1617 Level J Science (03-Quest-Gr8-Sc-CC-Grid-CellsAndGenetics-Dec-2016) PDF

03-Quest-Gr8-Sc-CC-Grid-CellsAndGenetics-24-Nov-16.
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03-Cells and Genetics (Book, Modified into points) 24-Nov- 16

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1. A fig tree, a bacterium and a turtle are examples of [organisms]

2. Dinosaurs and Geckos are examples of animals called [reptiles]
3. Lizards are not cold blooded but sometimes they lie in the [Sun] to absorb energy to
become more active.
4. An example of a reptile that has no legs is a [snake]
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What does it mean to be alive?
5. An example of an object that can move but it is not alive is a [cloud]
6. The ability to produce young and eat to get energy are characteristics of [living things]
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7. G Organisms need energy for [m_______ ](moving), [gr_______](growing), and
[rep_____] (repairing) body parts.
8. G A plant captures the energy in sunlight to make [food]
9. A spider is an example of an animal that eats other [animals].
10. A sheep is an example of an animal that eats [plants].
11. Plants make sugar in which they trap [sunlight] energy.
12. G Animals get their energy by eating [plants] or by eating [animals]
13. G A substance that an organism needs to take into its body to use as food or to build or
repair itself, is called a [nutrient]
14. Which of the following is not a nutrient for humans? Bread, water, air, soap, eggs, [soap]
15. Which of the following is not a nutrient for a tomato plant? water, air, soap, eggs, salts
from the soil, [soap]
16. In order to live, organisms need three things. One of them is that it needs to take into its
body materials to stay alive, and these are called [nutrients]
17. In order to live, organisms need three things. One of them is that it needs a [space, or a
place] to live in.
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03-Quest-Gr8-Sc-CC-Grid-CellsAndGenetics-24-Nov-16.docx
18. In order to live, organisms need three things. One of them is that it needs the right
[environment] (e.g. temperature, etc.)
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19. G A characteristic of living things is that organisms increase in size: [grow] and make
new parts: [develop]
20. G A characteristic of living things is that organisms can make offspring (young organism
of the same kind): [reproduce] to replace organisms that die.
21. G A characteristic of living things is that organisms can react to stimuli (plural of
stimulus): [respond]
22. A characteristic of living things is that organisms must use: [energy] to live
23. G A characteristic of living things is that organisms have [adaptation] to help them
survive.
24. G A characteristic of living things is that all organisms are made up of one or more [cells]
25. When organisms increase in size, we say that they [grow]
26. When organisms get new parts, like legs on a tadpole or flowers on a plant, we say that
they [develop] new parts.
27. A [stimulus] is any change in the external or internal environment that causes response
in the organism.
28. The ability to respond to an external stimulus is called [sensitivity].
29. The reaction of an organism to the stimulus is its [response].
30. G Using stimulus and response: The stem of a house plant bends in the direction of the
coming light. The stimulus is [light] and the response is [the stem bends]. A rabbit runs
away at the sight of a hawk. The stimulus is [the sight of the hawk] and the response is
[running away]. The sight of food causes a dog to drool. The stimulus is [sight of food]
and the response is [drooling].
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31. First meaning of homeostasis: The ability of a system to keep a stable internal
[environment] even when changes are taking place in the surroundings.
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32. Second meaning of homeostasis: The actual state of stable [equilibrium] that must be
achieved for a biological system to function well.
33. For a cell or organism to maintain homeostasis, it must spend [energy].
34. An organism needs to maintain [homeostasis] so that it can function well, or efficiently.
35. An [adaptation] is a structure or behaviour that helps an organism survive better in an
environment.
36. Sharp claws that help an eagle catch fish more efficiently are called an [adaptation]
37. G All organisms are made up of one or more basic units of life called [cells]
38. Summary: Organisms (1) grow and [develop], (2) have young, i.e. [reproduce] (3)
respond to [stimuli] (4) Maintain [homeostasis] (5) [adapt] to the environment and (6)
have [cells].
39. The bodies of organisms are organized into cells, tissues, [organs] and organ systems.
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40. Examples of unicellular organisms include [bacteria], [protozoans], and [yeasts].
41. Unicellular organisms are [microscopic] and every single cell must carry out all of the
basic [functions] needed to sustain the life of the organism.
42. Go to youtube and look at bacteria and Protista. Write one sentence about how each
looks.
Demonstration: go to youtube. See bacteria, protista, for no more than min each.
http://www.bing.com/videos/search?q=onion+skin+cells+under+microscope&FORM=VIRE1#vie
w=detail&mid=DE9FEF264C2B706DFEE1DE9FEF264C2B706DFEE1
43. A single-celled organism must extract [energy] from food, take in [water], get rid of
[wastes], and make [structures] that the organism needs to function.
44. A [microscope] is needed to observe a unicellular organism.
45. G The first living things to appear on Earth were [unicellular] organisms.
46. For a unicellular organism to become a multicellular organism, cells must [specialize]
and [lose] the ability to live alone.
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47. Animals are examples of [multicellular] organisms.
48. The body of a multicellular organism consists of [specialized] cells each group of which
does one function only and cannot live alone.
49. Plant roots are made of cells specialized to absorb minerals and [water] from the soil.
50. Leaf cells are specialized to make [sugar] out of sunlight, carbon dioxide and water.
51. Stomach lining cells are specialized to break down [food] into smaller parts.
52. Heart cells are specialized in contracting to [pump] blood to the body.
53. All cells need to work together to perform all the functions of [life].
54. G An important difference between the cell of a unicellular organism and a cell of a
multicellular organism is that a unicellular organism carries out [all] of the organisms
life functions, but each cell of a multicellular organism carries out [specific] functions
and cannot live alone.
55. A multicellular organism's body is made up of many cells, which are grouped together
into larger parts, such that each part performs one [function] for the organism.
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56. The microscope allowed scientists to [observe] cells and how they function in an
organism.
57. In 1660s Robert Hooke examined a piece of cork, and observed that it was made up of
tiny compartments that he called [cells].
58. Van Leeuwenhoek found hundreds of tiny unicellular organisms swimming in a [pond]
water.
59. G Onion cell are shaped like [rectangles]
60. We add iodine stain when viewing onion cells in a microscope because starch will turn
[black-blue] so the view becomes clearer.
61. Onion skin cells are packed close together so it becomes easier for cells to [cooperate]
together
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62. G Cells come from other [cells]: each cell divides to form [two] cells.
63. G The cell theory states that all living things are made up of one or more [cells].
64. G The cell theory states that cells carry out the functions needed to support [life].
65. G The cell theory states that cells come only from [pre-existing] cells.
66. G Cells cannot arise from [nonliving] material. They come only from cells that already
[exist]
Watch this video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0MFGGBBxSf8
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67. Carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins are used to build cell [material] (e.g. cell
membranes) and may be used as food.
68. G All cells are made of the same basic chemical elements: carbon, [hydrogen], oxygen,
[nitrogen], phosphorus, and [sulfur] that combine in millions of ways to form molecules
of different compounds.
69. G Five classes of compounds are found in all living things: (1) [carbohydrates], (2)
[lipids], (3) [proteins], (4) [nucleic acids] and (5) water.
70. G [Carbohydrates] are energy-rich compounds made up of C, H and O. Sugars and
starches are examples of carbohydrates.
71. [Sugars] are made in plants, so the fruits and vegetables you eat contain large amounts
of them.
72. Sugars are broken down in your cells to provide [energy].
73. G Sugar molecules can combine to form large [starch] molecules that plants store as
extra energy or building material (cellulose, i.e. wood).
74. Potatoes, rice, and wheat products (bread and pasta) are rich in [starches] and are good
energy sources.
75. Carbohydrates are a source of energy and components of cell membranes and cell
[walls] (e.g. wood). (building material)
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76. G Fats, oils and waxes are examples of [Lipids].
77. G Lipids are made of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen and contain [2 to 3 times] the
energy of carbohydrates.
78. Animals and plants store extra energy in their cells as [fats] and [oils].
79. Cholesterol is an important lipid, and is a component of cell [membrane].
80. Too much cholesterol is not healthy because it collects on the inside of blood vessels
and blocks the flow of [blood].
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81. Proteins contain carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, and sometimes [sulphur].
82. G Proteins are made up of [amino] acids (20 different ones), which are linked together
to form folded chains.
83. Your body can make [some] amino acids, but others must be taken in from food.
84. [Amino acids] are the building blocks of a protein.
85. G The three functions of proteins are: (1) [building materials] for cell and body parts
(muscle, blood). (2) tools called [enzymes] to control chemical processes in the body, (3)
can be used as [food](provide energy).
86. Enzymes are tools that are made mostly of [protein].
87. Enzymes are tools to fit molecules together in a geometry that allows them to [react
together].
88. Nucleic acids are large molecules made up of chains of subunits called [nucleotides].
89. Nucleotides are composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and [phosphorus].
90. There are two kinds of nucleic acids: [DNA] and [RNA], which, store information for
building and running the cells.
91. G [DNA] is that holds the genetic information/instructions a cell needs for making
[proteins].
92. [RNA] is a nucleic acid that is also involved in making proteins.
93. About two thirds of a cell is [water]
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94. G Almost all chemical processes in cells take place in [water].

95. G Water helps a cell keep its [shape].
96. G Water maintains [homeostasis] by helping keep the body temperature constant.
97. G Water transports [materials] in and out of a cell.
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98. G The [cytoplasm] is a jellylike material that contains organelles and is the site of most
of the cells activities.
99. [Organelles] are small structures within the cytoplasm that have specific functions.
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100.
The cell [membrane] is a flexible structure that separates the inside of the cell
from its external environment.
101.
G The cell wall [supports] and protects the cell.
102.
All cells are surrounded by a boundary called [cell membrane] that holds the cell
together and it [controls] what enters and leaves the cell.
103.
The cells of plants, fungi, and some bacteria have an additional boundary, a
thick, stiff [cell wall] that surrounds the cell membrane to supports and protects the cell.
104.
The main organelles of an animal cell are: cell membrane, nucleus,
[mitochondrion], endoplasmic reticulum (ER), Golgi body, large vacuole, [Lysosome].
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105.
G The [nucleus] of a cell is a large oval organelle, it is the control center that
directs all the activities of the cell.
106.
The nucleus is protected in most living things by the nuclear [membrane]. It is
surrounded by a double membrane that contains pores. It contains DNA.
107.
G DNA is a long chainlike molecule, coiled up into [chromosomes].
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108.
[Ribosomes] are tiny structures, found both in the cytoplasm and attached to
endoplasmic reticulum, they are the site of protein synthesis.
109.
Each chromosome is a rope-shaped structure made up of [protein] and DNA.
110.
G The information contained within the DNA is copied onto [RNA] molecules,
which move out of the nucleus to the [ribosomes] where use the information is used to
build proteins.
111.
Ribosomes are made inside the nucleus then they move into the cytoplasm
through the [nuclear] membrane.
112.
Bacteria have neither [nuclei] nor nuclear membranes. The DNA in bacteria is
suspended in the cytoplasm.
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113.
Most cells have [mitochondria], rod-shaped organelles that use the energy in
food to produce ATP (adenosine triphosphate), the common currency a form of
energy that cells use.
114.
The process that releases energy from food is called [cellular respiration], which
takes place in the mitochondrion.
115.
G Many plant cells have [chloroplasts], green, disk-like organelles that trap the
energy in sunlight into sugar. This process is called [photosynthesis].
116.
Animal cells do not contain [chloroplasts]. They get their [energy] when animals
consume sugar from other plants or animals.
117.
Chloroplasts trap the sunlight energy into [sugar], which mitochondria change
into a useful form of [energy], ATP.
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118.
The [Golgi] body receives material from the endoplasmic reticulum, finishes
processing and packaging them; then transports them to the cell and other cells as well.
119.
[Ribosomes] are attached to the surface of the [endoplasmic reticulum], which
is a network of tubes and passageways.
120.
The [proteins] that the [ribosomes] produce, as well as other products such as
lipids (fats), are transported along the endoplasmic reticulum to different parts of the
cell, where they are made into cell parts.
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121.
G The endoplasmic reticulum consists of a [network] of tubes and passageways
through which proteins and other materials are transported from one place to another
in a cell.
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122.
G In cells, materials are stored in [vacuoles], a saclike organelle that stores
water, food, and other materials.
123.
Animal cells may have many small vacuoles or none at all. Plant cells tend to
have one very large vacuole, called a [central vacuole], which can take up most of the
cell's volume.
124.
When a plant cell lacks water, its central vacuole is partially empty and the
plant [wilts].
125.
A [lysosome] is a small round organelle that helps cleanup the inside of the cell.
It is usually found in animal cells but not in plant cells.
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126.
G Put Y where the structure is found, in animal cells and N where it is not. An
animal cell contains: Cell membrane, [__Y_],Cell wall [_N _],Cytoplasm [__Y _],nucleus
[_Y __], Chloroplasts[_N],End. Ret. (ER) [__Y _],one large vacuole[N _],several small
vacuole[_Y __], lysosome[Y] mitochondria [__Y _],ribosomes [_Y __],Golgi bodies [_Y ],
127.
G Put Y where the structure is found, in plant cells and N where it is not. A plant
cell contains: Cell membrane, [Y ___],Cell wall [Y _],Cytoplasm [Y __],nucleus [_Y ],
Chloroplasts[Y __],End. Ret. (ER) [Y _],one large vacuole[Y __],several small vacuole[_N],
lysosome [N] mitochondria [_Y _],ribosomes [Y __],Golgi bodies [_Y _],
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128.
Chloroplasts capture [energy] from sunlight and use it to make food.
129.
G The [cell wall] is a rigid structure outside the cell membrane that protects the
cell and gives it its shape.
130.
The [central] vacuole is a large vacuole that stores water, food, and wastes. It
takes up most of the cell volume.
131.
Hormones are produced in [ribosomes] and transported through the ER to the
[Golgi body], where they are packaged and sent out of the cell
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132.
G A bacteriums organelles are not surrounded by [membranes].
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133.
A muscle cell is designed to [contract]. A nerve cell is designed to transmit a
[signal].
134.
G An organism begins life as a single cell. During the early development of a
multicellular organism, cells multiply and [differentiate] to form many specialized cells.
135.
G A skin cell is thin and flat, the best shape to [protect] the outside of an
organism's body.
136.
Because the cells of a multicellular organism are too specialized, any one cell
[cannot live] on its own.
137.
Together, all the specialized cells in the organism's body perform its life
[functions].
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138.
Cells are [adapted] to the jobs they do.
139.
G Plant root cells have tiny [extensions] that increase the surface area for
absorbing water and minerals from soil.
Trends in Science
140.
G [Stem] cells are undifferentiated cells that have the ability to develop into any
of the more than 200 types of cells in the body.
141.
In developing embryos, stem cells differentiate into all the [specialized] cells
that make up a newborn baby.
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142.
Any organism starts as one cell. As it divides into cells, cells become specialized.
The final organism will have a complete set of [systems]
143.
Each system in the body can have different [organs].
144.
Mouth, stomach, intestines are parts of the [digestive] system.

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Multicellular Organisms Are Organized

145.
A green leaf cell is specialized in making [sugar].
146.
Muscle tissue contains only [muscle] cells.
147.
G In a plant stem, one kind of tissue, [phloem], forms tubes that transport food
from the leaves to other parts of the plant.
148.
G In a plant stem, one kind of tissue, [xylem], forms tubes that provide
pathways for transporting water and minerals from the roots to the leaves.
149.
G A tissue is a group of similar [cells] that all do the same job, or function.
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150.
G An [organ] is a body-part made up of two or more kinds of tissues.
151.
An earthworm's intestine is an organ lined with [muscle ] tissue, a tissue that
produces [digestive juices ] and a third kind of tissue that [absorbs nutrients].
152.
G A plant leaf is an [organ] whose function is to make food for the entire plant.
153.
A leaf contains a tissue that [covers] and protects it, a tissue for performing
[photosynthesis], and tissues for [transporting] food, minerals, and water to and from
the leaf.
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154.
G An [organ system] is a group of organs that function together to do a major
job for the organism.
Classroom Activity
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155.
G The mouth, esophagus, stomach, small and large intestines, liver, gallbladder,
and pancreas are [organs] that make up an animal's [digestive system]
156.
G The organizational levels of life are: cells, tissues, organs, organ systems and
organisms.
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Chapter 2: Cell Processes
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157.
[Passive] transport means getting materials to cross from one side of the cell
membrane to the other without the process costing the cell energy.
158.
Passive transport is the result of [random motion]. Molecules in liquids are
always moving randomly, changing direction when they bump into other molecules.
159.
The membrane is said to be selectively [permeable], meaning that it allows
some molecules to pass across it, but not others.
160.
Small molecules such as oxygen (O2) and water (H2O) can pass freely through
most parts of the cell membrane, in either direction, without the expenditure of
[energy].
161.
G Passive [transport] is the random, spontaneous motion of molecules across a
permeable barrier if they hit it, and if they can pass between its molecules.
162.
The Net motion of molecules across a barrier refers to the algebraic sum of
molecules moving from one side to the other. If across a barrier 10 molecules move to
the right and 15 molecules move to the left, then the net motion is [5] molecules to the
left.
163.
G Molecules such as oxygen (O2) and water (H2O) have net spontaneous motion
from the side where they are in [high] concentration (more of them in a unit volume) to
the side where they are in [low] concentration.
164.
Passive transport of molecules such as oxygen (O2) and water (H2O) result in net
spontaneous motion without expenditure of energy from the side where they are in
[high] concentration (more of them in a unit volume) to the side where they are in [low]
concentration.
165.
Large molecules such as glucose (C6H12O6 24 atoms) and amino acids (e.g.
NH2CHCH3COOH 13 atoms) normally cannot pass through the cell membrane because
of their size, but at special locations where the membrane includes a [transport
proteins], these molecules can pass from one side to the other.
166.
Large molecules such as glucose and amino acids can have net spontaneous
motion across a cell membrane from the side where they are in [high] concentration to
the side where they are in [low] concentration. This motion is passive transport and no
energy is needed for it.
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Down load this video from youtube: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prfMUwjobo8
The Cell's Barrier
167.
G The cell membrane provides a barrier between the cell and its outside
environment. It allows some materials to pass through and prevent the passage of other
materials, so it is called [selectively permeable].
168.
Glucose and amino acids are larger molecules, but they can move in and out of a
cell through the cell membrane with the help of [transport proteins] and also without
spending energy, provided they move from a side of high concentration to a side of low
concentration.
169.
G [Passive transport] is the movement of molecules through the cell membrane
without using energy.
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Passive Transport: Diffusion
170.
Molecules in fluids are in constant [motion]. They move in all directions,
colliding and pushing each other, changing their relative positions.
171.
G The process by which particles in a fluid randomly and spontaneously change
relative location is called [diffusion].
172.
A fish may die if the concentration of carbon dioxide in the surrounding water is
[high].
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Learning Point 3. Describe the process of osmosis.
173.
Water is important to a cell because all chemical reactions related to [living]
things take place in water solutions.
174.
If water is added to a salt solution, the concentration of water in the solution
increases and the concentration of salt [decreases] in spite of the fact that the quantity
of salt remains unchanged.
175.
If salt is dissolved in a salt solution, the concentration of salt in the solution
increases and the concentration of water [decreases] in spite of the fact that the
quantity of water remains unchanged.
176.
G Osmosis is the net diffusion of water through a semipermeable membrane
from the side where water in more [concentrated] (salt is more dilute) to the side where
water is less concentrated (salt is more concentrated).
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177.
Osmosis is a form of passive transport: it is spontaneous. The cell does not need
to use [energy] to transport water across its cell membrane during osmosis.
178.
A semipermeable membrane allows [water] molecules to pass through its
pores, but not the larger sugar molecules.
179.
If a semipermeable membrane separates pure water from a sugar solution,
although water molecules pass either way, there will be a net transport of water by
osmosis from the [pure water] side to the other side.
180.
G In osmosis, water moves to even out its concentration, i.e. from the side of
lower concentration of [solute] to the other side.
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181.
When the concentration of water is the same inside and outside a cell, the cell
will not gain or lose [water].
182.
If the concentration of water outside a cell is more than that inside it, then
water [enters] the cell.
183.
If the concentration of water outside a cell is less than that inside it, then water
[leaves] the cell. (think carefully!!!)
184.
If the concentration of salt outside a cell is more than that inside it, then water
[leaves] the cell.
185.
Plant cells have a rigid cell wall that prevents it from [exploding] if there is more
water and less salt outside it.
186.
When water moves out of a plant cell, its central vacuole [loses] water and the
plant may [wilt].
187.
G When plant cells are placed in salt water the cells may [wilt].
188.
G When plant cells are placed in pure water the cells may [become rigid]
189.
G When animal cells are placed in pure water the cells may [explode]
190.
A cell must be in an environment in which solute concentration in it is similar to
that of the [cytoplasm].
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191.
A living fish may be able to force water to come into it even though it is in salt
water, but this requires expenditure of [energy].
192.
G When living cells spend energy to force water to go from high concentration
to low concentration; this is called [active transport].
193.
When living cells spend energy to force sugar molecules to go from low
concentration outside the cell to low concentration inside it, passing through the
transport proteins, this is called [active transport].
194.
When a cell moves materials from an area of lower concentration to an area of
higher concentration, opposite to the direction in which materials move during diffusion
or osmosis, it needs to [spend energy], and this is called active transport.
195.
When a cell moves very large molecules across the cell membrane from an area
of lower concentration to an area of higher concentration, it needs to [spend energy],
and this is called active transport.
196.
G Transport proteins move sugar molecules from high sugar concentrations
outside the cell to low sugar concentration inside the cell by [passive] transport,
[without] spending energy.
197.
G Transport proteins move sugar molecules from low sugar concentrations
outside the cell to high sugar concentration inside the cell by [active] transport, [with]
spending energy.
198.
Ocean fish get rid of extra salt in their bodies through [active] transport.
199.
G [Endocytosis] is a process that cells use to bring into themselves large
molecules and other particles.
200.
G In endocytosis, part of the cell membrane wraps itself around a particle
outside the cell, forms a pocket that pinches it into the cell, and this requires the cell to
[spend energy].
201.
G [Exocytosis] is a process that cells use to take wastes out of the cell.
202.
G In exocytosis, part of the cell membrane wraps itself around a particle inside
the cell, forms a pocket that pinches it out of the cell, and this requires the cell to [spend
energy].
203.
A cell needs to be small so that the [ratio] of surface area to volume remains
large enough for the cell to service itself by getting rid of wastes and taking in nutrients.
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Page 48
204.
A woman feels tired when her body tries to [save energy].
205.
G [Photoautotrophs] are organisms like plants, green algae, and green bacteria
that captures the energy in sunlight and uses it to make food.
206.
Sunlight energy is saved in food as [chemical potential] energy.
207.
G Most photoautotrophs are green and are called [producers] because they
produce food.
208.
G [Chemoautotrophs] are organisms like some kinds of bacteria that use
chemicals (like sulphur or nitrogen) as the energy source to make food out of carbon
dioxide.
209.
Both chemoautotrophs and photoautotrophs are generally called [autotrophs].
210.
Green frogs and grass hoppers [not] autotrophs.
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211.
G A heterotroph is an organism that [consumes] other organisms.
212.
The energy that a cricket obtains when it eats plants comes indirectly from the
[sun].
213.
G The energy that a robin obtains when it eats crickets comes indirectly from
the [sun].
214.
G [Glucose] is a sugar. Sugars are carbohydrates. Carbohydrates contain
chemical energy that originally came from the sun as sunlight energy.
215.
A photoautotroph needs [light], carbon dioxide and water to make food.
216.
Glucose is important for photoautotrophs and heterotrophs because it is the
basic form of [food] that plants make.
Page 50
217.
Plants and other photoautotrophs manufacture food by [photosynthesis].
218.
G [Photosynthesis] is the process in which energy in sunlight is converted to
chemical energy in glucose and other sugars.
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219.
G In the first part of photosynthesis, cells use sunlight energy to split [water]
molecules into oxygen (O2) and hydrogen ions (H+ + e).
220.
Oxygen produced in photosynthesis is partly used in cellular [respiration] inside
mitochondria and mostly released into the atmosphere.
221.
G [Chlorophyll] is the substance that captures sunlight and gives plants their
green color, and it is found mostly in leaves.
Page 51
222.
G In the second part of photosynthesis, carbon dioxide and hydrogen ions
undergo a series of reactions to form sugars, including [glucose]. The energy that was
originally captured from the sun is stored as chemical energy in the bonds of the sugars.
223.
G The overall process of photosynthesis can be summarized in the following
chemical equation.
[Sunlight energy] + 6CO2, + 6H2O
---------- C6H12O6 + 6O2
Page 52
224.
G The starting materials for photosynthesis are water and [carbon dioxide].
225.
G A plant takes in carbon dioxide from the air through tiny openings, called
[stomata], in the leaves (singular, stoma) regulate the movement of oxygen, carbon
dioxide, and water vapor in and out of a plant by opening and closing.
226.
The opening and closing of a stoma are controlled by two curved cells that
surround the [stoma].
227.
During the day, the [curved] cells open the stomata. The stomata are [closed] at
night.
228.
Water in soil is taken into a plant through its [roots].
229.
G The rate at which photosynthesis occurs [increases] with increasing amounts
of sunlight and carbon dioxide. The rate also increases as temperature [increase].
Page 53
230.
G Photosynthesis produces glucose, which can be converted to other sugars.
[Oxygen] is also produced as a waste product.
231.
Nearly all of the oxygen in Earth's [atmosphere] comes from photosynthesis.
This oxygen is important for almost all organisms.
232.
Plants convert some of the sugars to other structures, such as the [wood] in
woody plants.
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24-Nov-2016
233.
Some sugars are converted to other carbohydrates, to lipids, and to amino acids
that are used to build [proteins]. The rest of the sugars are stored in the
photoautotroph's body for future use.
234.
Page 54
235.
A plant compacts sugar molecules and stores them as [starch] molecules.
Starch is stored in [cells] in the roots, fruits, seeds and tubers of many plants.
236.
Stored starch in [seeds] serves as food for the tiny plant that develops within
the seed.
237.
G Starch is stored as [granules]. When a plant needs energy, it breaks down the
stored starch to form sugar molecules.
Page 55
238.
Iodine solution turns dark [blue-black] in the presence of starch.
Page 58
239.
G Almost all organisms get energy by the process of [cellular respiration].
240.
G During cellular respiration, cells break down [glucose] into smaller molecules
to release the energy it contains.
241.
Because cellular respiration cannot be completed without oxygen, the process
is also called [aerobic] respiration.
242.
G Aerobic means [using oxygen].
Page 59
243.
In cellular respiration the energy in glucose is used to make ATP molecules that
are the currency that all living things use for any process that needs [energy].
244.
G In Part 1 of cellular respiration which takes place in a cell's [cytoplasm], the
glucose molecule (6 carbon atoms) is broken down into two smaller pyruvate molecules
(3 carbons), and a small amount of the energy is released: 2 ATP molecules are
produced. Oxygen is [not needed] for this part of cellular respiration.
18
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245.
In Part 2 of cellular respiration the (pyruvate) molecules diffuse from the
cytoplasm into the cell's [mitochondria] together with oxygen molecules.
246.
G In Part 2 of cellular respiration inside the mitochondria the (pyruvate)
molecules react with the oxygen in a series of reactions that produce [a lot of energy],
about (34 ATP molecules) and produce as a byproduct carbon dioxide and water.
247.
Cellular respiration must take place [constantly] to provide a continuous supply
of energy to the organism.
248.
G In cellular respiration [sugar and oxygen] are used up and [carbon dioxide and
water] are produced, together with around 36 ATP molecules (energy currency of all
organisms).
Page 60
249.
C6H12O6 + 602
6CO2 + 6H2O + [chemical energy]
Glucose + oxygen carbon dioxide + water + energy (36 ATP molecules)
250.
Cellular respiration is [not the same] as breathing, which is often called
respiration.
251.
G [Breathing] is the process that brings oxygen into the lungs and expels carbon
dioxide. [Cellular respiration] is the chemical process by which energy in glucose is used
to produce chemical energy (ATP) .
Page 61
252.
The equation for cellular respiration is the [reverse] of the equation for
photosynthesis.
253.
G Plants use carbon dioxide and release oxygen into the atmosphere when they
perform photosynthesis. [Both] animals and plants take in oxygen and release carbon
dioxide when they perform cellular respiration.
254.
Because cellular respiration is the reverse of photosynthesis, these two life
processes form a cycle that keeps the levels of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere relatively [constant].
255.
G When oxygen is not available or is in short supply; many heterotrophic
organisms can release a small amount of energy by performing [fermentation] in which
a sugar molecule produces 2 ATP molecules.
256.
Different organisms use many different chemical ways of releasing energy by
[fermentation], which is obtaining a small amount of energy (2 ATP molecules) without
using oxygen. The two main types of fermentation are alcoholic and lactic.
19
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257.
In yeast and bacteria, fermentation converts sugar to acids, gases, or [alcohol].
in oxygen-starved muscle cells, it produces [lactic acid].
258.
Humans have used alcoholic fermentation to produce drinks and beverages for
the last 12,000 years: the products are alcohol and carbon dioxide. Also, humans have
used microorganisms to perform lactic acid fermentation to produce sour foods such
as pickles, kimchi and [yogurt]. Fermentation also occurs naturally in the stomach of
mammals, such as humans, cows and sheep.
259.
Organisms keep the amount of oxygen in the atmosphere relatively [constant]
by (1) plants performing photosynthesis which traps sunlight energy into sugar
molecules and (2) in the process of cellular respiration in which they use up oxygen in
the atmosphere to obtain energy out of sugar.
Page 62
260.
Alcoholic fermentation of dough produces alcohol and [carbon dioxide]. When
dough ferments the carbon dioxide bubbles that form make the bread dough rise. When
it is baked, the bubbles grow in size, making the bread rise much more. When the bread
is baked, the alcohol evaporates.
261.
In industry, alcoholic fermentation of corn is used to produce alcohol that is
added to gasoline, because alcohol is [renewable], and gasoline from petroleum is not.
..
262.
Lactic acid fermentation can take place in muscles when under stress, more
energy is needed than can be provided by [cellular respiration]. Fermentation does
take over as is stated in the book, but adds to cellular respiration to provide a little bit
more energy. Lactic acid builds up in the muscles and makes them sore.
263.
G Hard exercise causes muscles to feel sore due to the formation of [lactic acid]
due to fermentation that takes place in muscle cells when more energy is needed than
can be provided by cellular respiration.
264.
G The kind of fermentation that causes bread to rise is [alcoholic] fermentation.
265.
G The kind of fermentation that causes muscles to ache is [lactic acid]
fermentation.
266.
Anaerobic bacteria are those that live without [oxygen].
267.
Bacteria found near vents are autotrophs, they use the chemical energy
contained in the vent [chemicals] to make food.
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Chapter 3: Cell Division and Growth
Page 72
268.
Organisms that grow in size must produce new [cells].
269.
The cell life cycle, called the [cell cycle], is the normal sequence of growth and
cell division that a cell undergoes.
270.
G The first part of the cell cycle, [interphase], occurs before cell division. During
this stage, the cell is busy carrying out its life functions and is preparing to divide.
271.
During interphase the cell doubles in size and makes all the materials needed for
cell division, such as proteins, organelles, and chromosomes which exist as thin threads
called [chromatin].
272.
Chromosomes contain the organism's genetic material, [DNA].
273.
During [interphase], the cell copies its DNA and makes copies of its organelles.
274.
G In the second part of the cell cycle, cell division, two things takes place:
[mitosis], which results in the cell's nucleus dividing into two new nuclei, then
[cytokinesis], which results in the cell's nucleus cytoplasm dividing into two and
distributing organelles equally to each new cell.
275.
During interphase, chromosomes within the nucleus exist as thin threads called
[chromatin].
276.
G Mitosis is a continual [four phases] process: prophase, metaphase, anaphase,
and telophase.
277.
During [prophase], chromatin condenses to form rodlike chromosomes. Each
chromosome consists of two identical chromatids, which are held together by a
centromere. The nuclear membrane breaks down and disappears. Structures called
spindle fibers form between opposite sides of the cell.
278.
During prophase the [nuclear] membrane disappears and spindle fibers form
between opposite sides of the cell.
279.
During [metaphase], the doubled chromosomes line up in the middle of the cell.
The centromere of each chromosome attaches to a spindle fiber.
280.
During [anaphase], the centromere splits, the two chromatids separate and are
pulled to opposite sides of the cell by the spindle fibers. Each chromatid is now called a
chromosome.
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281.
During [telophase], the chromosomes uncoil to form threads of chromatin, a
new nuclear membrane forms around each mass, forming two nuclei, and the spindle
fibers disappear.
282.
cells.
At the end of mitosis, [cytokinesis] divides the cytoplasm into two new daughter
283.
Cytokinesis in animal cells results in the [cell membrane] pinching inward to
divide the cytoplasm into two smaller cells, each with a complete set of organelles.
284.
Cytokinesis in plant cells results in a rigid [cell plate] forming across the center
of the cell, which develops into two new cell membranes and two cell walls, thus
dividing the cell into two new cells.
285.
G Although each daughter cell is smaller than the parent cell, it will grow during
[interphase].
286.
G [DNA], the cell's genetic material, is a long molecule that consists of two side
chains with crosspieces that connect the sides together, twisted into a spiral shape
called a double [helix], which resembles a twisted ladder.
287.
[DNA] stores all the information needed to build a complete organism.
288.
DNA is built of subunits called [nucleotides].
289.
A [nucleotide] has three main parts, a phosphate, a sugar, and a nitrogen base.
Page 77
290.
A phosphate and the sugar, [deoxyribose] make up the side chains.
291.
G There are four kinds of nitrogen bases: [adenine], [thymine], [cytosine], and
[guanine], represented by the capital letters A, T, C, and G.
292.
Adenine pairs only with [thymine], Cytosine pairs only with [guanine].
Page 78
293.
G The copying of DNA is called [replication] and it occurs during [interphase].
294.
G The two strands of DNA unwind and separate. Each single strand then acts as
a template to make a new strand. Thus, each new strand will exactly match an original
strand. Nucleotides floating within the nucleus pair with the exposed bases on the
strands according to the rules of base pairing: A pairs with [T], and C pairs with [G], and
22
24-Nov-2016
two complete DNA molecules that are identical to the original have formed. Each
molecule has one original strand and one new [strand].
Page 79
Growth Patterns
295.
A plant's DNA as well as local conditions; affect the final size of the adult plant
and how long it lives. Some plants, called [annuals], go through an entire life cycle in one
year or less.
296.
[Perennials] live for many years. When a plant dies, it is often from diseases or
changes in environmental conditions.
297.
The growth of an animal is controlled by its [DNA], available food, and
interactions with other organisms. Most animals do not grow throughout their lives.
Each kind of animal has a typical adult size [range]. You will never see a tiny whale or a
huge mosquito.
298.
In [cancer], cells grow out of control and interfere with normal body functions
Page 82
299.
G During reproduction, genetic information stored in the DNA is transmitted
from parent to [offspring].
300.
G In [asexual] reproduction, one parent produces offspring that are genetically
identical to each other and to the parent.
301.
A plant cutting can grow into a whole new plant. This is an example of asexual
reproduction, like when an African violet [leaf] grows into a whole new plant.
302.
An advantages of asexual reproduction is that large numbers of offspring can be
produced quickly without having to [look for a mate]. A disadvantage to asexual
reproduction is that all offspring are [identical].
303.
In sexual reproduction two parents contribute [genetic material] to the
offspring.
304.
Sexual reproduction is an advantage to a species because it creates [variation] in
a group of organisms due to mixing of genetic material from different individuals.
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Page 83
305.
When the single cell of a unicellular organism undergoes mitosis and
cytokinesis, the two new cells or organisms are identical, so this form of reproduction is
[asexual].
306.
G Bacteria and archaea are unicellular but have no nucleus. Therefore, cell
division and, thus reproduction, does not include mitosis. Instead, these organisms
reproduce by a simple process known as [binary fission].
307.
G Binary fission is a kind of [asexual] reproduction.
308.
G Budding is a form of [asexual] reproduction in which a [bud] develops on a
parent's body and when it reaches a certain size, it breaks off from the parent and
becomes a new independent organism. Yeasts and hydras are organisms that reproduce
by budding.
309.
G In [asexual] reproduction the genetic material is identical to that of the parent
because it formed from part of the parent's body.
310.
G An example of [asexual] reproduction not mentioned in the book is
parthenogenesis, in which a female gives birth to identical females, e.g. the [water flea]
daphnia which gives hundreds of offspring identical to the mother.
See video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ihN9416GVQU
Page 84
311.
G [Vegetative reproduction] is asexual reproduction and can involve roots,
leaves, stems, and other plant parts. A farmer plants pieces of potato, each with at least
one "eye". Eyes are small sprouts on a potato. A stem and roots emerge from the eye.
312.
Strawberry plants reproduce asexually by sending out [runners], horizontal
stems that run above the ground.
313.
In [regeneration], an entire new body grows from a part of a single animal. Sea
stars sometimes lose one of their five arms. An entire new body can grow from that
arm.
Page 85
314.
G Many plants and animals reproduce by sexual reproduction, in which two
parents contribute genetic material to their [offspring] which is genetically similar to
both parents but not identical.
315.
G Two parent organisms transmit genetic material to their offspring through the
formation of [gametes], or sex cells.
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24-Nov-2016
316.
G The gamete produced by a female is called [an egg].
317.
G The gamete produced by a male in his reproductive organs is a [sperm].
318.
A gamete contains exactly [half] the amount of genetic material contained in a
body cell of the parent that produced it.
319.
G An egg containing genetic material from the mother and a sperm containing
genetic material from the father come together and join to form a single cell called a
[zygote].
320.
Page 86
G The process of forming a zygote is called [fertilization].
321.
Each kind of organism has a unique number of chromosomes. Every kind of
chromosome has a partner that is similar to it in shape and size and has similar DNA.
Thus, chromosomes come in [pairs]. Such chromosomes are called a homologous pair,
or homologs.
322.
G Humans have 46 chromosomes, or [23] pairs. Corn has 20 chromosomes, or
ten pairs. Every one of your body cells has [23] pairs of chromosomes.
323.
G A cell that contains a pair of each kind of chromosome is called a [diploid] cell.
324.
G Gametes contain only one chromosome of each pair, that is, they have half
the number of chromosomes that body cells have. Human gametes have 23
chromosomes. Corn gametes have ten chromosomes. A cell with only one chromosome
of each pair is called a [haploid] cell.
325.
G When a human egg and sperm unite during fertilization, the full set of 46
chromosomes, or [23] pairs, is restored in the zygote.
Page 87
326.
G In the gonads (ovaries and testes) of males and females there are cells that
are called [germ] cells or [parent sex] cells that divide and eventually form gametes.
327.
G The process of gamete production starts with germ cells copying
chromosomes once. Then the [cell divides twice]. So every two homologous
chromosomes first become four, then they are divided into four cells, so we have only
one homologous chromosome in each of four gametes.
328.
Before meiosis begins, germ cells copy their chromosomes once. In humans,
instead of 23 pairs, germ cells will have [23 4] chromosomes.
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329.
During meiosis I, chromosome pairs separate and are distributed to two
different cells. Each daughter cell will have one double chromosome with [two]
chromatids of each kind.
330.
The result of meiosis II is the formation of [four] haploid daughter cells. Each cell
has one of each kind of chromosome instead of a pair.
Page 88
331.
In meiosis I, one chromosome in a pair goes to one side, and the other
chromosome goes to the other side. This [halves] the number of chromosomes in the
resulting cells.
Page 89
332.
In meiosis II, the chromosomes are not copied again. Each daughter cell divides
into two. Four [haploid] cells are formed.
Page 90
333.
Mitosis: occurs in body cells. Meiosis: Occurs in germ cells of [reproductive]
organs (in the gonads).
334.
Mitosis involves one cell division. Meiosis: involves [two cell divisions].
335.
Mitosis: Chromosomes are copied before cell division. Meiosis: Chromosomes
are copied before first cell division [but not before] second cell division.
336.
Mitosis: Two diploid daughter cells that have two chromosomes of each kind.
Meiosis: Four haploid daughter cells have [one chromosome] of each kind.
337.
G Mitosis: Daughter cells have the same number of chromosomes as the parent
cell. Meiosis: Daughter cells have [half] the number of chromosomes as the parent cell.
338.
Mitosis: Produces two diploid body cells. Meiosis: Produces four [haploid] cells
that will become gametes.
339.
Mitosis: Daughter cells are genetically identical to parent cell. Meiosis: Daughter
cells are genetically [different from] parent cell.
Page 94
340.
[Flowers] are the reproductive organs that give rise to new plants.
341.
G Some flowers that contain both [male and female] parts.
342.
G Eggs form in the female part of a flower, which is called a [pistil].
343.
G The male part is called a stamen and produces [sperm].

26
24-Nov-2016
344.
A flower usually has several stamens and [one or more] pistils.
345.
The tip of the stamen is called the [anther].
346.
[Pollen] consists of tiny grains that contain sperm.
347.
G Brightly colored [petals] surround the reproductive parts of the flower.
348.
G A ring of leaflike [sepals] grows below the petals, they are usually small and
green, but they may be as large and colorful as petals. They protect the flower before it
opens
Page 95
349.
G Eggs develop by meiosis in the swollen base of the pistil, called the [ovary].
350.
G Sperm develop by meiosis in the [anther].
351.
G Sperm are carried within [pollen grains] from the stamens to the pistil.
352.
G The transfer of pollen grains from the stamens to the pistil is called
[pollination].
353.
Pollen grains can be carried by wind, rain, gravity, or with the help of [animals].
354.
After a pollen grain lands on the top of a pistil, it grows a tube down through the
pistil to the egg and releases the [sperm].
355.
G Fertilization takes place in the [ovary] when the sperm and egg combine.
356.
G A seed containing a tiny new plant and its food supply develops from the
[zygote].
357.
G The ovary develops into a [fruit], which surrounds the seed and protects it.
358.
Some fruits, such as peaches, contain only one [seed]. Other fruits, like
tomatoes, contain many [seeds].
359.
Seeds are scattered, or [dispersed], before they grow into new plants.
360.
Some seeds like [dandelion] float in the air are dispersed by wind.
361.
Animals may also help to disperse seeds in their droppings or when seeds cling
to their [fur].
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Page 96
362.
G A [pollinator] is any animal that transfers pollen to a flower's pistil.
363.
As bees or butterflies feed on the nectar inside the flower, their body parts rub
against the stamens and pick up pollen. When the insect travels to a second flower,
some of the pollen is transferred to that flower's [pistil].
364.
Flowers that bloom at night have sweet scents that attract night feeders, such
as [moths] and bats.
Page 97
365.
Animals digest fruit and eliminate the [seeds] as waste, often far from the
parent plant.
366.
Squirrels bury acorns in soil during autumn, to eat them in winter. If the animal
forgets to dig them up, the nuts may [sprout].
367.
Some seeds have tiny [hooks] for attaching to an animal's fur or feathers.
Page 98
368.
G Behavioral strategies for reproduction are known as [courtship] behaviors.
369.
Male fireflies flash a specific pattern of light that tells a female of the same
species that he is ready to [mate]. The female flashes back for the males to come closer.
They exchanges flash patterns until the female chooses one male and mates with him.
370.
Signals that male animals give to females include dancing, flashing light, flapping
of wings, building a decorated nest or [dancing].
Page 99
371.
A male cardinal's bright [red] feathers is a physical structure that attract females
for mating.
372.
In fights with other sheep, males with bigger horns tend to [win].
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24-Nov-2016
Chapter 4: Genetics and Heredity
Page 106
373.
G A characteristic of a living thing is called a [trait].
374.
G Some traits, such as eye color and freckles, are [inherited].
375.
G Inherited traits are determined by heredity, i.e. passing genetic information
from parent to [offspring].
376.
G The ability to read English is an [acquired] trait.
377.
The natural colour of hair is an [inherited] trait.
378.
An inherited trait is passed on to offspring in the [DNA] of gametes.
379.
Acquired traits are obtained by interacting with the [environment].
380.
G A segment of a DNA molecule that contains the genetic information for an
inherited trait is a [gene].
381.
A gene may control skin [colour] or how to build a cell wall.
382.
G The human chromosomes in any cell have about [30,000] different known
genes.
383.
Some traits may be controlled by one gene but others like eye color, height,
and skin color in humans may be controlled by [several] genes.
Page 107
384.
Some genes control the production of a specific [protein] or part of a protein.
385.
G Genetic information is transferred from DNA to another molecule called
[RNA], which carries the information to other parts of the cell.
386.
RNA has the nitrogen bases adenine, cytosine, and guanine. However, RNA has
the base uracil instead of [thymine].
387.
G In transcription the DNA molecule unzips and forms a single strand. Next,
information on the gene part of the unzipped DNA is used to build a strand of
[messenger] RNA (mRNA).
388.
G Once the mRNA molecule is assembled, it moves by diffusion to a [ribosome].
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24-Nov-2016
389.
The mRNA attaches to the ribosome, which builds a [protein chain] according to
the information in the mRNA.
390.
G Building a protein (protein synthesis) according to the information in the
mRNA is called [translation].
391.
G Polypeptides or proteins are chains of [amino acids] linked together.
392.
G An amino acid is a molecule with around 10 to 20 atoms of mostly C, H, O and
N. There are [20] different amino acids that are used in building all human proteins. The
number of different proteins in the human body run into millions.
393.
In the cytoplasm, molecules called transfer RNA, [tRNA], pick up amino acids
from the cytoplasm, move with them to the ribosome where they are linked together
into a protein following the instructions encoded in the mRNA.
Page 108
394.
Organisms that reproduce sexually, like human beings, have in each cell two
copies (a pair) of homologous (similar) chromosome, each homolog being a copy of
what came from each [parent].
395.
One chromosome in each pair of homologous chromosomes comes from the
father, and the other chromosome comes from the [mother].
396.
Homologous (similar) chromosomes are the same size and the same shape, and
each contains the same set of [genes] in the same relative location on the chromosome.
397.
A gene (section of DNA) in one chromosome may be several thousand bases
long but may have a small difference in the order of bases that make up the gene from
the gene on its sister (homolog) chromosome. Two such genes on the two homologs are
said to be [alleles].
398.
G [Alleles] are two slightly different genes, one on each homolog of a similar
pair of chromosomes.
399.
The yellow colour of some peas results from a different allele of a gene. The
other allele makes peas [green]. The difference in colour is due to some bases being
different in the two alleles: the kind of protein that each makes is slightly different, and
this results in a difference in colour.
400.
Alleles of a particular gene are found in the same [location] on the two
chromosomes of a matching pair.
30
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401.
A plant's two alleles may be identical, or they may be [different]. For example, a
pea plant could have two alleles for yellow seeds, two alleles for green seeds, or one
allele for yellow seeds and one allele for green seeds.
Page 109
402.
The combination of alleles in a chromosome pair determines how a trait is
expressed. A pea plant that has two alleles for yellow seeds will have only yellow seeds.
A pea plant that has two alleles for green seeds will have only [green] seeds.
403.
G A pea plant which has one allele for yellow seeds and one for green seeds will
have yellow seeds because the allele for yellow seeds is [dominant] over the allele for
green seeds.
404.
A dominant allele is a gene form that is expressed even if [only one] of the two
alleles is of this form.
405.
The trait that is expressed is called a [dominant] trait.
406.
G The allele for green seeds is said to be [recessive].
407.
A recessive allele is a gene form that is expressed only when [both] copies of
the allele present are of that form (recessive).
408.
A recessive trait will appear only if the organism does not have the [dominant]
allele because the dominant allele dominates, or covers up, the expression of the
recessive allele.
409.
The process of [meiosis] each parent contributes one chromosome, and thus
only one of the two alleles for a given trait, to each daughter cell.
410.
A gamete has a [50%] chance of carrying one allele of a gene pair from its parent
and a 50% chance of carrying the other allele. The process is random (depending on
chance).
Page 111
411.
The zygote that forms when [gametes] unite during fertilization contains one set
of chromosomes from each parent. Each chromosome from the mother has [alleles]
that come from both of the mothers parents, because homologs exchange sections of
chromosomes in a cell before it divides. Also each chromosome from the father has
alleles from both the fathers parents, so the zygote has [genes] and alleles from the
four grandparents, and their parents and grandparents, and so on. Therefore in the
zygote you have a gene and allele combination that is [different] from those of either
parent.
412.
G Some traits are controlled by [several] genes. Height, hair color, eye color, and
skin color in humans are examples of this.
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24-Nov-2016
413.
Offspring will look different from parents, and siblings will look different from
each other, depending on the combination of [genes] inherited.
414.
Many genes have more than two alleles. However, [only two alleles] can be
present in any given organism.
415.
When a DNA chain is copied, sometimes by mistake, one base replaces another.
This change in the DNA may have serious consequences, and a new [allele] is created
which gives a different result.
Page 112
416.
G Although the two chromosomes of all pairs look similar, the chromosomes of
the sex chromosomes are different. In humans, sex chromosomes are named [X and Y].
The Y chromosome is much smaller than the X chromosome.
417.
G Females have two X chromosomes. During meiosis, a germ cell in theory gives
four gametes each having an [X chromosome]. In reality, only one gamete survives with
most of the food to form an egg, and the other three shrivel away and die.
418.
G Males have one X and one Y chromosome. During meiosis, a germ cell forms
four sperms, two containing an X chromosome each and two containing a Y
chromosome each. Thus half the sperms contain X and half contain [Y chromosomes].
419.
G When a sperm carrying an X chromosome fertilizes an egg, the resulting
zygote has two X chromosomes and is a [female].
420.
G When a sperm carrying a Y chromosome fertilizes an egg, the resulting zygote
contains an X chromosome and a Y chromosome and is a [male].
Page 116
421.
A purebred plant is one that always produces offspring with the same form of a
trait as the parent plant. For example, a plant purebred for tall height always produces
offspring that are [tall].
422.
In nature, pea plants are self-pollinating, which means that pollen from the
stamens of one flower lands on the pistil of [the same flower].
423.
Mendel cross-pollinated plants by using a brush to transfer pollen from the
stamen of a flower on one plant to the pistil of a flower on a second plant. He prevented
the second plant from self-pollinating by [removing the stamens] from its flowers.
Page 117
424.
Mendel first crossed plants that were purebred for round seeds with plants that
were purebred for wrinkled seeds. The offspring in this first F1 generation all had
[round] seeds.
32
24-Nov-2016
425.
Mendel allowed the plants in the F1 generation to grow and then self- pollinate
to produce offspring. In the F2 generation [three-fourths] of the plants had round seeds
and [one-fourth] had wrinkled seeds.
Page 118
426.
The gene that controls seed shape in pea plants has two alleles, one for round
seeds and one for wrinkled seeds. Purebred plants with round seeds have only alleles
for [round] seeds.
427.
Purebred plants with wrinkled seeds have only alleles for [wrinkled] seeds.
428.
Each first-generation plant inherited an allele for round seeds from one parent
and an allele for wrinkled seeds from the other parent. These plants are [hybrids].
429.
A [hybrid] is an organism that has two different alleles for a trait.
430.
In pea plants, the allele for [round] seeds is dominant to the allele for wrinkled
seeds.
Page 119
431.
Sometimes an allele is neither dominant nor recessive. In snapdragons, a plant
with one allele for red flowers and one allele for white flowers has pink flowers, an
intermediate trait. The pattern of inheritance that results in an intermediate trait is
called [incomplete] dominance.
432.
The human blood groupsA, B, AB, and Oare controlled by three alleles, A, B,
and i, but a person can have only [two] alleles.
433.
The i allele is recessive to both A and B and causes type O blood when [two i
alleles] are present.
434.
The A and B alleles are [codominant]. When a person has both an A and a B
allele, the person has type AB blood.
435.
G When a person has A and i allele, the person has type [A] blood.
436.
G When a person has B and i allele, the person has type [B] blood.
437.
G When a person has two A alleles, the person has type [A] blood.
438.
G When a person has two i alleles, the person has type [O] blood.
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Page 120
439.
A dominant allele is represented by a [capital] letter, a recessive allele by the
lowercase letter. The letters are written in italics.
440.
A plant that has inherited two alleles for round seeds is represented as RR. A
plant with wrinkled seeds has two alleles for this trait, rr. A hybrid for the trait of seed
shape is [Rr].
441.
G An organism's [phenotype] is the way the trait appears. For example, short
hair and long hair in cats.
442.
G An organism's [genotype] is the allele combinations in its cells.
443.
Suppose S stands for the dominant trait of short hair in cats and s stands for
long hair, which is recessive. A cat with short hair can be [either SS or Ss].
Page 121
444.
An organism that has two identical alleles for a trait has a [homozygous]
genotype for that trait.
445.
An organism that has two different alleles for a trait is said to have a
[heterozygous] genotype for that trait.
446.
In mice, B for black fur is dominant over b for brown fur. A black male mouse is
mated with a female brown mouse. Half the offspring are brown and half are black. The
genotype of the female mouse is [bb].
447.
genotype of the male mouse is [Bb].
448.
genotype of the brown offspring is [bb].
449.
genotype of the black offspring is [Bb].
Page 122
450.
The probability of the coin landing tails up also is [50%].
34
24-Nov-2016
451.
What is the probability that a fair coin will land heads up on a third toss after
landing tails up twice in a row? [50%]
Page 124
Female alleles
H
h
male
h
alleles
h
452.
Use the Punnett Square above: in Hereford cattle, hornless H is dominant over
horned h. The farmer has one heterozygous hornless female and one homozygous
horned male. What genotype should you enter in the top left empty box? [Hh]
Female alleles
H
h
male
h
alleles
h
453.
Use the Punnett Square above: in Hereford cattle, hornless H is dominant over
horned h. The farmer has one heterozygous hornless female and one homozygous
horned male. What percent of offspring will be horned? [50%]
Female alleles
H
male
H
alleles
h
454.
G Use the Punnett Square above: in Hereford cattle, hornless H is dominant
over horned h. The farmer has a heterozygous hornless female and a heterozygous
male. What percent of offspring will be horned? [25%]
Female alleles
X
X
male
X
alleles
Y
455.
G Use the Punnett Square above: woman marries a man, and they want to
calculate probabilities of the gender of their children. What should you enter in the
lower right box? [XY] what is the probability of having a girl child? [50%]
Page 128
456.
G A [mutation] is any change that occurs in DNA or a chromosome.
457.
A mutation in a gene may be the result of a copying [error]. The wrong base or
an extra base may be inserted into a new DNA strand, or a base may be deleted.
35
24-Nov-2016
458.
If the base A is inserted instead of a C, the wrong amino acid will be inserted in a
protein during translation of protein synthesis. Any change in a protein's structure can
affect its structure and [function] in the organism.
459.
Mutations in chromosomes can occur when chromosomes do not [separate]
correctly during meiosis or when a piece of chromosome is lost.
460.
As a result in a mutation, a gamete may end up with a missing [chromosome],
an extra one, or a missing piece. A gamete with a missing chromosome may have
trouble surviving.
461.
Gene mutations can occur during DNA replication before mitosis or meiosis or
during protein [synthesis].
462.
A mutation is inherited by offspring only when it occurs during meiosis and it
makes changes in the [gamete] which contributes to the zygote.
Page 129
463.
Some mutations may help an organism [survive]. For example, a plant may have
increased resistance to a disease.
464.
Some mutations may be harmful if they prevent production of a needed
[chemical]. Albino organisms with white coloring may be more visible to predators.
465.
Some mutations, such as four-leaf clovers, have no effect on the survival of an
[organism].
466.
Changes in DNA are called mutations, which can be a source of [variation].
467.
In order for a mutation to be a source of variation, the mutation must occur in
the [gametes] to be passed to offspring. A second condition is that the mutation must
be beneficial or not harmful. Harmful mutations [kill off] the offspring.
.
Page 130
468.
G A genetic [disorder] is a disease that results from a mutation in a gene or
chromosome.
469.
Genetic disorders affect the normal functioning of a cell, and many, such as
cystic fibrosis and hemophilia, are [inherited].
470.
Genetic disorders like cancers; develop during a person's lifetime. Cancer is the
result of mutations in [genes] that control the cell cycle, leading to abnormal cell
division.
36
24-Nov-2016
471.
Although many cancers are caused by gene mutations, they may take many
[years] to develop.
472.
A mutation usually results in an abnormal protein being produced. Most
abnormal proteins do not [function] as they should.
473.
In cystic fibrosis, a defective transport protein in the cell membrane does not
transport salt in and out of [cells]. As a result, thick mucus builds up in the lungs and
intestines and harms the organs.
474.
Hemophilia is a bleeding disorder in which the blood [clots] slowly or not at all.
One of the proteins needed for normal blood clotting is defective.
475.
People with hemophilia must be careful not to cut their skin or bump
themselves so they will not [bleed to death]. They can be helped with shots of the
needed clotting factor.
476.
G A common disorder caused by a change in chromosome number is Down
syndrome. People with Down syndrome have 47 an extra copy of chromosome number
[21].
477.
Down syndrome causes a person to have a distinctive appearance and some
mental [disabilities]. Down syndrome usually results when chromatids do not separate
properly during anaphase of meiosis.
Page 131
478.
Before humans knew about DNA and genetics, they used selective breeding, a
process of selecting and breeding certain parent organisms to increase the chances that
desirable traits would be inherited by the next [generation].
479.
Nutritious grain were planted, chickens that laid more eggs were bred. Over
many generations, the number of offspring showing the desirable trait [increased]
480.
Selective breeding causes desirable alleles to become more [numerous] in a
group of organisms.
481.
In 1996, scientists in Scotland cloned a sheep (Dolly). Dolly was created by
replacing the nucleus in an egg which had a haploid number of chromosomes with the
nucleus from a [body cell] with a complete diploid set of chromosomes.
Page 132
482.
Genetic engineering is a technology in which a gene for a desirable phenotype is
removed from an organism and inserted into an organism of [another] species.
37
24-Nov-2016
483.
Pest-resistant soybeans and corn are being developed by inserting the genes of
bacteria that are pest-resistant into these [plants].
484.
Strawberries that are resistant to freezing are being developed by inserting
[genes] from arctic fish that are freeze-resistant into strawberries that are not resistant.
485.
Gene therapy is introducing of genes into existing cells to cure a [disease].
486.
G Diabetes is a disease in which a person cannot make enough [insulin] to
regulate the amount of glucose in the blood.
487.
If the gene that codes for human insulin is inserted in bacteria that reproduce
quickly, they can make large amounts of [insulin]. The insulin that is produced is purified
and injected into patients as needed.
488.
To treat hemophilia, the human gene that codes for clotting protein is inserted
into a cow zygote. The zygote is transferred into a cow and when it is born it grows up
into a cow which produces the protein in her [milk].
Page 133
489.
G Vaccines against influenza are made by genetic engineering methods. The
gene from the virus protein coat is identified, isolated, and inserted into a harmless
organism, such as a bacterium, to make millions of copies. This material is used as a
vaccine, so the human body prepares itself to fight any virus that carries this [protein].
490.
Some people are against genetic engineering. If insect- (or insecticide) resistant
genes escape from crop plants and go into weeds, we may have superweeds that are
resistant to [insects] or insecticide, and they will eat up our fields.
491.
If genes from peanuts are put in wheat, people allergic to peanuts may become
allergic to [wheat].
492.
Because of these concerns, laws have been established to add information
about genetic engineering to labels on foods that are genetically [engineered].
Page 138
Revision Questions.
493.
[Active transport] the movement of materials through a cell membrane
requiring the use of energy.
494.
An [allele] is form of a gene.
495.
[Anaerobic respiration] a process in which sulfur or nitrogen takes the place of
oxygen to release the energy glucose contains in its bonds.
38
24-Nov-2016
496.
[Asexual reproduction] is reproduction in which one parent produces offspring
that are genetically identical to each other and to the parent.
497.
[Cell cycle] is the normal sequence of growth and cell division that a cell
undergoes during its lifetime.
498.
A cell [membrane] is a flexible structure that separates the inside of a cell from
its external environment, controls what enters and leaves the cell, holds the cell
together, and gives it shape.
499.
A [cell wall] is a thick, stiff structure surrounding a plant cell outside the cell
membrane, and which supports and protects the cell.
500.
[Cellular respiration] is a process in which cells use oxygen to break down
glucose and release the energy.
501.
[Chlorophyll] is a green pigment that helps photosynthesis take place.
502.
[Chloroplasts] are green, disklike organelles that contain chlorophyll and that
capture the energy in sunlight to make sugars by photosynthesis.
503.
[chromatid] is one of two identical copies of a replicated chromosome.
(Homologous pairs are chromosome pairs, where one chromosome comes from the
mother and the other comes from the father. They are present in diploid cells and are
not identical, only similar. Sister chromatids are identical and are formed from
the homologous pairs in meiosis I stage and separate in the meiosis II stage).
504.
A [chromosome] is a rod-shaped structure that is made up of protein and DNA
and contains genetic information.
505.
[Codominance] is a pattern of inheritance in which both alleles for a trait are
expressed equally, as in the A B O blood type.
506.
[Cytokinesis] is division of a cell's cytoplasm and organelles into two new cells as
a last stage of cell division.
507.
The [cytoplasm] is a jelly-like material composed mostly of water in which many
needed substances are dissolved. Most of a cell's activities take place in the cytoplasm.
508.
[Diffusion] is a process in which molecules spread out spontaneously by moving
from an area in which they are highly concentrated (a lot of molecules) to an area in
which they are less concentrated (fewer molecules).
509.
[DNA] a very large molecule that holds all the genetic information about making
an organism.
39
24-Nov-2016
510.
A [dominant allele] is a gene form for a trait that is expressed even if only one
copy is present.
511.
An [egg] is a gamete produced by a female in her reproductive organs.
512.
The [endoplasmic reticulum] is a network of tubes and passageways used by a
cell to transport materials.
Page 139
513.
An [enzyme] is a particular protein that speeds up a chemical process.
514.
[Fermentation] is a process that breaks down glucose and releases a small
amount of energy (2 ATP) without using oxygen.
515.
A [fruit] is a structure of flowering plants that develops from the ovary and
surrounds and protects the seed.
516.
A [gamete] a sex cell: a sperm or egg.
517.
A [gene] is a segment of a DNA molecule that contains the genetic information
for an inherited trait.
518.
[Gene therapy] is the introduction of a gene into cells to prevent or cure a
particular genetic disease.
519.
A [genetic disorder] is a disease or condition that results from a mutation in a
gene or chromosome or an extra chromosome or a missing part of a chromosome.
520.
[Genetic engineering] is a technology in which an organism's DNA is changed
when DNA from a different species is inserted into the first organism's cells.
521.
[Genetics] is the science that studies how traits and their differences are
inherited.
522.
A [genotype] is the allele combinations in an organism's cells.
523.
[Glucose] is a sugar molecule that is produced in photosynthesis. It contains
energy that has come from the sun.
524.
A [Golgi body] is an organelle resembling a stack of flat pancakes and sacs that
receives materials from the endoplasmic reticulum and finishes processing and
packaging them.
525.
[Heredity] is the passing of genetic information from parent to offspring.

40
24-Nov-2016
526.
A [heterotroph] is an organism that consumes other organisms as food and
obtains chemical energy from them; also called a consumer.
527.
A [heterozygous] genotype is one in which two different alleles for a trait are
present.
528.
[homeostasis] is a state or the ability of an organism to maintain relatively
constant internal conditions.
529.
A [homozygous] genotype is one in which two identical alleles for a trait are
present.
530.
A [hybrid] is an organism that has two different alleles for a trait.
531.
[Incomplete dominance] is a pattern of inheritance in which neither allele is
dominant, resulting in a hybrid that shows an intermediate trait.
532.
[Interphase] is the part of the cell cycle in which the cell grows, performs life
functions, and copies its DNA and organelles in preparation for cell division.
Page 140
533.
A [lysosome] is a small round organelle, usually found in animal cells but not in
plant cells, that contains powerful enzymes that break down large food particles and
worn-out cell parts.
534.
[Meiosis] is a process in which germ (or sex) cells double their chromosomes
once, then divides twice, to end up with four haploid gametes.
535.
A [mitochondrion] is an elongated organelle that converts energy in food into
ATP, the common energy currency of living things. It is where cellular respiration takes
place.
536.
[Mitosis] is a process of cell division in which the cell's nucleus divides to form
two new nuclei, then the cell divides into two. The chromosome doubles once and the
cell divides once, so each daughter cell has one full set of DNA.
537.
A [multicellular] organism is made up of many cells.
538.
A [mutation] is a change that occurs in DNA or a chromosome.
539.
The [nucleus] is a large oval organelle, surrounded by a double-layered nuclear
membrane, and which directs all the activities of the cell.
41
24-Nov-2016
540.
[Offspring] are the new organisms that are produced by one or two parents.
541.
An [organ] is a body part made up of two or more kinds of tissue.
542.
An organ [system] is a group of organs that function together to do a major job
for the organism, like the digestive organ system.
543.
An [organelle] is a small structure suspended in the cytoplasm that is
responsible for performing one or more particular functions.
544.
[Osmosis] is the diffusion of water through a selectively permeable membrane
from an area of high water concentration (low solute concentration) to an area of lower
water concentration (higher solute concentration).
545.
[Passive transport] is the movement of molecules through the cell membrane
without requiring the use of energy. Molecules move from an area of high
concentration to an area of lower concentration.
546.
A [petal] is a brightly colored flower part surrounding the reproductive parts of
the flower; petals attract pollinators.
547.
A [phenotype] is the way a trait appears in an organism.
548.
[Photoautotrophs] are organisms that absorb the energy of sunlight and use it
to make food that is rich in chemical energy; also called producers.
549.
[Photosynthesis] is a process in which sunlight energy is absorbed and
converted to chemical energy stored in glucose and other sugars.
550.
[Pistil] is the female reproductive part of a flower.
551.
[Pollen] is a powdery substance, produced by the anthers in stamens, that
consists of tiny grains containing sperm.
552.
A [pollinator] is any animal that transfers pollen from the stamen's anther to a
flower's pistil.
553.
[Probability] is the chance that a particular outcome will occur compared to all
possible outcomes.
554.
[Protein synthesis] is a process in which the cell uses RNA to convert the genetic
information in DNA into proteins; it consists of transcription and translation.
555.
The [Punnett square] is a diagram that shows all the possible ways that alleles of
parents can combine in potential offspring.
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Page 141
556.
A [purebred] an organism that always produces offspring with the same form of
a trait as the parent organism.
557.
A [recessive] allele is a gene form that is expressed only when two copies are
present.
558.
A [response] is the reaction of an organism to a stimulus.
559.
A [ribosome] is a tiny structure, found both in the cytoplasm and attached to ER,
that is the site of protein synthesis.
560.
[RNA] a single-stranded nucleic acid that plays important roles in protein
synthesis: it can transfer information or carry amino acids as well as perform other
functions.
561.
A [seed] is a plant structure, containing a tiny new plant and its food supply that
develops from a zygote after fertilization.
562.
[Selective breeding] is a process of selecting and breeding certain parent
organisms to increase the chances that desirable traits will be inherited by the next
generation.
563.
[Selective permeability] is a membrane's ability to allow some materials to pass
through and prevent the passage of other materials.
564.
A [sepal] is a small flower part that protects the flower before it opens.
565.
[Sexual] reproduction is reproduction in which two parents produce offspring
that are similar but not identical to either parent or to each other.
566.
A [solute] is any substance that is dissolved in a solvent.
567.
A [sperm] is a gamete produced by a male in his reproductive organs.
568.
A [stamen] is the male reproductive part of a flower.
569.
A [stimulus] is any physical or chemical change in an organism's external or
internal environment that causes a response in the organism.
43
24-Nov-2016
570.
[Stomata] are tiny openings in the leaves of plants that regulate the movement
of oxygen, carbon dioxide, and water vapor in and out of the plant.
571.
A [tissue] is a group of similar cells that all do the same job.
572.
A [trait] is a characteristic of a living thing.
573.
A [transport] protein is a protein in the cell membrane that carries a substance
across the membrane.
574.
A [unicellular] organism is composed of only one cell.
575.
A [vacuole] is a saclike organelle that stores water, food, and other materials.
576.
A [zygote] is a single cell that results from fertilization and that grows and
develops into a new offspring.
44
24-Nov-2016

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03-Cells and Genetics (Book, Modified into points) 24-Nov- 16

1. A fig tree, a bacterium and a turtle are examples of [organisms]

94. G Almost all chemical processes in cells take place in [water].

G The cell wall [supports] and protects the cell.

G DNA is a long chainlike molecule, coiled up into [chromosomes].

Each chromosome is a rope-shaped structure made up of [protein] and DNA.

Chloroplasts capture [energy] from sunlight and use it to make food.

G A bacteriums organelles are not surrounded by [membranes].

Cells are [adapted] to the jobs they do.

Each system in the body can have different [organs].

Mouth, stomach, intestines are parts of the [digestive] system.

Multicellular Organisms Are Organized

A green leaf cell is specialized in making [sugar].

Muscle tissue contains only [muscle] cells.

G An [organ] is a body-part made up of two or more kinds of tissues.

A woman feels tired when her body tries to [save energy].

Sunlight energy is saved in food as [chemical potential] energy.

Both chemoautotrophs and photoautotrophs are generally called [autotrophs].

Green frogs and grass hoppers [not] autotrophs.

G A heterotroph is an organism that [consumes] other organisms.

A photoautotroph needs [light], carbon dioxide and water to make food.

Plants and other photoautotrophs manufacture food by [photosynthesis].

Water in soil is taken into a plant through its [roots].

A plant compacts sugar molecules and stores them as [starch] molecules.

Iodine solution turns dark [blue-black] in the presence of starch.

G Almost all organisms get energy by the process of [cellular respiration].

G Aerobic means [using oxygen].

G The kind of fermentation that causes bread to rise is [alcoholic] fermentation.

Anaerobic bacteria are those that live without [oxygen].

Organisms that grow in size must produce new [cells].

Chromosomes contain the organism's genetic material, [DNA].

[DNA] stores all the information needed to build a complete organism.

DNA is built of subunits called [nucleotides].

A phosphate and the sugar, [deoxyribose] make up the side chains.

G The copying of DNA is called [replication] and it occurs during [interphase].

G Binary fission is a kind of [asexual] reproduction.

G The gamete produced by a female is called [an egg].

G The gamete produced by a male in his reproductive organs is a [sperm].

G The process of forming a zygote is called [fertilization].

G Some flowers that contain both [male and female] parts.

G Eggs form in the female part of a flower, which is called a [pistil].

G The male part is called a stamen and produces [sperm].

A flower usually has several stamens and [one or more] pistils.

The tip of the stamen is called the [anther].

[Pollen] consists of tiny grains that contain sperm.

G Brightly colored [petals] surround the reproductive parts of the flower.

G Sperm develop by meiosis in the [anther].

G A [pollinator] is any animal that transfers pollen to a flower's pistil.

G Behavioral strategies for reproduction are known as [courtship] behaviors.

G A characteristic of a living thing is called a [trait].

G Some traits, such as eye color and freckles, are [inherited].

G The ability to read English is an [acquired] trait.

The natural colour of hair is an [inherited] trait.

An inherited trait is passed on to offspring in the [DNA] of gametes.

Acquired traits are obtained by interacting with the [environment].

A gene may control skin [colour] or how to build a cell wall.

Some genes control the production of a specific [protein] or part of a protein.

G Once the mRNA molecule is assembled, it moves by diffusion to a [ribosome].

G Polypeptides or proteins are chains of [amino acids] linked together.

The trait that is expressed is called a [dominant] trait.

G The allele for green seeds is said to be [recessive].

A [hybrid] is an organism that has two different alleles for a trait.