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Maloberti
DATA CONVERTERS
Springer
2007
Chapter 1
BACKGROUND ELEMENTS
Slide Set
Data Converters
Background Elements
F. Maloberti
DATA CONVERTERS
Springer
2007
Chapter 1
BACKGROUND ELEMENTS
Summary
Introduction
The Ideal Data Converter
Sampling
Amplitude Quantization
Quantization Noise
kT/C Noise
Discrete and Fast Fourier Transforms
The D/A Converter
The z-Transform
F. Maloberti
DATA CONVERTERS
Springer
2007
Chapter 1
BACKGROUND ELEMENTS
(a)
(b)
F. Maloberti
DATA CONVERTERS
Springer
2007
Chapter 1
BACKGROUND ELEMENTS
Sampling
A sampler transforms a continuous-time signal into its sampled-data equivalent.
x(t) = x(nT ) =
x(t)(t nT )
(1)
x*(t)
x(t)
4T 5T
T 2T 3T
6T .....
Only the values at the sampling instant matter (independently on the real
representation).
Chapter 1
F. Maloberti
DATA CONVERTERS
Springer
2007
BACKGROUND ELEMENTS
X*
X*
S d(t-nT)
-
(t nT ) =
ensT ;
(2)
X
X
L x (nT ) =
(X(s jns) =
x(nT )ensT
(3)
Chapter 1
F. Maloberti
DATA CONVERTERS
Springer
2007
BACKGROUND ELEMENTS
Spectral Implications
f1 f2
fB
f
(a)
f1 f2
-2
-1
(b)
-fs
-2
-fs
-1
(c)
fs
f1 f2
-3
fs
F. Maloberti
DATA CONVERTERS
Springer
2007
Chapter 1
BACKGROUND ELEMENTS
Nyquist Theorem
A band limited signal, x(t), whose Fourier spectrum, X(j), vanishes for
angular frequencies || > s/2 is fully described by a uniform sampling
x(nT ), where T = 2/s. The band limited signal x(t) is reconstructed
by
X
sin(s(t nT )/2)
x(t) =
x(nT )
(4)
s(t nT )/2
Half the sampling frequency, fs /2 = 1/2T , is often named the Nyquist frequency. The
frequency interval 0 fs /2 is referred to as the Nyquist band (or band-base) while frequency intervals, fs /2 fs , fs 3fs /2, are named the second and third Nyquist
zones, and so forth.
F. Maloberti
DATA CONVERTERS
Springer
2007
Chapter 1
BACKGROUND ELEMENTS
Remember!
Chapter 1
F. Maloberti
DATA CONVERTERS
Springer
2007
BACKGROUND ELEMENTS
Antialiasing Filter
Pass
until here
Reject
from here
fB
fS/2
(a)
fS -fB
fS
H(s)
[dB]
Pass-Band
Transition-Band
Stop-Band
ASB
Stop-band
Attenuation
(b)
Chapter 1
F. Maloberti
DATA CONVERTERS
Springer
2007
BACKGROUND ELEMENTS
Undersampling
fL
Signal
Image
Signal
Signal
(a)
Image
(b)
fH
Image
Signal
Image
Image
fS
fL
Signal
Signal
Signal
(c)
Image
Image
(d)
fH
Image
Image
Signal
fS
Image
F. Maloberti
DATA CONVERTERS
Springer
2007
Chapter 1
BACKGROUND ELEMENTS
10
Remember That
Under-sampling requires an
anti-aliasing filter!
This removes unwanted spurs, which
can occur in the base-band
or be aliased back from any
other Nyquist zones.
The
anti-aliasing filter for undersampled systems is band-pass
around the signal band.
Chapter 1
F. Maloberti
DATA CONVERTERS
Springer
2007
BACKGROUND ELEMENTS
11
Sampling-time Jitter
The sampling time depends on the used clock generator that can be affected by jiitter.
x(nT)
DX(2T)0
DX(3T)
DX(T)
d(T)
DX(0)
d(2T)
d(3T)
d(0)
0
2T
3T
F. Maloberti
DATA CONVERTERS
Springer
2007
Chapter 1
BACKGROUND ELEMENTS
12
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
Chapter 1
F. Maloberti
DATA CONVERTERS
Springer
2007
BACKGROUND ELEMENTS
Jitter Requirements
10
10
11
10
-66 dB
-78 dB
12
10
-90 dB
-102 dB
13
10
14
10
10
10
10
13
Chapter 1
F. Maloberti
DATA CONVERTERS
Springer
2007
BACKGROUND ELEMENTS
14
Assume that the noise is a fixed part plus the one coming from jitter
2
f
2 = 0.4 108 + 0.1 108
vn
20 106
81
80
79
SNR [dB]
78
77
76
75
74
73
72
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
Normalized input frequency, f/fCK
0.8
0.9
(9)
F. Maloberti
DATA CONVERTERS
Springer
2007
Chapter 1
BACKGROUND ELEMENTS
15
Amplitude Quantization
Amplitude quantization changes a sampled-data signal from continuouslevel to discrete-level. The amplitude of each quantization interval or quantization step, , is
XF S
=
(10)
M
An input level other than Xm,n the mid point of the n-th interval leads to the
quantization error, Q leading to a quantization output Y corresponding to
an Xin input
Y = Xin + Q = (n + 1/2);
(11)
Chapter 1
F. Maloberti
DATA CONVERTERS
Springer
2007
BACKGROUND ELEMENTS
16
Quantization Error
The quantization error is an additive signal with amplitude limited by the
quantization step amplitude
X(nT)
Y(nT)
eQ(nT)
eQ
(a)
D
Xin
D/2
D/2
Xmin
Xmax
(b)
F. Maloberti
DATA CONVERTERS
Springer
2007
Chapter 1
BACKGROUND ELEMENTS
17
Remark
F. Maloberti
DATA CONVERTERS
Springer
2007
Chapter 1
BACKGROUND ELEMENTS
18
Quantization Noise
Remind the definition of the SNR
SN R|dB = 10 log
Psign
Pnoise
Psign and Pnoise are the power of signal and noise in the band of interest.
(12)
Chapter 1
F. Maloberti
DATA CONVERTERS
Springer
2007
BACKGROUND ELEMENTS
x 10
1
0.8
0.8
0.6
0.6
0.4
0.4
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.4
0.4
0.6
0.6
0.8
0.8
1
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
19
Chapter 1
F. Maloberti
DATA CONVERTERS
Springer
2007
BACKGROUND ELEMENTS
20
p(Q) = 0 otherwise
p(Q) =
(13)
/2
Z
(14)
F. Maloberti
DATA CONVERTERS
Springer
2007
Chapter 1
BACKGROUND ELEMENTS
21
(15)
XF2 S
( 2n)2
=
Psin =
12
12
(16)
(17)
SN Rtrian|dB = (6.02 n) dB
(18)
leading to
Chapter 1
F. Maloberti
DATA CONVERTERS
Springer
2007
BACKGROUND ELEMENTS
22
SN Rtot|dB 1.78
6.02
SN Rtot|dB
EN Btrinag =
6.02
(19)
(20)
EN B =
6.02
(21)
Chapter 1
F. Maloberti
DATA CONVERTERS
Springer
2007
BACKGROUND ELEMENTS
14
f= 40 MHz
13
f= 80 MHz
12
f= 120 MHz
11
10
f= 160 MHz
f= 200 MHz
9
8
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
Sampling uncertanty [psec]
0.8
0.9
23
Chapter 1
F. Maloberti
DATA CONVERTERS
Springer
2007
BACKGROUND ELEMENTS
24
R( )ej2f d =
R(nT )ej2f nT
(22)
Assume that the auto correlation function, Re(nT ), goes rapidly to zero for
|n| > 0 or, for simplicity, use Re(0) only.
The auto correlation becomes a delta in the time domain and the Laplace
transform becomes frequency independent.
The power spectral density is white with power PQ = 2/12 spread uniformly over the unilateral Nyquist interval 0 fs/2.
Chapter 1
F. Maloberti
DATA CONVERTERS
Springer
2007
25
BACKGROUND ELEMENTS
Signal
S
-fs/2
Quantized
Signal
fs/2
-fs/2
Quantization
Noise
area
D2/12
-fs/2
fs/2
fs/2
Chapter 1
F. Maloberti
DATA CONVERTERS
Springer
2007
BACKGROUND ELEMENTS
26
kT/C Noise
An unavoidable limit is the kT/C noise due to the thermal noise associated
with the sampling switch.
Vout
+
SW
Vin
Rs
Cs
vn=4kTRs
(a)
Pn,Cs =
vn,C
(b)
2 () =
vn,C
s
Cs
4kT Rs
1 + (RsCs)2
Z
0
df
kT
=
2
1 + (2f RsCs)
Cs
(24)
(25)
Chapter 1
F. Maloberti
DATA CONVERTERS
Springer
2007
BACKGROUND ELEMENTS
10
10-bit
11-bit
kT/C noise voltage
10
12-bit
13-bit
14-bit
15-bit
10
10
10
10
10
Sampling capacitance [pF]
10
kT /C noise voltage versus the capacitance value and quantization step for 1 VF S .
27
F. Maloberti
DATA CONVERTERS
Springer
2007
Chapter 1
BACKGROUND ELEMENTS
Remember
The kT/C noise is a fundamental limit caused by sampling. Sampling any signal
using 1 pF leads to 64.5 V
noise voltage. If the sampling
capacitance increases by k
the noise voltage diminishes
by k.
28
Chapter 1
F. Maloberti
DATA CONVERTERS
Springer
2007
BACKGROUND ELEMENTS
29
Example
A pipeline data-converter uses a cascade of two sample-and-hold circuits
in its first stage. The clock jitter is 1 psec. Determine the minimum sampling capacitance that enables 12 bit resolution. The full scale voltage is 1
V; the input frequency is 5 MHz.
Solution
The quantization noise power is 2/12. We assume that an extra 50%
noise is acceptable (the system would lose 1.76 dB, 0.29-bit). Thus the
noise budget for KT/C and jitter is
2
vn,budget
=
VF2S
9 V 2
=
2.48
10
24 224
(26)
Chapter 1
F. Maloberti
DATA CONVERTERS
Springer
2007
BACKGROUND ELEMENTS
30
The noise jitter only affects the signal in the first stage: the second stage
samples the held signal from the first stage. The jitter noise is
VF S
2
2f ji}2 = 2.47 1010V 2
vn,ji = {
2
(27)
Thus, the total noise power that the sampler can generate is 2.23109V 2.
Assuming equal capacitance in both S&H circuits the noise for each is
vn,C = 1.12 109V 2, leading to a sampling capacitance
kT
4.14 1021
CS = 2 =
= 3.7pF
9
1.12 10
vn,C
(28)
Chapter 1
F. Maloberti
DATA CONVERTERS
Springer
2007
BACKGROUND ELEMENTS
31
X
L x (nT ) =
x(nT )ensT
(29)
X
F x (nT ) = X (j) =
x(nT )ejnT
(30)
NX
1
n=0
x(nT )ej2kn/(N 1)
(31)
Chapter 1
F. Maloberti
DATA CONVERTERS
Springer
2007
BACKGROUND ELEMENTS
32
P h{X(fk )} = arctan
Im{X(fk )}
Real{X(fk )}
(32)
(33)
Equation (31) requires N 2 computations. For long series the Fast Fourier
Transform algorithm (FFT ) is more effective.
The FFT reduces the number of computations from N 2 down to N log2(N ).
Use power of 2 elements in the series
Chapter 1
F. Maloberti
DATA CONVERTERS
Springer
2007
BACKGROUND ELEMENTS
33
Windowing
The DFT and the FFT assume that the input is N-periodic.
Real signals are never periodic and the N-periodic assumption lead to discontinuity between the last and first samples of successive sequences.
1.5
0.5
0.5
1.5
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1000
Chapter 1
F. Maloberti
DATA CONVERTERS
Springer
2007
BACKGROUND ELEMENTS
34
Windowing (ii)
Windowing tackles the missed N-periodicity by tapering the endings of the series.
xw (kT ) = x(kT ) W (k)
(34)
1
0. 9
Flattop
0. 8
Blackman-Harris
0. 7
Gaussian
0. 6
Hamming
0. 5
0. 4
0. 3
0. 2
0. 1
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
F. Maloberti
DATA CONVERTERS
Springer
2007
Chapter 1
BACKGROUND ELEMENTS
Useful Tips
35
Chapter 1
F. Maloberti
DATA CONVERTERS
Springer
2007
36
BACKGROUND ELEMENTS
Windowing Example
Input
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
200
400
(a)
Windowed Input
600
800
1000
200
400
(b)
600
800
1000
Time domain input of the example before (a) and after windowing (b).
Chapter 1
F. Maloberti
DATA CONVERTERS
Springer
2007
BACKGROUND ELEMENTS
Input Spectrum
350
120
250
100
200
80
150
60
100
40
50
20
10
20
30
40
50
60
140
300
37
70
80
90
100
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
F. Maloberti
DATA CONVERTERS
Springer
2007
Chapter 1
38
BACKGROUND ELEMENTS
Is windowing avoidable?
? Windowing is essentially an amplitude modulation of the input that produces undesired effects.
? A spike at the beginning or at the end of the sequence is completely masked being
windowed away almost completely
? Windowing gives rise to spectral leakage.
? The SNR measurement can be accurate but an input sine wave does not give a pure
tone.
With input sine waves use coherent sampling for which an integer
number of clock cycles,k, fits into the sampling window. In addition,
k must be a prime number.
k
fin = N
fs
2 1
(35)
F. Maloberti
DATA CONVERTERS
Springer
2007
Chapter 1
BACKGROUND ELEMENTS
39
F. Maloberti
DATA CONVERTERS
Springer
2007
Chapter 1
BACKGROUND ELEMENTS
40
Processing Gain
? An M-bit quantization gives VF2S /12 22M noise power.
? The power of the full scale sine wave is VF2S /8.
? The FFT of the quantization noise is, on average, 3/2 22M /N below
the full scale
x2
noise |dB = Psign 1.78 6.02 M 10 log(N/2)
(36)
F. Maloberti
DATA CONVERTERS
Springer
2007
Chapter 1
BACKGROUND ELEMENTS
Notice
41
Chapter 1
F. Maloberti
DATA CONVERTERS
Springer
2007
42
BACKGROUND ELEMENTS
Input Spectrum in DB
4096 points
20
32768 points
20
SNR=62 dB
SNR=62 dB
40
40
60
60
80
100
120
80
100
50
100
150
200
250
(a)
300
350
400
450
500
120
50
100
150
200
250
(b)
300
350
400
450
500
F. Maloberti
DATA CONVERTERS
Springer
2007
Chapter 1
BACKGROUND ELEMENTS
43
Coding Schemes
USB - Unipolar Straight Binary: is the simplest binary scheme. It is
used for unipolar signals. The U SB represents the first quantization
level, Vref + 1/2VLSB with all zeros ( 0000) . As the digital
code increases, the analog input increases by one LSB at a time, and
when the digital code is at the full scale ( 1111) the analog input is
above the last quantization level Vref 1/2VLSB . The quantization
range is Vref + Vref .
CSB - Complementary Straight Binary: the opposite of the USB.
CSB coding is also used for unipolar systems. The digital code ( 0000)
represents the full scale while the code ( 1111) corresponds to the
first quantization level.
F. Maloberti
DATA CONVERTERS
Springer
2007
Chapter 1
BACKGROUND ELEMENTS
44
F. Maloberti
DATA CONVERTERS
Springer
2007
Chapter 1
BACKGROUND ELEMENTS
45
F. Maloberti
DATA CONVERTERS
Springer
2007
Chapter 1
BACKGROUND ELEMENTS
46
D/A Conversion
Ideal Reconstruction
fs
fs
HR,id(f ) = 1 f or
<f <
2
2
HR,id(f ) = 0 otherwhise
(37)
sin(st/2)
r(t) =
(st/2)
(38)
Chapter 1
F. Maloberti
DATA CONVERTERS
Springer
2007
BACKGROUND ELEMENTS
47
Real Reconstruction
S&H followed by the reconstruction filter.
1 esT
HS&H (s) =
s
(39)
sin(T /2)
T
HS&H (j) = j ejT /2
T /2
(40)
fs=1/T
wT/2
f
fNyq
fs
2fs
3fs
4fs
5fs
Chapter 1
F. Maloberti
DATA CONVERTERS
Springer
2007
BACKGROUND ELEMENTS
48
Signal spectrum
Residual images
Rule of thumb
f
fB
fS -fB fS
2fS
3fS
Chapter 1
F. Maloberti
DATA CONVERTERS
Springer
2007
49
BACKGROUND ELEMENTS
1
200
0.8
150
0.6
0.4
100
0.2
50
0
0.2
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1000
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Chapter 1
F. Maloberti
DATA CONVERTERS
Springer
2007
50
BACKGROUND ELEMENTS
250
15000
200
10000
150
100
5000
50
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Chapter 1
F. Maloberti
DATA CONVERTERS
Springer
2007
BACKGROUND ELEMENTS
51
The z-Transform
Is the time-discrete counterpart of the Laplace transform
Z{x(nT )} =
x(nT )z n
(41)
(43)
Chapter 1
F. Maloberti
DATA CONVERTERS
Springer
2007
BACKGROUND ELEMENTS
52
wT
p
p
p
s
(44)
(45)
F. Maloberti
DATA CONVERTERS
Springer
2007
Chapter 1
BACKGROUND ELEMENTS
53
Features
A sampled-data system is
stable if all the poles of its
transfer function are inside
the unity circle.
The frequency response of
the system is the z-transfer
function calculated on the
unity circle.
Chapter 1
F. Maloberti
DATA CONVERTERS
Springer
2007
BACKGROUND ELEMENTS
54
Other Mappings
Points of the s-plane mapping the z-plane points: z = 0.5; z = 0.5 +
1
log |z|;
Ts
wT
p
-p
1
{phase(z) 2n}
Ts
(46)
F. Maloberti
DATA CONVERTERS
Springer
2007
Chapter 1
BACKGROUND ELEMENTS
55
(47)
(48)
(49)
y(nT + T ) = y(nT ) +
x(nT + T )x(nT )
T.
2
(50)
Chapter 1
F. Maloberti
DATA CONVERTERS
Springer
2007
BACKGROUND ELEMENTS
56
(51)
zY = Y + XT,
(52)
z+1
(53)
zY = Y + XT
2
giving rise to three different approximate expressions of the integral transfer function
HI,F = T
z
;
z1
HI,B = T
1
;
z1
HI,Bil = T
z+1
,
2(z 1)
(54)
where the indexes F , B and Bil indicate forward, backward and bilinear.
Chapter 1
F. Maloberti
DATA CONVERTERS
Springer
2007
BACKGROUND ELEMENTS
57
z1
Tz
z1
T
(55)
(56)
z1
2T (z + 1)
(57)
Notice that the above mappings moves the poles differently than the ideal
mapping s ln(z)/T .
F. Maloberti
DATA CONVERTERS
Springer
2007
Chapter 1
BACKGROUND ELEMENTS
58
Wrap-up
The background knowledge studied in this first part is essential to properly
understand and design data converters.
We have seen how a data converter performs the transformation from
continuous-time and continuous-amplitude to discrete-time and quantizedamplitude (and vice-versa).
We have studies that data conversion affects the spectrum of the signal
and can sometimes modify its information content. It is therefore important
to know the theoretical implications and to be aware of the limits of the
approximations used for studying a data converter.
We also have studied the mathematical tools used for analysis and characterization of sampled-data systems.