT OF A TEST PENETRANT IS PLACED ON ONE SIDE AND A REFERENCE PENETRANT IS APPLIED TO THE OTHER SIDE. AFTER THE CORRECT DWELL TIME, THE TWO PENETRANTS ARE COMPARED IN A SIDE-BY-SIDE VISUAL EXAMINATION. A REDUCTION IN THE NUMBER OR APPARENT BRIGHTNESS OF PORE INDICATIONS SHOULD BE OBSERVED WHEN COMPARING A FRESH AND OLD BATCH OF PENETRANT. WATER CONTENT TEST—THE ASTM STANDARD 0-95 DESCRIBES A TEST WHERE 100 ML OF PENETRANT IS PLACED IN A BOILING FLASK WITH A SIMILAR QUANTITY OF MOISTURE-FREE XYLENE. THE CONDENSATE IS COLLECTED IN A GRADUATED TUBE TO SHOW PERCENT OF WATER BY VOLUME. IF PERCENT OF WATER EXCEEDS MANUFACTURERS’ RECOMMENDATIONS, THE PENETRANT IS DISCARDED. aPT Lecture Guide Lesson 5. VISCOSITY TEST—A VISCOMETER TUBE IS USED TO MEASURE THE VISCOSITY IN CENTISTOKES TO DETERMINE IF THE PENETRANT IS WITHIN THE RANGE RECOM- MENDED BY THE MANUFACTURER. A TYPICAL STANDARD IS ASTM D-445. FLUORESCENT PENETRANT FADE TEST—THIS TEST INVOLVES THE USE OF THE ALUMINUM TEST BLOCKS IN A SIDE-BY-SIDE COMPARISON TEST. THE FLUORESCENT PENETRANT |S PLACED ON BOTH SIDES OF THE BLOCK AND PROCESSED NORMALLY. ONE HALF OF THE BLOCK IS THEN EXPOSED TO A STAN- DARD BLACK LIGHT FOR ONE HOUR, WHILE THE OTHER SIDE IS COVERED WITH PAPER. THE FLUORESCENT BRILLIANCE OF THE TWO SIDES IS OBSERVED AND, IF ONE SIDE IS NOTICEABLY LESS BRILLIANT, THE PENETRANT IS DISCARDED. WATER WASHABILITY TEST—THIS TEST EVALUATES THE EFFICIENCY OF THE EMULSIFIER BY COMPARING TWO DIFFERENT PERCENTAGE BLENDS OF PENETRANT AND EMULSIFIER. A SPECIAL STEEL BLOCK IS PLACED AT A 75° ANGLE AND THE TWO BLENDS ARE ALLOWED TO FLOW SEPARATELY DOWN THE BLOCK. AFTER A FIVE-MINUTE WAITING PERIOD, THE BLOCK 1S WASHED AND EXAMINED FOR TRACES OF REMAIN: ING PENETRANT. DEVELOPERS—DRY DEVELOPERS ARE SIMPLY VISUALLY INSPECTED TO SEE THAT THEY ARE NOT LUMPY OR CAKED INSTEAD OF FLUFFY AND LIGHT. WET DEVELOPERS ARE OFTEN CHECKED USING A HYDROMETER TO ASSURE THAT THE DENSITY OF THE POWDER IN THE VEHICLE IS WITHIN THE RANGE RECOM- MENDED BY THE MANUFACTURER. FILTERED PARTICLE METHOD OF PENETRANT INSPECTION—WHEN TESTING A POROUS SURFACE WITH FILTERED PARTICLES, THE INCREASED AREA CREATED BY A CRACK WILL FILTER"? THE PENETRANT, LEAVING THE PARTICLES ON THE SUR- FACE.LESSON 6 THIS LESSON DISCUSSES TYPES OF DISCONTINUITIES THAT CAN BE EVALUATED WITH THE LIQUID PENETRANT METHOD. DISCONTINUITIES CAN BE DIVIDED INTO THREE GENERAL CATEGORIES: INHERENT, PROCESSING, AND SERVICE. 1. INHERENT—THEY ARE USUALLY RELATED TO DISCONTINUITIES FOUND IN THE MOLTEN METAL. INHERENT WROUGHT DISCONTINUITIES RELATE TO THE MELTING AND SOLIDIFICATION OF THE ORIGINAL INGOT BEFORE IT 1S FORMED INTO SLABS, BLOOMS, AND BILLETS. INHERENT CAST DISCONTINUITIES RELATE TO THE MELTING, CASTING, AND SOLIDIFICATION OF A CAST ARTICLE. USUALLY CAUSED BY INHERENT VARIABLES SUCH AS INADEQUATE FEEDING, GATING, EXCESSIVE POURING TEMPERATURE, AND ENTRAPPED GASES. 2. PROCESSING DISCONTINUITIES—THEY ARE USUALLY RELATED TO THE VARIOUS MANUFACTURING PROCESSES SUCH AS MACHINING, FORMING, EX- TRUDING, ROLLING, WELDING, HEAT TREATING, AND PLATING. 3. SERVICE DISCONTINUITIES—THEY ARE RELATED TO THE VARIOUS SERVICE CONDITIONS SUCH AS STRESS CORROSION, FATIGUE, AND EROSION. REMEMBER, WHEN YOU USE THE LIQUID PENETRANT METHOD, YOU CAN FIND ONLY THOSE DISCONTINUITIES WHICH ARE OPEN TO THE SURFACE. HOWEVER, DURING THE MANUFACTURING PROCESS, MANY DISCONTINUITIES THAT WERE SUBSURFACE CAN BE MADE OPEN TO THE SURFACE BY MACHINING, GRIND- ING, AND THE LIKE. REMEMBER THAT DISCONTINUITIES ARE NOT NECESSARILY DEFECTS. ANY INDICA- TION THAT IS FOUND BY THE INSPECTOR IS CALLED A DISCONTINUITY UNTIL IT CAN BE IDENTIFIED AND EVALUATED AS TO THE EFFECT IT WILL HAVE ON THE SERVICE OF THE PART. 45P! Lecture Guide Lesson 6 LISTED BELOW ARE SOME TYPICAL DISCONTINUITIES THAT SHOULD BE RECOG- NIZED WHEN DOING ANY TYPE OF NONDESTRUCTIVE TEST. (A MORE DETAILED STUDY OF TYPICAL DISCONTINUITIES CAN BE OBTAINED BY READING PRO- GRAMMED INSTRUCTION HANDBOOK PI-4-1.) DISCONTINUITIES TRAPPED IN THE INGOT DURING THE STEEL-MAKING PROCESS MAY CAUSE ADDITIONAL TYPES OF DISCONTINUITIES AS THE STEEL !S USED IN THE MANUFACTURE OF AN ARTICLE. THERE ARE THREE MAIN TYPES OF DISCONTINUITIES FOUND IN INGOTS. 1. POROSITY—CAUSED BY ENTRAPPED GAS IN THE MOLTEN PIPE METAL. 2. NONMETALLIC INCLUSIONS—CAUSED "2 weryt¥S BY IMPURITIES ACCIDENTALLY IN- ‘CLUDED IN THE MOLTEN METAL. 3. PIPE—CAUSED BY SHRINKAGE AT THE CENTER OF THE INGOT AS THE MOLTEN METAL SOLIDIFIES. POROSITY: THE “HOT TOP" IS USUALLY CROPPED OFF TO REMOVE MOST OF THE ABOVE DISCONTINUITIES.PT Lecture Guide Lesson 6 WHEN AN INGOT IS FURTHER PROCESSED INTO SLABS, BLOOMS, AND BILLETS, IT 1S POSSIBLE FOR THE DISCONTINUITIES TO CHANGE SIZE AND SHAPE. AS A BILLET IS FLATTENED AND SPREAD OUT, NONMETALLIC INCLUSIONS MAY CAUSE A LAMINATION. PIPE AND POROSITY COULD ALSO CAUSE LAMINATIONS IN THE SAME MANNER AS SHOWN BELOW: LAMINATIONS. AS A BILLET IS ROLLED INTO BAR STOCK, NONMETALLIC INCLUSIONS ARE SQUEEZED OUT INTO LONGER AND THINNER DISCONTINUITIES CALLED STRINGERS, NON-METALLIC INCLUSIONS)PT Lecture Guide Lesson 6 AS A BILLET IS ROLLED INTO ROUND BAR STOCK, SURFACE IRREGULARITIES MAY CAUSE SEAMS. SEAMS ARE CAUSED BY FOLDING OF METAL DUE TO IMPROPER ROLLING OR BY A CRACK IN THE BILLET AS SHOWN BELOW: TOP WiEW A SEAM COULD ALSO OCCUR WHEN THE BILLET IS FORMED INTO A RECTANGULAR BAR AS SHOWN BELOW:PT Lecture Guide Lesson 6 FORGING DISCONTINUITIES OCCUR WHEN METAL IS HAMMERED OR PRESSED INTO SHAPE, USUALLY WHILE THE METAL !S VERY HOT. A FORGED PART GAINS STRENGTH DUE TO THE GRAIN FLOW TAKING THE SHAPE OF THE DIE, AND THE PROCESS IS SHOWN BELOW: A FORGING LAP IS CAUSED BY FOLDING OF METAL ON THE SURFACE OF THE FORGING, USUALLY WHEN SOME OF THE FORGING METAL IS SQUEEZED OUT BETWEEN THE TWO DIES. GR ZY = A FORGING BURST IS A RUPTURE CAUSED BY FORGING AT IMPROPER TEMPERATURES. BURSTS MAY BE EITHER INTERNAL OR OPEN TO THE SURFACE AS SHOWN BELOW. ee KH WTERWAL EXTERNAL, BURST BURST OR CRACK (SUBSURFACE) (OPEN TO THE SURFACE) “PT Lecture Guide Lesson CASTING DISCONTINUITIES OCCUR WHEN MOLTEN METAL IS POURED INTO A MOLD AND ALLOWED TO SOLIDIFY. A COLD SHUT IS CAUSED WHEN MOLTEN METAL IS POURED OVER SOLIDIFIED METAL AS SHOWN BELOW: (SMOOTH, CURVED APPEARANCE iL ae a, 7G HOT TEARS (SHRINKAGE CRACKS) OCCUR WHEN THERE IS UNEQUAL SHRINKAGE BETWEEN LIGHT AND HEAVY SECTIONS AS SHOWN BELOW:PT Lecture Guide: Lesson 6 SHRINKAGE CAVITIES ARE USUALLY CAUSED BY LACK OF ENOUGH MOLTEN METAL TO FILL THE SPACE CREATED BY SHRINKAGE, SIMILAR TO PIPE IN THE IN- GOT. MOLTEN METAL HAS FILLED THE CASTING MICROSHRINKAGE |S USUALLY MANY SMALL SUBSURFACE HOLES THAT APPEAR AT THE GATE OF THE CASTING. MICROSHRINKAGE CAN ALSO OCCUR WHEN THE MOLTEN METAL MUST FLOW FROM A THIN SECTION INTO A THICKER SECTION OF A CASTING. BLOW HOLES ARE SMALL HOLES AT THE SURFACE OF THE CASTING CAUSED BY GAS WHICH COMES FROM THE MOLD ITSELF. MANY MOLDS ARE MADE OF SAND, AND WHEN MOLTEN METAL COMES INTO CONTACT WITH THE MOLD, THE WATER IN THE SAND IS RELEASED AS STEAM. POROSITY 1S CAUSED BY ENTRAPPED GAS. POROSITY IS USUALLY SUBSURFACE BUT CAN OCCUR ON THE SURFACE DEPENDING ON THE DESIGN OF THE MOLD.PT Lecture Guide Lesson 6 GRINDING CRACK: ARE A PROCESSING-TYPE DISCONTINUITY CAUSED BY STRESSES WHICH ARE BUILT UP FROM EXCESS HEAT CREATED BETWEEN GRIND- ING WHEEL AND METAL. GRINDING CRACKS WILL USUALLY OCCUR AT RIGHT ANGLES TO THE ROTATION OF THE GRINDING WHEEL. GRINDING CRACKS, HEAT TREAT CRACKS ARE OFTEN CAUSED BY THE STRESSES BUILT UP DURING HEATING AND COOLING. UNEQUAL COOLING BETWEEN LIGHT AND HEAVY SEC- TIONS MAY CAUSE HEAT TREAT CRACKS. HEAT TREAT CRACKS HAVE NO SPECIFIC DIRECTION AND USUALLY START AT SHARP CORNERS WHICH ACT AS STRESS CONCENTRATION POINTS. FATIGUE CRACKS ARE SERVICE-TYPE DISCONTINUITIES THAT ARE USUALLY OPEN TO THE SURFACE WHERE THEY START FROM CONCENTRATION POINTS. FATIGUE CRACKS ARE POSSIBLE ONLY AFTER THE PART IS PLACED INTO SERVICE, BUT MAY BE THE RESULT OF POROSITY, INCLUSIONS OR OTHER DISCONTINUITIES IN A HIGHLY STRESSED METAL PART. EEEPT Lecture Guide Lesson 6 WELDING DISCONTINUITIES—THE FOLLOWING ARE TYPES OF “PROCESSING DISCONTINUITIES.” CRATER CRACKS TRANSVERSE LONGITUDINAL, STRESS CRACK POROSITY SLAG INCLUSIONS. TUNGSTEN INCLUSIONS LACK OF PENETRATION LACK OF FUSION UNDERCUT : 7) fs fo SS O=x SSS LEE SS SN Vo oo _ SS EE CLL a ie uw CLL LLL saFis a LESSON 6 quiz . The general category of processing discontinuties relates to discontinuities caused during manufacturing processes such as welding, extruding, and heat treating. . During the steelmaking process the top of the ingot is usually removed to help eliminate such discontinuities as pipe, porosity and nonmetallic inclusions. ‘When a billet is rolled into ber stock, a nonmetallic inclusion could te formed into a longer and thinner discontinuity called a stringer. Porosity in a billet could cause a lamination if the metal were formed into a flat plate. Seams are usually subsurface discontinuities caused by improper rolling of a billet into round stock. During the rolling of a billet into round bar stock, the grain in the metal forms perpendicular to the direction of roling, tn the forging operation, underheated metal will not allow the motal to flow property and may cause “forging seams. Forging bursts are considered subsurface discontinuities and can never be inspected with liquid ‘penetrant,techniques. Cold shuts are common discontinuities found in the forging process and are caused by inade- quate heating of the forged part. Blow holes are subsurface discontinuities commonly found in cast parts. _ Because cold metal occupies more space than hot metal, there is the danger of “hot tears” dur- ing the casting process. . Porosity is often caused by entrapped gas that is expanded during the heating and pressing in the forging process. . Microshrinkage is often found at the gate of a casting and is usually subsurface. Grinding cracks are usually at right angles to the direction of grinding and are caused by the heat build-up between the grinding wheel and metal. Heat treat cracks are often associated with stress concentration points on the part being heat treated. . Porosity may lead to a fatigue crack in a highly stressed part, Crater cracks and tungsten inclusions are both associated with discontinuities formed during the welding process. Lack of penetration and ack of fusion both refer to the same type of welding discontinuityLESSON 7 IDENTIFICATION AND COMPARISON OF DISCONTINUITIES THAT CAN BE FOUND WITH THE LIQUID PENETRANT PROCESS. THE STUDENT IS ASKED TO STUDY THE PHOTOGRAPHS AND DESCRIPTIONS OF TYPICAL DISCONTINUITIES AS PRINTED IN THE PT CLASSROOM TRAINING HAND- BOOK (CT-6-2). EACH OF THE SPECIFIC DISCONTINUITIES ILLUSTRATED ARE-DIVIDED INTO THREE GENERAL CATEGORIES: INHERENT, PROCESSING, AND SERVICE. COLD SHUT .... . senses. PAGE 7-10 FILLET CRACK Papeete ede be PAGE 7-12 GRINDING CRACKS ..............--- PAGE 7-15 HEAT-AFFECTED ZONE CRACKING ..... PAGE 7-19 HEAT TREAT CRACKS........... .. PAGE 7-21 SHRINKAGE CRACKS ..............- PAGE 7-24 THREAD CRACKS ...............-5- PAGE 7-26 HYDROGEN FLAKE ........ sees. ~PAGE 7-31 LACK OF PENETRATION ............- PAGE 7-40 LAMINATIONS ........... wees s +. PAGE 7-42 LAPS AND SEAMS... . . So PAGE 7-44 LAPS AND SEAMS: an . . .PAGE 7-46 MICROSHRINKAGE . . veces eee. PAGE 7-49 STRESS CORROSION ............. . PAGE 7-55 HOTTEARS ............-. +. PAGE 7-63 INTERGRANULAR CORROSION ....... .PAGE 7-65PT Lecture Guide Lesson 7 AFTER REVIEWING THE PHOTOGRAPHS AND DESCRIPTIONS OF TYPICAL DISCON- TINUITIES, IT SHOULD BE OBVIOUS THAT LIQUID PENETRANT INSPECTION IS NOT THE BEST METHOD IN ALL CASES. THE SELECTION OF ONE TESTING METHOD OVER ANOTHER iS BASED UPON VARIABLES SUCH AS: 1. TYPE AND ORIGIN OF DISCONTINUITY. . MATERIAL MANUFACTURING PROCESS. . ACCESSIBILITY OF ARTICLE. LEVEL OF ACCEPTABILITY DESIRED. . EQUIPMENT AVAILABLE. . COST. oo Porn TRAINING AND CERTIFICATION IT IS IMPORTANT THAT THE TECHNICIAN AND SUPERVISOR BE QUALIFIED IN THE LIQUID PENETRANT METHOD BEFORE THE TECHNIQUE IS USED AND TEST RESULTS EVALUATED. THE AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING RECOMMENDS THE USE OF ITS DOCUMENT RECOMMENDED PRACTICE NO. SNT-TC-1A. THIS DOCUMENT PROVIDES THE EMPLOYER WITH THE NECESSARY GUIDELINES JO PROPERLY QUALIFY AND CERTIFY THE NDT TECHNICIAN IN ALL METHODS. TO COMPLY WITH THIS DOCUMENT THE EMPLOYER MUST ESTABLISH A ‘‘WRIT- TEN PRACTICE” WHICH DESCRIBES IN’ DETAIL HOW THE TECHNICIAN WILL BE TRAINED, EXAMINED, AND CERTIFIED. THE STUDENT IS ADVISED TO STUDY PAGE 6 OF THE JUNE 1975 EDITION OF SNT- TC-1A TO DETERMINE THE RECOMMENDED NUMBER OF HOURS OF CLASSROOM INSTRUCTION AND MONTHS OF EXPERIENCE NECESSARY TO BE CERTIFIED AS A LIQUID PENETRANT TESTING TECHNICIAN.PT Lecture Guide: Lesson 7 CERTIFICATION OF NDT PERSONNEL IS THE RESPONSIBILITY OF THE EMPLOYER AND IS USUALLY AT THREE LEVELS. LEVEL I-IS QUALIFIED TO PERFORM SPECIFIC CALIBRATIONS, SPECIFIC TESTS, AND SPECIFIC EVALUATIONS ACCORDING TO WRITTEN INSTRUCTIONS. LEVEL Il-IS QUALIFIED TO SET UP AND CALIBRATE EQUIPMENT AND TO INTER- PRET AND EVALUATE RESULTS WITH RESPECT TO CODES, STAN- DARDS, AND SPECIFICATIONS. MUST BE ABLE TO PREPARE WRITTEN INSTRUCTIONS AND REPORT TEST RESULTS. LEVEL III-MUST BE CAPABLE AND RESPONSIBLE FOR ESTABLISHING TECH- NIQUES, INTERPRETING CODES, AND DESIGNATING THE TEST METHOD AND TECHNIQUE TO BE USED. MUST HAVE A PRACTICAL BACK: GROUND IN THE TECHNOLOGY AND BE FAMILIAR WITH OTHER COM- MONLY USED METHODS OF NOT. THE SNT-TC-1A DOCUMENT RECOMMENDS THAT THE NOT TECHNICIAN BE EXAMINED IN THE FOLLOWING AREAS: A. GENERAL EXAMINATION B. SPECIFIC EXAMINATION C. PRACTICAL EXAMINATIONPT Lecture Guide Lesson 7 ASNT PROVIDES A SERVICE TO THE INDUSTRY BY PROVIDING LEVEL Ill EXAMINA- TIONS IN THE GENERAL AND PRACTICAL AREAS. BECAUSE OF THE INDIVIDUAL RE- QUIREMENTS OF THE MANY INDUSTRIES USING NDT, THE SPECIFIC EXAMINATION IS STILL THE RESPONSIBILITY OF THE EMPLOYER. THE FOLLOWING FLOW CHART INDICATES THE PATHS THAT CAN BE TAKEN TO BE CERTIFIED ACCORDING TO THE SNT-TC-1A DOCUMENT. ASNT CERTIFICATION WITHOUT EXAMINATION” ‘General. Practeal, Specitc— 15 Years EcucaionExpenence ASNT CERTIFICATION BY EXAMINATION’ 77 This documentation as recommended paragraphs ‘5.653.054 ana 90! SNT-TC-1A 1975 Eaton2 Ramin