WOLFGANG KUNZE ie ChNO LOGY BREWING™MALTINGThe Right Address for the Brewing Industry Mb, KHS KHS Maschinen- und Anlagenbau AG Juchostrasse 20 | D-44143 Dortmund Phone: +49 231 569-0 Fax: +49 231 569-1541 E-Mail: info@khs-ag.comBibliographic information published by Die Deutsche Bibliothek Die Deutsche Bibliothek lists this publication jin the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie; detailed bibliographic data is available in the Internet at dnb.ddb.de Wolfgang Kunze Technology Brewing and Malting Translated by Susan Pratt, Berlin 3" completely updated edition, 2004 ISBN 3-921690-49-8 © VLB Berlin, Germany All rights reserved by the Versuchs- und Lehranstalt fiir Brauerei in Berlin (VLB), Seestrasse 13, 13353 Berlin, Germany, www.vlb-berlin.org No part of this book may be repro- duced, by photocopying or in any other way, without express prior permission of the publisher. Re-Design, Typesetting: Grafikdesign Anne Kulessa, Dresden Printing: Westkreuz-Druckerei Ahrens KG Berlin/Bonn Printed in Germany 2004WOLFGANG KUNZE TECHNOLOGY BREWING™MALTING Chapter 11 co-written by Dr H J Manger 3rd INTERNATIONAL EDITION Published byWater, hops, malt... ..and yeast are the only raw materials for beer brewing according to the German purity law of 1516.Preface to the 3rd imernational Edition of wTechnology Brewing and Malting** Every year about 1.5 billion hectolitres of beer are brewed and drunk worldwide. First deserip- tions of beer brewing are nearly 5000 years old. In fact beer is a cultural asset which has found friends all over the world. As a source of vitality and pleasure beer brings people together whilst being good for both spirit and body. Meanwhile medical research has proven without doubt, that moderate beer consumption has a positive impact on human health, All this leads to the obligation for the brewers to make the highest demands on the quality of raw materials, the technical equipment, the pro- cesses and - last but not least - on the qualif ion of the employees. With 1300 breweries and round about 5000 beer brands brewing science and education has always been very distinetive in Germany. Brewing specific research and deve- lopment - among others at the Universities in Berlin and Munich-Weihenstephan - have led to great progress in this field. In addition the German purity law (‘Reinheitsgebor’) with its strict limitation on four natural raw materials for beer brewing (water, hops. malt and yeast) has inspired the creativity of our brewers and e: neers for centuries, A lot of this extensive knowledge is summari- zed in the new edi ion of Technology Brewing and Malting*, Since its first edition in 1961 more than 40,000 copies have been sold. With transla- tions into. Hungarian, Polish, English, Yugoslavian, Chinese and Russian the original German edition has found its way to brewers all over the world, Knowledge is dynamic. It is continuously extended by research and development - also in the brewing and malting industries. As a result, this third international edition of ,:Technology Brewing and Malting* has been completely updated and newly translated, In more than one year of work the author Wolfgang Kunze has considered the latest developments in the field of brewing and malting technology. Current trends such as the filling of beer in PET bottles, mem- brane filtration, new methods of wort production and new applications for process control are des- cribed in detail, With numerous illustrations and his distinctive didactic style the author has succeeded again in explaining complex issues very succinctly and clearly. The new edition proves once again the reputa- tion of Technology Brewing and Malting™ as the worldwide leading standard work for professio- nal brewers and maltsters. an Dr Axel Th Simon President of the VLB BerlinForeword hy the author This book is the completely revised, third English language edition of a German textbook for the training of brewing and maltsters, which has meanwhile also been translated into many languages. The book provides a comprehensive overview of the transformations, the technology and the processes in the production of malt and beer, including all related subjects. Particular value has been placed on the integration of new insights and on putting emphasis on new techno- logy. As in the earlier editions, | have attempted to present the material in an easily understanda- ble form and where possible, have made use of diagrams for the purpose of clarification, The production of beer - albeit with very dis- tinctive regional differences - has increased throughout the world in recent years. Today beer is no longer produced and drunk solely in the classical beer countries, but all over the world. As well as the large brewing companies, which nowadays are increasingly dominating the beer market with large production plants, small bre- wing companies have become firmly established everywhere, which have gained particular signi- ficance with niche products and local lair and thus helped to make the beer landscape more interesting. 6 The book is based on the technology of the production of malt and beer of high quality according to the Reinheitsgebot, but nevertheless takes into account in equal measure that nowa- days throughout the world, adjuncts and com- mercially produced enzymes are used for econo- mic reasons, The increasing variety in the tech- nology of beer production, of whieh it has only been possible here to include the most important aspects, has led to an expansion of the material despite considerable efforts to compress it. In addition to this, the analysis of raw materials, intermediate and final products has been given more attention Chapter [1 on Automation and Plant Plan- ning” has been completely rewritten in co-opera- tion with Dr. Hans MANGER, to whom | am particularly grateful for the many references. I would also like to thank the Management Board of VLB Berlin, my former alma mater, in parti- cular Mr Olaf HENDEL for his successful publishing work with the textbook, as well as Ms Susan PRATT for her conscientious translation of the new English language edition, I am espe- cially grateful to graphic designer Ms Anne KULESSA, who carried out my numerous speci- al requests concerning layout patiently and con- structively thus providing the book with a balan- ced and attractive appearance. I wish the third international edition of the book every success. May it contribute to enab- ling the reader to acquire an even better under. standing of the relationships in the production of malt and beer in order to produce a good beer quality while employing good economic values i} wilContents Beer - the oldest drink for the common man 1 Raw materials 11 Barley 1.1.1 Barley types and varieties ~ Barley types - Barley varieties Barley cultivation Structure of the barley kernel ~ External structure = Internal structure Compositions and Properties ~ Carbohydrates = Nitrogen compounds - Fats 12 113 = Inorganic material ~ Other Substances Barley evaluation = Hand evaluation ~ Physical and chemical examinations - Physiological examinations 1.2 Hops 1.2.1 Growing regions 1.2.2 Harvesting, drying and stabilising hops 1.2.3 Hop cone structure 1.2.4 Composition and properties of the components = Bitter substances oF hop resins = Hop oil - Tannins or polyphenols - Nitrogen compounds 1.2.5 Hop evaluation ~ Hand evaluation of hop cones = Bitter substances content 1.2.6 Hop varieties 1.2.7 Hop products = Hop pellets = Hop extracts 13° Water 13.1 Water cycle 1.3.2. Water use in the brewery 68 1.3.3 13.4 13.6 14 14d 142 143 144 Obtaining water Extracting ground water extracting of surface water ~ Importance of private wa Water treatment supply - Removal of suspended matter = Removal of dissolved materials - Biological specification requirements Brewing water ions ~ Chemically inactive lons = Chemically reactive fons Improvement of the residual alkalinity of water ~ Decarbonation salts removal - Water sterilisation Yeast Structure and compositions of the yeast cell Yeast metabolism - Carbohydrate metabolism = Nitrogen metabolism ~ Metabolism of inorganic substances and growth factors - Energy metabolism of yeast ‘Yeast multiplication and growth Characterisation of brewing yeasts ~ Morphological characteristics ~ Physiological differences Fermentation technological differences Systematic classification Adjunets Maize Rice Barley Sorghum Wheat Sugar Glucose syrup Colouring sugar (also couleur) Malt Production Intake, cleaning, grading and transfer of barley Barley intake 69 69 76 83 83 86 87 87 88 89 SSee ol 92 93 93 93 94 95 95 98 9822 2.2.1 2.2.2 2.2.3 224 25 = Intake of barley from lorries or rail waggons Intake of barley from ships Cleaning and grading the barley - Barley precleaning ~ Magnetic devices = Dry destoners ~ Grain cleaner (trieur) ~ Barley grading ‘Transfer of barley and malt - Mecha = Pneumatic conveyors Equipment of dust removal = Cyclones = Dust filters Drying and storage of barley Barley respiration Barley drying Barley cooling Barley storage = Storage in silos ical conveyors = Storage in bins ~ Pest infestations Barley steeping Processes during steeping = Water uptake = Provision of oxygen = Cleaning Steep vessels Steeping process Barley germination Process occuring during germination = Groth processes = Enzyme formation to storage materials during germination ~ Conclusion about how to perform germination Germination methods - Floor maltings = Pheumatically operated malting systems = Conirol of germination Malt kilning 98 99 lol 103 103 10s 106 108 10 3 116 7 118, 120 120 121 122 123 123 124 124 126 126 126 128, 129 129 134 135 135 135 137 138) 145 145 145 146 158 158 2.6 2.6.1 2.6.2 263 264 27 2.8 2.8.1 2.8.2 ng during kilning, ~ Lowering of the water content - Termination of germination and modification - Formation of colour and flavour ‘compounds (Maillard reactions) ~ Formation of DMS precursor and free DMS during kilning + Effect of kilning temperature and duration - Formation of nitrosamines ~ Enzyme inactivation Kiln structure ~ Heating and forcing of air through the kiln = Older type two-floor kilns - Kilning with tipping floors ~ Kilns with loader and unloader - Vertical kilning Mangement of kilning ~ Production of Pilsner malt = Production of Munie malt ~ Unloading the kiln ~ Control of kilning ‘Treatment of malt after kilning Cooling of the kilned malt Malt cleaning Malt storage Malt polishing ‘Yeald during malting Malt evolution Hand evolution Physical and physiological examinations ~ Screening ~ Thousand corn weight ~ Hectolitre weight ~ Sinker test (floaters) ~ Glassiness ~ Hardness ~ Acrospire length ~ Germinative capacity - Density 160 160 162 162 162 163 166 166 167 168 168 170 172 Il 172 172 172 172 173 173 174 174 174 174 174 174 174 175 175 175 175 175 175 Chemical and physiological methods 176 ~ Water content 17629 2.9.1 2.9.2 2.9.3 2.9.4 2.9.5 2.9.6 2.9.7 2.9.8 2.9.9 2.9.10 2.9.11 2.9.12 9.13 2.9.14 29.15 2.9.16 2.10 3 31 3.1.2 313 3.14 3S = Congress mash ~ Diastatic power examination ~ Malt supply contract Special malts and malt from other cereals Pilsner malt (pale malt) Dark malt (Munic malt) Vienna malt Brumalt/melanoidin malt Caramel malt Acid malt Short grown and chit malts Smoked malt Diastase malt Roasted malt/chocolate Roasted malt beer Wheat malt Malt extract Malt of other bread cereals = Spelt - Emmer Rye - Triticale Sorghum malt Usage of different types of malt for various types of beer Safety precautions in malting Wort production: Malt milling Pretreatment of the malt ~ Removal of dust and stones from the malt = Weighing the malt charge Basic aspects of milling Dry milling ~ Six roller mills ~ Five roller mills ~ Four roller mills = Two roller mills = Rollers of malt mills - Grist case = Hammer mills Wet milling Steep conditioning 176 176 178 179 179 179 180 180 180 182 182 182 182 182 183 183 184, 184 185 185 185 185, 185 186 187 195 196 196 196 197 200 200 201 202 202 203 204 206 207 208 209 3.1.6 3.17 3.2 3.2.1 3.2.2 3.24 3.2.5 3.2.6 33 331 3.3.2 3.3.3 3.34 3.3.5 34 34.1 Fine comminution with water Evaluation of the grist Mashing Transformations during mashing = Purpose of mashing ~ Properties of enzymes = Starch degradation ~ B-glukan degradation = Other degradations and dissolving provesses ~ Composition of the extract - Acidification of mash and wort Mash vessels ~~ Mash vessels ~ Heating through semicircular pipes = Heating by means of a direct steam injection Mashing-in ~ Addition of the brewing water ~ Mashing-in temperature = Mixing of the water and grist Mashing ~ Parameters ti consider when mashing - Infusion mashing ~ Decoction process ~ Special mashing processes Mashing duration Control of mashing Lautering First wort and second wort Last runnings Mash spearation with a lauter tun Masch separation with a mash filter Spent grains ~ Transfer of wet spent grains = Spent grain analysis Wort boiling Wort boiling operations ~ Extraction and transformation ‘of hop components = Formation and precipitation of protein-phenol compounds ~ Evaporation of water - wort sterilisation = Destruction of all enzymes 212 213 214 214 214 215 220 225 230 284 285 2853.4.1 3.4. 35. 37 10 2 3 ~ Thermal stress on the wort ~ Lowering the pH of the wort Formation of reducing substances (reductones) ~ Evaporation of undesirable aroma substances ~ Zink content of the wort Unboiled wort - cast wort Design and heating of the wort kettle Directly heated wort kettles ~ Steam heated wort kettles ~ Wort kettle with low pressure boiling ~ High temperature wort boiling - Energy saving wort boiling systems ~ Modern wort boiling systems - Energy usage during wort boiling - Vapour condensate = Underback (wort buffer vessels) Performing wort boiling ~ Boiling the wort = Hop addition Monitoring the wort Brewhouse yield Calculation of the brewhouse yield ~ Determination of the mass percent ~ Determination of the mass of extract per hl wort ~ Conversion of the volume of the hot casting wort to that of the cold wort = Calculation of the amont of the extract obtained in the brewhouse - Determination of the brewhouse yield Factors affecting the yield Calculation of a brewhouse yield Brewhouse equipment Number and arrangement of vessels Vessel size ‘Vessel material Brewhouse capacity Special type of brewhouses ~ Pub brewery brewhouses = Integral brewhouses ~ Research and trainig brewhouses Casting the wort 287 288 288 289 289 290 204 301 302 306 318 319 319 319 319 320 323 324 325 329 329 330 330 331 331 331 332 332 333 334 334 334 335 336 38 3.8.1 3.8.2 3.8.3 3.84 3.8.5 39 3.9.1 3.9.2 3.9.3 3.94 3.9.5 3.10 aL 41 Removal of the coarse break (coarse trub) Coolship Settling tank Whirlpool = Operations prineiple of the whirlpool = Whirlpool design = Performing wort classification in a whirlpool Centrifuges - The principle used in centrification = Types of centrifuge = Design and operation of selfcleaning separators ~ Evaluation of hot wort separation Recovery of wort from cloudy wort Cooling and clarifying the wort Procedures during cooling = Wort cooling ~ Formation and optimal removal of cold break ~ Wort aeration ~ Changes in wort concentration Equipment for wort cooling ~ Structure of plate heat exchangers ~ Method of operation of the plate heat exchangers ~ Adyentages of plate heat exchanger Wort aeration ~Method of wort aeration ~ Time of yeast aeration Equipment for cold break removal ~ Kieselgubr or perlite ~ Flotation Wort cooling lines Control and monitoring of wort production process Safety at work during wort production Beer production (Fermentation, maturation and filtration) Changes during fermentation and maturation 336 337 337 337 338 340 341 341 341 343 344 344 345 347 347 347 347 348 348 348 348 350 352 353 353 355 355 355 356 357 359 367 3674.1.2 413 414 41s 4.1.6 42 4.2.1 4.2.2 423 424 43 431 Yeast: the brewer's most important partner Metabolism of yeast - Fermentation of the sugar - Protein metabolism - Fat metabolism = Carbohydrate metabolism ~ Mineral metabolism Formation and removal of fermentation by-products ~ Diacetyl (vicinal dicetones) ~ Aldehydes (carbonyl compounds) - Higher alcohols ~ Esters ~ Sulphur compounds ~ Organic acids ~ Evaluation of the aroma compounds Other reactions and changes = Changes in composition of nitrogen compounds ~ Lowering of the pH value ~ Changes in the redox properties ~ Changes in the beer colour - Precipitation of the bitter substances and polyphenols = CO, content of beer ~ Clarification and colloidal stability of beer Effects of different factors on the yeast Floceulation of the yeast (break formation) Pure yeast culture propagation Basic of yeast propagation Isolation of suitable yeast cells Propagation in the laboratory ‘Yeast propagation in the brewery ~ Yeast propagation plants ~ Assimilation procedure - Single vessel pure yeast culture procedure = Open yeast propagation Conventional fermentation and maturation Fermentation tanks - equipment 367 369 369 372 373 374 374 375 376 376 379 379 380 381 381 382 382 382 383 383 383 384 384 384 386 386 386 387 387 388 389 391 393 393 395 4.3.2 43.3 43.4 4.3.5 43.6 43.7 43.8 43.9 44 44.1 4.4.2 of the fermentation cellar 395 ~ Fermentation tanks 395 ~ Layout of the open fermentation cellar 396 Fermentation cellar yield 398 Management of primary fermentation 399 - Pitching 399 - Fermentation management 402 = Degree of attenuation 403 ~ Beer transfer from the tank 406 Yeast collection in the tank 409 Processes during beer maturation in conventional tanks 409 ~ Saturation of beer with carbon dioxide under pressure 409 - Beer clarification 410 Equipment in conventional lager cellars all ~ Lager cellar installation all ~ Lagering tanks 41 Perfortmance of lagering in conventional tanks 412 ~ Beer transfer 412 ~ Pressure regulation 412 Storage vessel tapping 414 - Establishment of the connection 4l4 - Pressure during tapping and emptying 414 Drawing off from conventional tanks 414 ~ Blending unit 41s ~ Pressure regulator 45 - Recovery of tank bottom beer 415 - Deep cooling of the beer 4s - Fore-run and post-run 416 Fermentation and maturation in cylindroconical vessels (CCVs) 416 Construction and installation of cylindroconical vessels 416 + Design, shape and construction materials of eylindroconical vessels. 416 = Size of COVs 4i7 ~ Location and arragement of the CVs 419 Cylindroconical tank fittings 420 = Control and operating elements and safety fittings a7 ~ Cooling of the CCV 428 ~ Possible methodes for controlling i443 444 445 446 447 448 449 45 45.1 and automatic evoling Manging the fermentation and maturation in CCVs ~ Special points to consider when fermenting and maturing in CCVs ~ Cold fermentation - cold maturation = Cold fermentation with accelereted maturation in a CCV = Warm ferementation without pressure - cold maturation - Pressure fermentation: ~ Cold fermentation - warm maturation - Cold primary fermentation with programmed maturation = Warm primary fermentation with normal or forced maturation Yeast cropping from the CCV - Time of yeast cropping - Methods of collecting yeast ~ Treatment and storage of the yeast crop ~ Monitoring of the yeast crop Beer quality on drawing off Beer recovery from surplus yeast (tank bottom beer) = Yeast pressing ~ Yeast separation ~ Membrane filtration of the yeast - Beer recovery using a sedicanter - Treatment of tank bottom beer Cleaning of the CCV CO, recovery Immobilised yeast Beer filtration Various filtration methods = Separation mechanism - Filters ~ Filter aids Structural forms of filters ~ Mass filter = Powder filters ~ Sheet filters (frame-type filters) ~ Membrane filters ~ Multi Micro-System-Filter ~ Areas of filtration 440 44 Ma 442 442 443 443 443 444 445 446 447 447 447 448 448 449 449 450 450 451 453 454 454 455 457 459 459 473 474 476 476 46 46.1 4.6.2 4.63 4.6.4 47 48 4.8.1 4.8.2 48.3 49 4.9.1 4.9.2 4.9.3 49.4 5. 51 SLI ~ Cross-flow-filtration - Kieselguhr-free beer filtration Beer stabilsation Microbiological stabilisation of beer = Pasteurisation = Flash pasteurisation - Hot filling of beer ~ Pasteurisation in a tunnel pasteuriser - Cold sterile filling of beer Colloidal stabilisation of beer - Nature of colloidal hazes = Improving the colloidal stability - Technological measures for improving colloidal stability = Addition of stabilising agents Filtration plant Flavour stability ~ Ageiong carbonyls - Factors encouraging flavour stability ~ Measures for the avoidance of oxygen addition durin filtration and bottling ~ Measures to prevent negative influence ‘on the flavour stability after bottling Carbonisation of the beer Special methods for beer- production High gravity brewing Ice beer produetion Processes for removing aleohol ~ Membrane separation processes - Heat treatment processes/distillation = Suppression of aleohol formation Accident prevention in the fermentation, maturation and filtration areas Danger of accidents due to fermentation carbon dioxide Work in pressure vessels Working with kieselguhr General advice regarding accident prevention Filling the beer Filling in returnable glass bottles Returnable glass bottles 47 479 487 487 488 488 491 491 491 493 493 494 494 495 501 504 504 505 507 507 509 509 512 513 514 S17 521 523 $24 525 525 532 532 5325.13 5.1.6 SLT 5.18 ~ Advantages and disadvantages of glass bottles - Glass bottle production = Bottle shape = Bottle colour = Surface coating ~ Seuffing - Boitle aflercoating - Plastic coated light glass returnable bottles ~ Procedural steps in the filling of returnable glass bottles, Cleaning of returnable glass bottles ~ Factors which influence bottle washing ~ Bottle washing machines ‘austic solution leaning and maintenance work on the boitle cleaning machine ~ Cleari and cans Control of the cleaned recyclablke glass bottles Bottle filling Principles of filling - Prineiples of bottle filling machine design away new glass bottles ~ Component elements of the bottle filling machines = Construction and mode oF operation of the bottle filling organs ~ High pressure jetting Closing the bottles “losing, with crown corks ~ Closure with a swing stopper Cleaning the filter and the closer ‘Contro! of the filled and closed bottles - Filling level control - Oxygen in the bottle neck Pasteurising in bottles ~ Principles of pasteurisation in bottles = Important components of the tunnel pasteuriser = PU fase 532 532 532 534 534 535 535 535 558 564 564 567 568 571 587 587 387 593 594 597 597 597 599 599 600 603 5.1.9 Labelling and foiling the bottles ~ Labels and foils ~ Label adhesive = Basic principle of labelling = Design of labelling machines = Head folding with foils Dating the labels Special features when filling into non-returnable glass bottles Clearing of new glass bottles Rinsing Filling into PET bottles PET bottles ~ Structural properties of PET - Barrier properties of PET - Barrier technology ~ Importance of Seavanger Production of PET bottles = Production of the preforms = Stretching and blow-moulding ~ Monitoring of the manufactured PET bottles - Rinsing of new bottles Transportation of the PET bottles Filling of PET bottles Closing of PET bottles - Plastic screw cap closures ~ Aluminium rolled-on closure Labelling of PET bottles Filling of plastic returnable bottles PEN Cleaning of returnable plastic bottles Inspection of foreign substances Filling of cans Cans and can closure Storing, depalletising an removal of empty cans Instection of the empty cans Rinsing of the cans Filling of the cans ~ Mechanical can fillers = Can filler with volumetric filling Closing the eans 604 604 606 607 609 610 610 oll oll oll 612 612 613 613 614 614 615 61s ols 616 6l7 19 619 631 631 634 635 637 637 637 639 641 642 645 647 648 648, 653 653 662 13Cleaning of the can filler and closer Widgets Inspection of the filled cans Pasteurisation of cans Overall labelling of cans Dating of the cans ing of casks, kegs, party casks, and large cans Filling of wooden barrels and casks Kegs and fittings = Material, shape and size of the keg = Keg fittings Cleaning and filling the kegs ~ Cleaning of the keg ~ Fill Keg plants as a whole 5.6.3 5.6.4 5.6.5 5.6.6 5.7 57.1 5.7.2 Filling of large cans ‘Transport and packaging Transport contain Treatment of plastic crates - Elimination of foreign and demaged crates and bottles ~ Washing of the erates = Crate magazine ‘Transport technology Bottle and ean transport Contai sr transport ging technology Packing head and packing tulips ~ Types of packer Palletiser and depalletiser equipment ~ Robot technology ~ Design and funetion of the palletisers and depalletisers ~ Stacking plants for full pack pallets ~ Transport plants for pallets ~ Pallet set positions ~ Infeed and output equipment ~ Pallet magazines ~ Pallet control securing the pallets = Palletising in keg filling 5.8 The filling plant as a whole 5.9 Beer losses 664 664 665 666 666 667 669 669 671 oT 612 674 615 675 677 677 678 679 679 681 681 682 683 683 684 687 688 688 690 696 697 698. 700 700 700 701 701 701 701 702 702 709 5.9.1 61 6.1.2 6.13 6.2 63 6.4. 65 6.6 67 68 WM Td 72 72 721 122 13 Calculation of the amount of sales beer produced Stocktaking and calculation of beer for sale Calculation of the volume loss Calculation of malt usage in kg malt/ hl beer Importance of the loss and possible ways of reducing it Cleaning and Disinfection Materials and their behavior towards cleaning agents Aluminium vessels Vessels ans pipes made of chrome-nickel steel Hoses and seals Cleaning agents Disinfection agents Cleaning and disinfection using a CIP system Cleaning procedure Mechanical cleaning Monitoring of cleaning and disinfection Protection at work when cleaning and disinfection Finished beer Beer composition Components of beer Beer and health ‘Taste and foam Beer flavour Beer foam Beer types and special features Beer produced by top fermentation = Special features of top fermentation, ~ Wheat beers ~ Berliner WeiBe ~ Alibier = Kosch =Ale = Stout ~ Porter 709 710 m1 716 716 716 17 719 720 721 Bee 730 731 732 732 732 735 737 737 740 742 742 743 745 747 748 748 749 749 750132 133 14 TAA 742 143 18 751 75.2 75.3 734 Belgian beer types Bottom fermentation beer types = Pilsner type beer ~ Lager beers / Vollbiere - Export beer - Black beers ~ Festival beers ~ Ice beer = Marzen - Bockbier = Doppelbock ~ Alcohol-free beer - Dietetic beer + Light beer ~ Malt drink (Malzbier) ~ Beer types witha very low proportion = Beer mix drinks Trends regarding the development of beer types not corresponding to the Reinheitsgebot Quality examination Beer tasting Microbiological examination Beer analysis ~ Determination of the original gravity - Distillation analysis = Refraction analysis ~ Analysis machines ~ Measurement of beer colour = Measurement of the pH ~ Measurement of the oxygen content ~ Measurement of the diacetyl content ~ Measurement of foam stability - Determination of the earbon dioxide content = Measurement of bitterness units - Measurement of haze stability - Fikterability of the beer ~ Other measurements Process measurement and analysis technology Temperature meters Flow meters Filling level meters Density meters 750 751 751 752 753 753 753 753 754 754 754 755 755 7156 187 758 758 759 761 761 763 766 767 769 769 770 ™ ™ ™ 772 773 774 774 774 715 775 776 776 776 7 778 75.5 15.6 157 75.8 75.9 7.5.10 TSA 8.1 9.1 92 92.1 9.2.2 Haze meters Oxygen meters pHi value meters Conductivity measurement Limit value probes Pressure measurement Optical measuring technology Small Scale Brewing Pub breweries ~ Brewing plant ~ Fermentation and maturation cellar ~ Dispense equipment - Types of beer - Energy supplies = With regard to legal regulations - Investigate money saving altematives Microbrewers Hobby brewers = Making your own malt - Beer production Waste disposal and the environment Environmental legislation Waste water Waste water costs ~ All oxidisable substances ~ Phosphorous in the form of phosphates = Nitrogen in the form of nitrates = Organic halogen compounds (AOX) Definition of terms used relating to waste water ~ Sedimentable solids: - BODs - COD ~ Waste water load - Resident equivalence value Waste water treatment = Aerobic waste water treatment plants |. Activated sludge basins and troughs 2. Special reactors 3. Reactors containing immobilised biomass. ~ Anaerobic waste water treatment plants 779 779 79 779 780 780 780 786 786 789 790 791 791 792 792 792 792 793 793 795 798 798 799 799 799 799 800 800 801 801 801 302 302 802 802 802 803 803 803 803 15= Amount and composition of brewery waste water 804 - Wi water treatment with mixing and balancing tanks 806 ~ Type A 806 - Type B 806 9.3 Residues and waste material 807 9.3.1 Spent malt and hops 807 Break 808 Surplus yeast 808 934 Kieselguhre slurry 808 9.3.5 Old labels 809 9.3.6 Broken glass 809 9.3.7 Beer cans 809 9.3.8 Minor sources of waste 810 9.4 Emissions 810 9.4.1 Dust and dust emissions 810 9.4.2 Brewhouse emissions 810 9.4.3 Exhaust gas emissions 810 944 Noise emissions sil 9.5 Recycling of PET bottles sil 10 Energy management in the brewery and maltings 812 10.1 Energy requirement and brewing 812 10.2 Boiler plants 813 10.2.1 Fuels 813 10.2.2 Steam 84 Heat of evaporation 84 ~ Wet steam ais - Superheated steam 816 - Hot water 816 Boiler 816 Classification of boilers 816 ‘Types of boiler structure 817 ~ Fire-tube exhaust gas-tube boilers 817 ~ Water-tube boilers 817 - High speed steam producers 817 Three pass boilers 818 Energy recovery and improvement of efficiency 820 ~ Exhaust gas temperature 820 ~ Economiser (Eeo) 820 ~ Superheater 821 16 - Return of condensate 10.2.4 Steam engines 10.2.5 Combined heat and power plants 10.3 Refrigeration plants 10.3.1 Refrigerants and cooling agents ~ Refrigerants - Cooling agents - Operating principle of refrigeration ~ Circulation in the refrigeration plant - Ways of saving energy - Decreasing the difference in pressure between evaporator and condensator - Separating the cooling circulations according to temperature of evaporation - Subeooling the ammonia in the evaporative condenser ~ Attaching a heat pump - Other ways of saving energy 10.3.2 Compression refrigeration plants Operating principle ~ Evaporator - Compressor ~ Condenser or liquiefier - Expansion valve Evaporators = Vertical tube evaporators = Shell and tube evaporators, Compressors - Reciprocating piston compressor - Rolling piston compressors - Rotating piston compressors - Turbocompressors Condensers (liquefiers) ~ Water cooled condensers + Air cooled condensers ~ Evaporative condensers Control valves Ice water storage unit 10.3.3. Absorption cooling machines - Principle of the absorption cooling machine Space and liquid cooling Cooling of conventional fermentation and lager cellars 10.3.4 821 821 821 823 823 823 824 824 825 826 826 827 828 829 829 829 829 829 830 830 830 831 831 832 832 832 833 833 834 834 834 834 834 835 83510.3.5 10.4 10.4.1 10.4.2 10.4.3 10.4.4 10.4.5 10.5 10.5.1 - Stationary cooling, - Air circulation cooling Modern cooling plants Cooling of liquids - Single stage cooling - Two-stage cooling Advice for economic operation of cooling plants - Production of cooling potential - Distribution of cooling Electrical equipment Supply of electrical energy Power factor cos - The economic importance of the power factor, cos - Improving the power factor, cos ‘Transforming the electric current Safety measures Information concerning economic use of electrical energy Pumps, fans and compressors Pumps Centrifugal pumps Radial centrifugal pumps Side channel pumps/star wheel pumps Channel impellers (non-clogging) Mixed flow pumps Serew centrifiigal pumps Positive displacement pumps Displacement pumps with constant delivery Eccentric serew pumps Rotating piston pumps Lobed rotor pumps Gear pumps Intemally toothed pumps Peristaltic (hose) pumps Flexible vane pumps Displacement pumps with pulsating delivery Piston pumps Membrane pumps Selection of pump size - Cavitation Control of the pump rotation speed 838 838 839 839 841 841 842 842 842 843, 843, 843, 845 845 846 847 848 848 849 849 850 851 851 851 852 852 852 853 853 854 854 855 855 856 856 856 856 857 858 10.5.2 10.5.3 iW ud Well W.L.2, LL Wad LLS 1.16 11.2 121 11.22 1123 124 Lubricative ring seal Fans Axial fans or ventilators Radial fans Compressed air plants Compressors Reciprocating piston compressors Scioll compressors, ‘Toothed rotor compressors Screw compressors Turbocompressors Air driers Pressure containers Pressure piping network Air filters Automation and plant planning Indications concerning the use of measurement, control and regulation technology General indications Requirements concerning the ‘measurement uncertainty of the measuring technology used Requirements of the place of installation and cleaning and disinfecting requirements Operational and equipment security requirements Maintenance and upkeep requirements Requirements of automatic controls ~ Requirements concerning visualisa- tion of the procedures = Requirements of the programms ~ General indications Plant planning Iniroduetion Basic aspects of plant planning Different procedures for planning and setting up a plant Important documents and files concerning plant planning General remarks 858 859 859 859 859 861 861 862 863 863 864 865 867 867 867 869 869 869 869 870 872 872 873 874 875 875 876 876 878 879 881 881 17The methodical process ‘The procedure scheme ‘The basic mimic diagram The procedural mimic diagram The pipe and instrument mimie diagram Pipe and assembly plans ‘The procedure description ‘The creation of design documents, - Graphic procedures = Model projection ~ Aids for drawing up planning documents: = Drafts and drawing formats = The duplication of plant documentation 11.2.5 Indications for the drawing up of contracts 11.2.6 Inauguration and performance run 11.2.7 End of the project 11.2.8 Documentation of the project 890 890 890 890 891 892 893 11.3. Plant design and the requirements of the plants 11.3.1 General indications 11.3.2 Preconditions for the automation of modern plants 11.3.3 Requirements of pipe and plant design with respect to contami- nation-free work 11.3.4 Operational safety requirements of the plants Separation of media Securing the plants against unauthorised pressures = Securing the plants against unauthorised overpressure ~ Securing the plant against unauthorised underpressure 11.3.5 Indications for pipe design General indications Pipe connections + Inseparable pipe connections = Separable pipe connections The laying of piping systems and. the construction of pipe holders hermally caused changes in length 18 893 893 894 894 895, 895 897 897 897 898 898 898 898 808, 901 ‘The flow velocity in pipes: pressure losses - Estimation of pressure losses usi a nomogram for liquids Measures against liquid strikes and vibrations ‘Venting the pipes: oxygen removal Creating heat insulations in pipes Shaping of pipe outlets Securing the pipe against frost and blockages Dead spaces in pipes Steam pipes 11.3.6 Indications for the creation of heat and cold insulations neral indications Avoidance of vapour diffusion and condensation 11.3.7 Indications concerning pipe connection, application of fittings and sampling General indications ‘The manual connecting technique Fixed piping Fittings for pipes and equipment parts Sampling fittings Types of fitting designs 11.3.8 Indications concerning the arrangement and operation of CIP stations 11.3.9 Indications for the chemical warehouse 11.3.1 Indications concerning the surface constitution of machines and apparatus List of abbreviations used Conversion of legally defined and commonly used measurement units Index of advertisers Reference to diagrams and documents used Literature references Index of technical terms 905 906 906 907 907 907 908 908 908 909 909 909 909 910 ol 912 913 O17 O18 919 923 926 927 931 939Beer - the oldest drink for the common man The production of beer is tied to three con- secutive biochemical processes: the formation of enzymes in germinating grain, the breakdown of starch to sugar by these enzymes and the resulting fermentation of the sugar to alcohol and CO, These processes and their heady results have been known to man for thousands of years, although he did not at first realise the connection between them and how to exploit this. Our knowledge of man’s deliberate attempt at beer production fades into the dim and distant past, The time, though, is, Fig. 0.1 Beer production in ancient Egypt probably linked to the settling of the hunter- gatherers, and the beginning of grain cultivation, The oldest mention of beer is in Mesopota- mian cuneiform writing, from the year 2800 BC, which describes the distribution of the daily ration of beer and bread to the workforce, The production and dispensing of beer was regulated closely in the collection of laws of the Babyloni- an king Hammurabi (1728 — 1686 BC). This re- cord shows that there must also have been irre- gularities. In ancient Egypt, too, beer flourished widely, as can be seen from numerous illustr tions and findings (Fig. 0.1). It was noticed very early that beer was free from dangerous germs and that water, too, which was fiequently available in a less than perfect condition, could be purified by the fermentation process and the natural acids thereby produced For many centuries, therefore, beer - and in some areas wine - and not water, was the natural eve- ryday thirst-quencher, both for the ruler and the common man. In Europe beer was a well loved drink of the Germanic tribes, and of the Scythians and the Celts. It was brewed as daily household nourish- ment by the women, since baking and brewing were women’s work in all primitive cultures. The change to a brewing industry” occurred in the breweries of Christian religious foundations (monasteries and nunneries) where beer was pro- duced not only for their own consumption but was also supplied to others for a payment Simultaneously it changed to being men’s work (Fig. 0.2), as it has remained until today, The use of hops as the sole flavouring ingre- dient began in the 14th century. Previously a mixture of various flavouring plants was used, which was referred to in German as ,Grut” (gruit in English).Beer brewer, 1397 In Germany in the Middle Ages there was a considerable difference between the conditions for beer brewing in the North and in the South. In the North brewing was a civie right and occurred the large brewing towns such as Bremen, Hamburg or Einbeck. In Southern Germany, the transformation from home brewing to industrial brewing gradually took place in the 14th century. In the towns and cities in particular, official in- fluence began to take hold of the development of the brewing industry, which was illustrated by the fact that the right to brew was granted as a prince’s privilege. This is particularly important, because beer production in the early Middle Ages in the Southern region became a very widespread industry (Fig 0.3). In the 15th century the commercial position of the brewer became established, but it was restric- 20 ted in the South in particular by a large number of regulations [5]. Both the organisation of the trade and also the production of the product, from purchase of raw materi ture of the final product an to municipal laws, These laws also included re- gulations about the price of yeast and quality of the yeast, which primarily looked after the inter- ests of the bakers, who obtained their yeast fom the brewers, At that time, and for a long time afterwards, the brewing trade had the monopoly on yeast production Meanwhile shortages of raw materials, as a result of poor harvests and other circumstances, led to the use of raw materials other than those previously customarily employed. Thus hops were often replaced by other flavouring plants. Is to the manuf its sale, were subject Dev Bierbreutwer, “Auf Gerfken fied ich gutes Bier Fig. 0.3 Beer production in early Middle Agesderlidyen/das fiican allenchalbia in vnfern Getta A tace= ten/onnd auf dem Sannde/3G Fainem Piersmecer fiucths dann allain Berften/hopffen/ynd waffergenomen vind _ geprandyt (Olle werden, Welbee aber dife vninfece oxdnung, Fig. 0.4 Excerpt from the Reinheitsgebot of 23. April 1516 (sthat from now on, in all towns and markets and in the country, no other ingredient thean barley, hops and water shall be used in the production of beer”) Cereals for bread making or cheaper oats were also used in the grist for brewing, There was even a health risk from some of the hop replace- ments. To prevent any such deplorable state of affairs in future, official laws laid down that only mall, hops and water were to be used for the pro- duction of beer. The first documentary reference is found in Article 12 of the , Statuta tha- of the Thuringian town of Weissensee, laid down in 1434. In Munich, too, the same form of documentary reference to the production of beer was made in 1447. On the 23, April 1516, the Bavarian purity law was signed by the jointly ruling Dukes Wilhelm IV and Ludwig X at the ,Landstindetag™ in Ingolstadt (Fig. 0.4) and thereby acquired legal force. Since 1906 this purity law, in which it was established that beer could he produced only from barley, hops and water, has enjoyed unrestricted legal force throughout Germany for bottom fer~ mented beer. The law was enacted in order to pro- Vide the burghers with a sufficient amount of pro- ducts at a fair price. For these reasons the town councils regulated, in the interest of consumer protection, the manufacture of the product and established the price in relation to the product qua- lity. The purity law can therefore also be described as the first consumer protection law in the world. The Thirty Years war set the development of beer production back a long way, and at the same time, the arrival of newer drinks such as tea and coffee, led to a considerable reduction in beer output for a long time. Later the dark, bottom fer- mented lager beer began to spread through all Germany and Bohemia under the name ,Bava- rian beer*, In order to maintain the advance of this transportable Bavarian beer, the first Bava- rian Beer Brewery was founded outside Bavaria around 1830. With the development in 1765 by James Wait of a practical, usable steam engine, the foundation stone for the introduction of new technology was laid. In 1784 the first steam engines were in use in England and they were already widespread there by 1800, However, there was still a considerable delay before Gabriel Sedlmayr in 1846, after a trip to England, installed the first steam engine, with a | horse power rating, in his Spaten brewery in Munich, Fig. 0.5 Carl von Linde (1842 - 1934) The introduction of such new technology, the invention (1871) and installation (1876) of a re- frigeration machine by Carl von Linde (Fig. 0.5), as well as the development of the transportsystem through the construction of the railway network,led in the subsequent decades to building and expansion of larger breweries in all developed countries, [t was not by chance that the first freight to be transported on the German railways con: ted of two barrels of beer. Above all, though, the invention of the reftige- ration machine meant that man was no longer dependent on the seasons and the storage of natu- ral ice in cold winters. The Frenchman Louis Pasteur (Fig. 0.6) was the real founder of modem microbiology. He de- monstrated that fermentation processes are_attri- butable to the activity of microorganisms and for- mulated the expression La fermentation est la vie sans oxygéne" (fermentation is life without oxy gen), His insights on fermentation and the essenti- al requirements to make beer stable (1860) are still valid today. Fig. 0.6 Louis Pasteur (1822 - 1895) ‘The work of Emil Christian Hansen (Fig.0.7), who developed the method for single yeast propa- gation in the Carlsberg Laboratory in Copenhagen in 1883, was improved by Pati! Lindner in 1893 using his drop culture method", thereby laying the foundations for biologically flawless work. As a result of this, it became increasingly possible to make use of pure yeast strains and to reduce the influence of contaminants, This was the basis for the triumph of light coloured beers, which gradu- ally displaced the customary dark Bavarian beer. Thus in 1842 in the Municipal brewhouse in Pilsen, which later became the Pilsner Urquell brewery, the original of the Pilsner type of beer Fig. 0.7 Emil Christian Hansen (1842 - 1909) was developed. The Pilsner type beers spread eve- rywhere throughout Europe and Pilsner is still the type of beer most drunk in Germany. In 1875, fol- lowing a trip to Europe, Adolphus Busch introdu- ced the similar beer ,Budweiser* onto the American market from his brewery (Anheuser - Busch), which in the meantime has become the most popular beer type globally. Furthermore, wlager* beers were developed in all countries and these now account for the majority of beer brands, Asa result of this development, in the middle of the last century a large number of industrially ope- rated breweries were founded in Europe and America and existing older breweries were mo- demised. It should nevertheless not be forgotten that during this period, manual labour still accoun- ted for a lange share of the work (Fig. 0.8). Many of the breweries founded at that time exist today as giant producers with their own range of products. Breweries founded in this intensive phase between 1847 and 1875 include, for example: 1843. the Schultheiss Brauerei AG in Berlin, which before WWI was the largest lager producing brewery in Europe with an annual output of 1.7m hl 1847 the Carlsberg breweries in Copenhagen, DK, founded by J.C. Jacobsen 1855. the Patzenhofer Brauerei in Berlin, which merged with Schultheiss in 1920 1863 the Heineken Brewery, Amsterdam, NL, founded by Gerard A. HeinekenFig. 0.8 100 Years ago: View inside a cask rinsing department, the building where the barrels were cleaned. There was an enormous amount of work invilved in cleaning the returned empty wooden barrels used for beer transport 1868. the Dortmunder Aktien Brauerei 1870. the Binding Brauerei in Frankfurt/Main 1872. the Radeberger Export Beer brewery 1872 the Vereinsbrauerei der Berliner Gastwirte 7u Rixdorf, which since 1910 has been the Berliner Kindl Brauerei AG, Berlin-Neukélin 1872 the Léwenbriiu AG, Munich 1873 the Kaiserbrauerei Beck &Co, now Brauerei Beck & Co, Bremen 1873. the Dortmunder Union Brauerei During this time, already existing breweries were also growing considerably. The Bass Bre- wery in Burton-on-Trent, GB 1876, for example, Was producing 2.5m hl of beer annually and was classified as the largest brewery in the world at this time, but was soon overtaken by Arthur Guinness & Son Co. Ltd. in Dublin. In the USA, the development of the breweries s closely linked with the settlement of the coun- try by the European immigrants, Thus, the first breweries appeared on the east coast of the coun- try and then upriver, following the founding of large cities and the expansion of the railway net- work. Within a few years, the following brewe- ries were founded: 1849. the Joseph Schlitz Brewing Co. in Milwaukee, Wisconsin 1850 the Plank Road Brewery, which in 1855 23became the Miller Brewing Co. in Milwaukee, Wisconsin the Stroh Brewery Co Michigan the Anheuser brewery, since 1875 Anheuser - Busch, St. Louis, Missouri 1858 the Gund and F man brewery, later the Heileman Brewing Co. in La Crosse 1850 Detroit, 1851 1861 the Pabst Brewing Co. in Milwaukee, Wisconsin 1873 the Adolphus Coors Brewing Co. in Golden, Colorado In the second half of the 19th century, howe- ver, the breakthrough in other countries and con- tinents into the industrial era, also occurred in the brewing trade. This was marked by the founding of many new breweries, for example in Japan 1869 the Spring Valley Brewery, since 1907 the Kirin Brewery Co. Ltd. 1876 the Hokkaido Kaitakushi Brewery, later the Asahi Brewery Ltd, and the Sapporo Ltd. Brewery In Australia, the following brewery was foun- ded: 1862 the Cooper’s Brewery in Adelaide. ‘As a result of this development, the science of beer brewing became known and could be taught, In several countries where beer was bre- wed, research laboratories and institutes were created which in due course developed into tea- ching institutes and organisations; for example: © the Weihenstephan Brauereihochschule (University faculty) near Munich (1865), today Chair for Brewing Technology at the Centre for Scientific Research Weihenste- phan and the Faculty for Nutrition, Land Use and the Environment of the TU (Technical University) Munich, © the Dr. Siebel Analytical Laboratory in Chicago (1868), today the Siebel- Institute of Technology © the Versuchs- und Lehranstalt flir Brauerei in Berlin (Brewing Research and Teaching Institute - the VLB) (1883) ‘© the Brewing School in Gent (1885) 24 © the Institute of Brewing (IOB) in London (1886) © the Doemens-Lehranstalten in Grifeling near Munich (1895) and others. At the same time a number of specialised jour- nals were founded, by means of which scientific knowledge, and also other interesting informa- tion on the topic of beer, could be distributed, These include, for example: © Allgemeine Brauer- und Hopfenzeitun; today ,,Brauwelt* in Nuremberg (1861) © Brewer's Journal” in London (1864) © ..The American Brewers Gazette" in New York (1871) © Brewers Guardian (1871) «The Western Brewer" in Chicago (1876) © ,Wochenschrift ftir Brauerei in Berlin (1883), today ,.Brauerei-Forum* © ,,Tageszeitung flr Brauerei* in Berlin (1903) and many others. Expert analysts formed commissions to make the analysis values of different countries conver- tible using standard analysis methods; for exam- ple: © die Mitteleuropdische Brautechnische Analysenkommission™ (MEBAK) © the European Brewing Convention (EBC) ‘© the American Society of Brewing Chemists (ASBC) and others. ‘At the same time, powerful brewing associa- tions and brewers’ organisations developed in almost all countries; for example, in Germany ‘© Deutsche Brauer-Bund e.V. (DBB), founded in 1871 in Dresden © Deutscher Braumeister- und Malzmeister- Bund e.V. (DBMB), founded in 1893 in Leipzig ® , Bundesverband mittelstindischer Privat- brauereien e.V." (Association of Small and Medium Sized Private Breweries) © Deutscher Mailzerbund (Association of German Maltsters)and in America: Master Brewer's Association of the Americas (MBAA) and many others. Naturally, the Bavarian Reinheitsgebot was the prevailing law initially in many countries, but American brewers already knew in the 1860s and 70s the economic advantage of using maize meal orice grits as additives. As a result of the refining of the techniques and technology for the proces- sing of raw grain, a new type of beer was produced which has meanwhile gained global importance. In the USA beer production suffered a severe blow through the prohibition of alcohol, introdu- ced in 1919, At that time, the breweries could only stay in existence by producing so-called near beer". As a result of the Prohibition, which was not revoked until 1933, criminal activity and the smuggling of alcoholic drinks had become much more widespread and so the result of the Prohibition was very negative. In Scandinavian countries, too, at this time there were substantial limitations on the production and sale of aleohol- containing beverages, and this still exists in some countries. Fig. 0.9 Wooden tanks and barrels long characterised the face of the brewery When considering the development of brewe- ries in Germany in the second half of the 19th century, one should not overlook the fact that there were still 13,561 breweries in operation here in 1873, of which 10,171 were after all bre- wing top fermenting beer. Added to this were 36,297 households where tax free drinks were being brewed for home use only [2]. By 1891 the number of operating breweries had fallen to 7,785, mainly because of the foun- ding of large brewing public limited companies and cooperatives. Many craft breweries from this time are nevertheless still in existence today. The large difference in size and hence better financi- al resources means there is a far greater opportu- nity for introducing new technology in larger breweries. In particular, the introduction of coal heated steam boilers for in-house energy supply to the brew kettle in the brewhouse, the employ- ment of the brewery’s own steam engine to drive the cooling machine compressors and the pro- duction of their own electricity by large brewe- ries can be financially supported by the econo- mic advantages of operating on a large scale. Small craft breweries could not afford the ex- pensive equipment and retained their traditional equipment and processes - many even until now. ‘The traditional material for brewing equip- ment, wood, disappeared only slowly to be repla- ced by iron, initially coated with piteh. Wooden vats were replaced by open fermenters and the wooden barrels, stacked in many layers, were replaced by tanks. For various reasons, however, this process did not occur in many breweries until the final decade of the last millennium, In addition to iron, aluminium later became impor- tant in breweries, especially for fermenters and lagering vessels. The main changes were, howe- ver, in the material and the heating of the bre wing equipment. Here the cast iron open pots, which were commonplace at the beginning of the 19th century, were replaced by copper as the material from which vessels were made. The shiny beaten vessels with their beautiful copper covers and steam vents, initially heated using 25Fig, 0.10 Copper brewing vessels were the pride of the master brewer coal or gas, and for the last ninety years increa- singly with steam, were the pride of the master brewer (Fig, 0.10), Even today, a copper cover can be found covering a modem stainless steel vessel beneath it. However, since the existence of stainless steel alloys and the tools to work with this difficult material, their triumphal advance can no longer be stopped. The wooden transpor- tation barrel, which had survived for centuries has now been replaced by stainless steel kegs. Since the introduction of stainless steel, an ever increasing number of automated cleaning systems are being used by breweries. As a result of this and also the increasing mechanisation and automation of the production process hard manual labour has been considerably redu ced, This trend also applies to the brewi equipment (Fig. 0.11), particularly as the techni | advantages far outweigh the continuing use of the beaten copper pots which are no longer econom| In the production of malt and beer only the basic bio-chemical processes have remained the same over the centuries © germination of barley in the malt house to produce enzymes, © mashing in the brewhouse to allow them to act and form fermentable sugar, and finally, © the fermentation of sugar to alcohol and ear- bon dioxide Ss Fig. 0.11 Stainless steel brewing vessels are today’s state of the art technology 26Fig, 0.12 A malt house today 150 years ago it was still customary for a bre- wery to produce its own malt requirements. For this purpose almost every brewery had its own small malt house in which the malt that was used for brewing in carly summer was produced in the winter. This was done by the same workforce, which naturally gave rise to the profession of “Brewer and Maltster” which still exists in Ger- many, However, at the same time commercial maltings were being formed, some of them spe- cial malt producers, which were separate from breweries, for example: 1823 Bairds' Malt Ltd., Witham, Essex, GB 1864. the Friedrich Weissheimer Malzfabrik, Andernach, D. 1868 Pauls Malt Ltd., Ipswich, Suffolk, GB 1879 the Michael Weyermann Malzfabrik, Bamberg, D. Of course at this time and until the middle of the 20th century, malt production was still very labour intensive and characterised by heavy manual work in the huge floor maltings. Turning in the kiln was also sometimes performed manu- ally. The path to the moder pneumatic malting systems brought with it enormous savings in energy and workforce requirements. Nowadays the computer rules in the maltings which are lar- gely free of people. Today malting mainly takes place in large companies, the majority of which are made up of small companies which have merged. Of these, the largest produce over Im tons of malt annual- ly, as is the case with the American company Con Agra / Tiger - Oats Malt (1996) and the Cargill Inc. (1978), or also the French group Soufflet (1952) and Groupe Malteurop (1984) (brackets refer to year of founding). But also other companies, like the American Lasaffre- ADM (1998) or Rahr Malting (1847), the English Greencore group (1991) or the Friedrich Weissheimer Malzfabrik (1864) have an annual production of over 500,000 tons of malt, All companies nowadays have subsidiaries in other countries to enable them to produce more econo- mically on the spot (Fig. 0.12). Together these large companies produce around 7m tons of malt and thereby provide almost half of the estimated 15.4.m tons required for the global supply of beer in 2002/3 [238]. There have also been, however, revolutionary changes in other areas of brewing in the last 150 years, The greatest changes after the introduction of refrigeration resulted from the invention of beer filtration by Lorenz Enzinger (1879). Since then it has been possible, first by means of a fil- ter mass, later by use of kieselguhr and other media, to filter beer so that it is quite clear. By use of suitable stabilising measures it is possible to make beer stable for a very long time and the- refore to produce it independently of when it will be consumed. As a result of the development of beer bottles and cans and due to the massive 70 introduction of beer glasses instead of the pre- viously prevalent opaque beer mugs, pale beer - instead of the usual dark beer prevalent until then - began to triumph outside the pub restaurant as well as inside. Today it is impossible to think of it not being available as a household product, dis- tributed through the market in the form of bottled and canned beer. The development of high-speed filling lines, with which entry of air into the beer is almost completely excluded, makes it possible nowadays to fully maintain beer quality for a long time, Substantial progress has been made in this area in recent years - only a few years ago beer sta- bility regarding taste was a great problem. But itis not only the quality of the beer that is important. It is becoming increasingly clear that the beer also has to be presented in a suitably tasteful manner if the customer is to be persuaded to buy it (Fig. 0.13). The label on the bottle also has to advertise this unique product through its form, colour and design. However, a label alone does not have suf ficient effect, and therefore it also needs to have a head foil if its neighbour also has one. However, not only the bottle but the glass, too, is no longer just an anonymous large glass with a handle, as can still be found in beer gardens and at tables reserved for regulars. Bearing the brewer's crest, its form and design now reflect the sales philosophy of the brewery for this particular type of beer. With its paper coaster and personalised beer mat, the glass, its contents freshly poured and well served, should convey to the thirsty drinker either in a restaurant or pub, or at home, the plea- sure of that particular drink, bearing in mind that the eye also drinks. A civilised drinking environ- ment when eating and socialising is becoming increasingly important today. Asa result of the introduction of versatile moni- toring and control systems, beer production can be supervised easily. High standard online techniques allow a seamless continuous control of the pro- duction process. By incorporating automation it is possible to allow most brewing operations to run completely automatically. The work of the brewer is being taken over more and more by computers, 28 ‘The quality of the raw materials and processing aids has also, because of appropriate cultivation methods and controls, reached a level which makes it possible to ensure good beer quality. Nevertheless - or rather as a result - greater de- ‘mands are put on the brewer nowadays. Even with the substantially greater automatic supply of infor- mation, on the one hand, and the decreased oppor- tunity for visual inspection of the product, on the other hand, he must supervise the entireprocess and take the correct decisions. Con-sequently, his comprehensive knowledge of the process is extre- mely valuable, It is the main purpose of this book to improve and update this knowledge. Fig. 0.13 The overall impression crea- ted by the bottle, label, beer glass and beer mat increasingly define the appearance of the brand The number and size of brewing companies is greaily dependent on the historical development of the country. In relation to other countries, there is still a very large number of breweries in Germany, the majority of them in Upper Franconia, More than half of German breweries are small, most of them pub and microbreweries, the number of which has meanwhile increased to around 350. The approximate 1000 breweries with an annual output of up to $00,000 hl make up only about 7% of the total amount of beer produced.As well as this development with regard to the large breweries and brewing associations, there has also been a development concerning small breweries and in particular pub breweries (adventure breweries, open to the public), the number of which can be estimated at over 3000 globally. In addition to this, there is also a global increase in the number of communities which try their luck at home brewing and, within the confi- nes of the law, attempt to brew their own beer. Despite the stagnation in many countries in Europe and North America, global beer produe- tion has increased by approximately 25% in the past LI years, which is an annual increase of about 28 mill, hl, an enormous rise, Total pro- duction is as follows (140+217}: Id beer production Annual change in Mio. hl inMiohl in % 1,163 1,190 2 (232 1,222 322.69 1,248 26 2.12 1,269 21 168 1,295 26 2.08 1313 18 139 1,365 52 3.96 20 1,392 27198 2001 1424 322.30 2002 1444 221.34 on everage 283° 218 The increases in beer production (at an avera- ge per head consumption of 23 litres) can be divided primarily between the Central and East European countries, Latin America, the coun- tries of Asia and Oceania as well as southern Africa. The largest increase in beer production can be recorded in China which, with a beer pro- duction of 240 mill, hl in 2000 (only 170 mill, hl in 1997), has left the USA far behind it and has become the top ranking beer country. Given its population of 1.3 billion citizens with a current per head consumption of 18 litres compared with that of Germany at 125 litres per head, sub- stantial increases can still be expected. In Russia, too, as well as a range of East European countries, beer production has risen considerably in recent years [240] The beer-produeing countries with an annual ‘output of over 2 mill, hl are listed below [140] (Figures in mill, hl.) Europe Country 1993 19952002 Germany 116.0 117.0 108.3 Russia 245° «177—-70.2 Great Britain 549 S88 56.6 Spain 243-253-278 Poland 167 15.2 26.0 Netherlands 04 Bl 248 France 183° 183 18.1 Czech Republic = «1781788. Belgium 1420 «148 15.7 Ukraine 14.0 $1 149 Italy 7120126 Rumania od 14 Ireland 69 91 Austria 98 8.7 Denmark 94 85 Hungary 78 74 Turkey 54 73 Portugal 68 WW Sweden 35 5.0 Yugoslavia 5.0 48 Slovakia 39 48 Bulgaria 42 3.9 Greece 4d 48 Finland 44 4l Croatia 24 37 Switzerland 39 35 Lithuania 12 26 Slovenia 2.0 25 Norway 24 22 Total 435.9 504.8 America Country 1993 1995-2002 USA 2373 (233.7 234.6 Brazil 57.0 84.0 86.0Mexico 438 44S 63.7 Canada 23.0 22.8 213 Venezuela 155 15.9 16.0 Argentina 10.3 10.4 13.9 Columbia 195 178-120 Peru 6.8 8.5 6.0 Chile 3.6 41-40 Dominican Republic 2.2 a) Feuador 25 2307 Total 436.0 459.2 479.0 Africa Country 1993 1995, 2002 South Africa 22.8 24.5 24.4 Nigeria 67 45° 7.0 Cameroon 3.6 32 44 Kenya 2iT. 32 26 Total 540 54.9 63.1 Asia Country 199319952002 China 122.5 154.6 235.6 Japan 68.9 67.2 13 South Korea 153. 17.7 200 Thailand 42 6.5 123 Philippines BS 140 120 Vietnam 23 5.0 8.1 India 3.0 43 60 Taiwan 46 4.3 3.8 Total 40.2 281.7) 375.7 Australia/Oceania Country 1993 1995, 2002 Australia 180 «17.9175 New Zealand 3.5 35 3.0 Total 225 AMS Beer consumption per head of the population varies greatly both in amount consumed and deve- lopment in the different countries around the globe. ‘The Czechs have always had the highest beer con- sumption per head of the population at approxima- tely 160 litres, followed by the Germans. Within a couniry itself, however, we still have to note diffe- rences regarding beer consumption, In Germany, 30 for example, the Bavarians lead the way in beer consumption at 175 litres, closely followed by the ‘Saxons at 168 litres, whereas other federal states lie below average. It is our duty as brewers to contribute to the con- tinued rise or at least a stabilisation in beer con- sumption. This can be achieved through the high quality of our beer and appropriate information for our potential customers regarding the benefits of beer when consumed in moderation. Beer consumption (in litres) per head of the population in recent years amounted to [213]: Country 1993 1995 2001 Czech Republic 161.1. 159.1 160.0 Ireland 1126 112.7 126.0 Germany 138.0 135.9 125.5 Denmark 126.7 124.4 102.2 Austria 116.6 118.7 108.1 Belgium/Luxemb. 105.6 103.5 98.0 Great Britain 103.7 100.9 95.4 Australia 98.9 96.9 95.4 New Zealand 102.1 98.8 93.9 Slovakia 93.4 87.5 90.2 USA 852 835 83.4 Netherlands 86.0 858 828 Finland 829 802 77.9 Hungary 847 753-723 Venezuela B6 NS 7110 Spain 66.5 66.6 70.8 Canada 685 68.9 67.8 Portugal 623 64.7 64.6 Sweden 673 645° 56.1 Japan 599 5 55.7 Columbia 575 54.5 South Attica 56.9 54,2 49.8 53.4 53.2 533 50.5 S15 36.4 45.7 42.0 39.0 Rumania 417 39.2 38.0 France 393-391 362 Iceland 273 © 30.6 © 32.5 aly 262 25.4 28.0The 40 largest brewerys of the world per 31.12.2003 The market for the beer has long been a global market, characterised by cross-border acqui- sitions and buyout, More recently there has been [293] aan increase in mergers amongst the large brewe- ries - the folloing list should therefore be updatet Ee Country Prod. vol. 2003 Share of world beer in Mio. hl _produetion in % 1 Anheuser-Busch USA 152,0 10.3% 2 SAB-Miller South Afriea/USA 137.8 9.3% 3 Heineken Netherlands 99.0 6.1% 4 Taterbrew Belgium 97,9 6,6% 5 Carlsberg Denmark 888 6.0% we AMBev Brazil 674 4.6% 7 Modelo. Mexico. 41,9 2.8% 8 Coors USA 38,6 2,6% 9 Tsingtao China 32.6 “10 Scottish & Newcastle Great Britain Ho Asahi Japan | 12 Femsa (Cuauhtemoc) Mexico 13 Santo Domingo (Bavaria) Columbia M4 Kirin Japan 1s Yan Yii China 16 Molson Canada 17 Baltika Russia 18 Schincariol Brazil 19 San Miguel Philippines 20 Diageo/Guinness Great Britain/Ireland 21 Foster's Australia 2 BGHCastel France 23 Bfes Turkey 24 Harbin China 25 Chang Thailand 26 Polar Venezuela 27 Lion Nathan New Zealand/Australia 128° Mahou - San Miguel Spain 2 Hite South Korea 30 Gold Star China 31 Chong Qing China 32) Zhw Jiang China 33. Holsten Germany (34 Sapporo Japan 35 Radeberger Germany ,: 36° Brau und Brunnen Germany 0.5% 37 Suntory Japan 05% 387 Damm Spain 04% 39 Otschakovo Russia 04% 40 Germany 04% 140 793% eer production 2003, 100 % 311 Raw Materials Four raw materials are required for beer pro- Ld Barley duction: barley, hops, water and yeast, The qua- Barley (Hordeum vulgare) lity of these raw materials has a decisive supplies the starch required for influence on the quality of the final product, || beer production. This. starch Knowledge of the properties of the raw materi- is converted to fermentable ex- als and their effects on the process and final \i tract in the brewhouse. It is product provides the basis for their handling \\ necessary to produce, by culti- and processing. With such knowledge it is pos- ! vation of suitable varieties, sible to control the technological process cons- i barleys which provide extract- ciously. rich malts. BARLEY js the main raw material for beer production, Its use depends on the fact that barley has a high starch content and the husk still adheres to the grain, even after threshing and processing to malt. Consequently it is able to form the wort filtration layer required in a later production stage. Before use in the brewery the barley must first be converted into malt. In some countries unmalted cereals, such as maize, rice, sorghum, barley and wheat or pro- ducts made from them, are often used as ADIUNCTS. In Germany. WHEAT and other cereals can be used in their malted form to produce top fermented beer. HOPS give beer its bitter taste and have an effect on the aroma, The quality of the beer depends greatly on the quality of the hops. Quantitatively the most important raw material is WATER. This affects the beer character and quality at several processing stages. In addition water is used for cleaning and disinfecting, as swell as many other processes in the maltings and brewery. The alcoholic fermentation to form beer depends on the activity of YEAST which con- Fig. 1.0 sequently is essential for beer production. The Barley ear yeast has a great effect on beer quality because with of the effects of its metabolic by-products. long awns 11.1 Barley types and varieties Barley isa cereal, the ears of which, are characterised by particularly long awns (Fig. 1,0). It is classified into two types and many varieties which are not all equally useful as far as brewing and malting are con- cemed. L111 Types of barley Barleys can be divided into the winter type winter har the seeds of which are sown in about the middle of September, and the summer form spring barleys which are sown in March and April. Both types are subdivided into varieties which, depending on the arrangement of the coms on the car axis (rachis), are classi- fied as nvo-row or multirow. In the case of multirow barleys there are three fertlisable florets at each node on the rachis, Each of these, after pollination, deve- lops into a barley com or grain, 32When seen from above the groups of three grains appear alternately on the right and on the left forming six-row barley (Fig. 1.1). When the rachis internode segments are relatively long, of- ten only four rows can be made out because the lateral florets of any one node overlap those of the adjacent nodes. Consequently in four-row barley these florets seem to be in four, rather than six rows, Nevertheless, there are actually six rows. In the case of two-row barleys only one grain develops at each node because the lateral florets are sterile, From above only one grain can be seen on the right and one on the left (nvo-row). ‘The various sorts of barley (spring, winter, two-row, six-tow) differ in several important ways from one another: -row barleys produce large, plump grains ly with thinner, finely wrinkled husks. ly such barleys have relatively lar- s of usefill contents and less husk, contain less polyphenolic and bitter sub- ‘The grains are all very uniform and et content is comparatively high. » barleys are preferably grown as “and combine all the desirable The yield of winter barley is about 6t/ha which is substantially higher than that of spring barley {about 4t/ha) and is of course due to the shorter ‘growing season for the latter (150 days as oppo- sed to 300 days for winter barleys), In many countries, therefore, much more winter barley than spring barley is produced, Brewing barleys comprise in addition to © two-row spring barleys, also # two-row winter barleys, Fig. LI Structure of barley ears (according 10 Aufhammer) (1) two-row barley (2) six-row barley (a) viewed from above (b) front view of middle row (c) lateral view © six-row winter barleys and « six-row spring barleys, 1.1.1.2 Barley varieties Within the above-mentioned types there are very many varieties which differ considerably from one another in a number of properties. In the European Brewery Convention (EBC) countries alone, about 300 spring barleys, 100 two-row winter barleys and 100 six-row winter barleys are registered. That in itself shows their multiplicity. For malting and brewing purposes the two-row spring barleys are by far the most suitable, be- cause systematic attempts have been made to im- prove their brewing quality for over a hundred years. A large number of varieties have excellent technological properties. However, increasing numbers of two-row win- ter barleys are being developed whose quality is almost as good as that of two-row spring barleys. Breeding of winter barley of good brewing qua~ lity is promising since the combination of a high yield and good quality can more easily lead to economically priced malt. To obtain a good, uniform malt it is essential that as many grains as possible in the batch should be of the same variety. Consequently, as far as 33possible pure varieties should be grown, Only in this way can the advantage of breeding pure va- ricties be fully utilised. In breeding new varieties great importance is placed on the following qua- lity parameters: © disease and pest resistance © good straw strength high ability to utilise nutrients high grain yield good com shape and distribution high water uptake rate and low water sensitivity © low nitrogen content high germinative energy at the time of malting ripeness © high enzyme-forming potential © ability to modify well © high extract yield on malting 1.1.2 Barley cultivation The most highly developed region for growing barley is Central Europe where barley has been systematically grown for about 150 years. Here it is above all the two-row spring barleys which have become very economically important as high quality barleys, but winter barley cultivation is also increasing, In Germany in 2002, 2.7 mill. t of spring barley were harvested, of which 2.1 mill. t were of the brewing barley variety, mainly comprising the four leading types Scarlett, Barke, Pasadena and Annabel. These varieties are also grown in the neighbouring countries, Other important varieties, which are grown in many countries, include Optic, Lux and Alliot grown in Denmark, the British varieties Chariot, Riviera and Prisma, as well as the French Astoria, Nevada and Aspen. As far as winter barleys are concemed, there is a current preference for the varieties Vanessa, Tiffimy and Regina. The bree~ ding of brewing barley is, however, under con- stant development, so new varieties with impro- ved properties are always coming to the fore. ‘The main regions for growing barley are the moderate climatic regions of the Northern Hemi- 34 sphere with the focus on Europe and the Near East, Canada and the USA as well as Australia, Argentina and Uruguay. Of the approximate 130 mill, tons of barley grown (2002), the EU coun- tries produced 48 mill. t and East and Central Europe 35 mill. t. Consequently about 70% of barley is produced in this region. In North America, brewing barley is mainly grown in Canada, which has an annual production of 13- 14 mill, OF this, about 11.5 mill, t is for domestic use and the rest grown for export Because of its geographical position and the short growing season, spring barley is grown in Alberta (53%), Saskatchewan (35%) and Ma- nitoba (12%), Canada sells over 1 million t of two-row and 0.4 million t of six-row brewing barley per year. There is an approximate balance between bre- wing barley production and requirement in the USA. Of the approximately 10 mill, t of barley produced, about 35% is grown in the Midwest in Minnesota and North and South Dakota. Of this, about 80% is brewing barley (varieties Robust 58%, Excel, Morex, Azura). In the West (Montana, Wyoming, Colorado), where predo- minantly two-row barley is grown, only about 30% is brewing barley. In the USA brewing bar- ley is mainly six-row spring barley, the breeding of which shows considerable advances in com- parison with two-row barley. The most important growing regions in the Southern Hemisphere are in Ausiralia which exports a considerable amount of the approx. 6-7 mill. t of barley produced. The growing regions are mainly in the coastal regions of West and South Australia and behind the mountain chains of the subtropical regions. In 2001, global beer production was 1.4 bill. hl for which 15.4 mill. t of malt are necessary. For the production of whisky, about 1 million t malt are required and for human nutrition only about 0.5 million t are needed, This represents a global requirement of 21 mill, t of brewing barley, with the trend rising because the annual global beer production is increasing annually by 1-1.5%.1.1.3 Structure of the barley kernel Conclusions can be drawn about the value and processing requirements of the barley from the structure of the barley kernel, For this we must distinguish between the internal and extemal structure. Fig. 1.2 Barley kernel @) dorsal side () base, (2) tip, (3) ventral furrow, (4) rachila, (9) wrinkling, (6) palea, (7) lemma b) ventral side 1.1.3.1 External structure Figure 1.2 shows in a) the dorsal side of the kernel with the dorsal husk or lemma (7) which in the case of our cultivated barleys is prolonged in the ear by a long awn which is broken off during threshing. The fineness of the husk is judged from the wrinkling (5) of the lemma, which allows the strength of the husk to be evaluated. On the ventral side b) the ventral husk or palea (6) is shown. In the ventral furrow (3) of the kernel there is the rachilla (4), the remains of an infertile floret which also provides some information for variety identification ‘The barleys used by the brewing industry are always husked types. In other words, the ventral and dorsal husks have remained intimately associ- ated with the pericarp and testa during growth and remain on the kernel after threshing. This contrasts with wheat, the two husks of which fall off during threshing and leave the naked seed. There are also barley varieties (naked barleys) which behave like this. These, however, are not used for beer produc tion in Germany, Yee ryan) neige SR yy : i Af I i : ! A i) b PR i st i Fig. 1.3 A barley kernel in longitudinal cross-section (1) rudimentary stem, (2) rudimentary acrospire, (3) rudimentary rootlets, (4) scutellum, (5) epithelium layer: (6) endosperm, (7) empty cells, (8) aleurone layer, (9) testa, (10) pericarp, (11) husks 35‘The base of the kemel is more pointed than the tip. This can be understood if one remembers that the awn is struck off during threshing. If the awn temover is set too closely, the awn removal can result in damage to the keel. The region of brea- kage of the grain from the ear spindle (rachis) is on the contrary always flat, The shape of the breakage region (bevelled or nicked base) helps the barley breeder to make deductions about the variety. 1.1.3.2 Internal structure ‘The barley kernel (Fig. 1.3) consists of three main parts: the germ region, the endosperm and the grain coverings. The germ region contains the embryo (1) with the growth nodes for the acrospire (2) and rvot- fets (3). The germ region is separated from the endos- perm by a thin tissue layer, the scutellum (4) and the epithelium (5), a thin layer of palisade-like cells with very thin walls. Fig. 1.3a Starch cells with stored starch gramules (Photo: VLB Berlin, Research Institue for Raw Materials) The endosperm (6) consists of stable cells which contain the starch granules. The stored starch granules are both large and small in size; medium sized granules are missing in barley starch (Fig. 1.3 a). The large starch granules (type A) have a diameter of 20 to 30 jum, Small starch granules (type B) with a diameter if 3 to 5 jum represent 70 to 95% of the total number of the 36 starch granules in the endosperm, but contain 3% toa maximum of 10% of the weight of the starch. The number of small starch granules can differ enormously; it is dependant on the genetic pro- perties of the barley type and the environmental influences during the grain development. The small starch granules influence the malting pro- perties of the barley and the quality of malt produced. The gaps between the individual starch granules are more or less filled with an endosperm matrix containing protein; this matrix component can either be very dense or missing altogether. From the matrix density, however, it is not possible to draw any significant conclu- sions about the malting ability of the barley. Fig, 1.36 Structure of the starch cell walls (according to Bamforth) (1) midelle tamelta, (2) Beglucan layer, (3) pemtosan layen (A) stored organie acids The cell walls consist, firstly, of a middle la- mella of protein which regulates all the internal and external mass transfer. This middle lamella is surrounded on both sides by B-glucan layer [248, 249), This is in tum covered on both sides by a very porous pentosan layer in which the different substances, such as organic acids, acetic acid or ferula acid, are stored. In Fig. 1.3 b, the gaps bet- ‘ween the layers are enlarged for clarification pur- poses but in reality the layers lie tightly joined together, thus creating a very solid and stable cell wall framework,‘The thickness of these starch cell walls is very dependant on both the characteristies of the va- riety and the growth conditions. Brewing barleys generally have thinner cell walls than feed bar- leys. The thickness of the cell walls is an impor- tant factor for the malting properties of the barley because thick walls provide more of an obstacle to a later breakdown. Up until their later break down, however, they prevent any mass transfer and protect the contents of the cell, The stability of these cell walls lends the barley grain a hard- ‘ness $0 that that it can only be broken, should this be necessary, using great force, ‘The endosperm is surrounded by the aleurone layer (8) consisting of protein-rich cells. This layer is the most important starting point for enzyme production during malting. Other sub- stances, such as fats, polyphenols and colouring materials, are deposited in the stable protein structure of this layer, The grain coverings consist of seven different layers which, however, can be divided essentially into three. ‘The innermost cover surrounding the aleurone layer is the seed coat or resta (9), It sut= rounds the entire com and allows only pure water through, and not the salts dissolved therein. This is due to the semi-permeability of the testa The next covering towards the outside is the fruit coat or pericarp (10) which has developed very close to the seed coat, It surrounds the testa and is in tum surrounded by the epidermis which is protected on the outside by vo husks (11) of the kernel, The husks consist mainly of cellulose in which small amounts of substances are deposited which can act adversely on the quality of the beer, inclu- ding polyphenols, bitter substances and testinie acid, 114 Composition and properties of the components The moisture content of barley is 14 - 15% on average. The moisture content can vary between 12% in very dry harvesting conditions and over 20% in wet conditions. Very moist barley must be dried because it cannot be stored for long and it would quickly lose its ability to germinate pro- perly. Barley must have a moisture content below. 15% for long term storage. The amounts of the other components are related to the dry weight, Barley dry matter has the following average che- mical composition: Total carbohydrate 70.0 - 85.0% Protein 10.5 - 11.5% Inorganic matter 2.0- 4.0% Fat 15- 2.0% Other substances 10- 2.0% Carbohydrates are quantitatively the most important class of compounds, but they differ considerably from one another with regard to their properties and therefore their importance in processing and the quality of the end product. The important compounds are starch, sugars, cellulo- se, hemicellulose and gums. 1.1.4.1.1 Starch Starch (C,H,:Q;) in is the most important con- stituent and forms 50 - 63 - 65% of the barley. Starch is formed in the slowly ripening barley grain by assimilation and subsequent condensa- tion of glucose (C,Hj:O,) to form an energy reserve which is metabolised by the seedling in its initial growth phase until its own energy pro- duction is switched on, after chlorophyll has been synthesised, and the commencement of assimilation is ensured. The starch is deposited in starch granules in the endosperm cells. The starch granules (amyloplasts) contain up to 5% lipids and 0.5% protein substances and consist of two different structures: - Amylose and = Amylopectin. 37Amylopectin Amylose as internal mate~ rial (up to about 20 - 25%); solu- luble in water, ble in hot water, forms a paste at no paste forma- high temperatures | tion as covering mate- rial (up to about 75 - 80%);'inso- Amylose and amylopectin are built of glucose residues. They have, however, very different struc- tures and consequently differ in the ease with which they are broken down during malting and mashing: Amylose Amylose consists of 200 10 400 a-glucose unis linked in an unbranched helical chain by oxygen bridges at the 1,4-positions (Fig. 1.4 and 14a), Amylopectin Amylopectin consists predominantly of a- glucose units linked at their 1,4-positions by oxygen bridges. However, there are also 1,6- linkages I ghice rt Fig. 1.4 Structure of amylose 38 Fig, 14a Helical chains of amylose 1.1.4.1.2 Sugar At L8 to 2.0% the sugar content of barley is very small. Sugars are transportable metabolic products which can be used by the seedling. Be- ccause the com is in a resting state at harvest only small amounts of catabolic products are present, mainly sucrose and some glucose and fructose. Fig. 1.5 Structure of amylopectin 1.1.4.1.3 Cellulose The 5 10 6% cellulose is located exclusively in the husk and acts as a structural substance. Cellulose consists of long, unbranched chains of 14-linked B-glucose residues. However, cellulo- s¢ is insoluble and cannot be broken down by the malt enzymes, Cellulose therefore has no effect on the quality of the beer. ‘The repeatedly mentioned 1,4-bonds (also 1,6 or 1,3) refer to the bonding of C-atoms between the glucose molecules. The C-atoms in the illus- trated structural formulae are numbered. In reali- ty, however, the structures are spatially arranged and the bonds are arranged differently at natural- ly determined angles.The labelling a refers to the position of the H and the labelling Bi refers to the position of the OH-group on the C1-atom. of and fb bonds beha- ve totally differently (amylose - ¢-bond; cellulo- se - B-bond). L144 Hemicellulose Hemicelluloses are the main constituents of the endosperm cell walls. They consist of B-glu- cans and pentosans, which together form the rigid framework of the endosperm cell walls, Beglucans and pentosans have different structures and very different effects on beer production and quality, and so they will be considered separate- ly in the following, Hemicelluloses consist of 80 to 90%, 10 to 20%, Breluean and pentosan » B-Glucan Beglucans consist of long chains of glucose molecules bound together by 1,3-, and more offen, 1,4-bonds. The glucan is contained at 4 to 7% in the barley and in the cell walls of the endosperm tightly linked with higher molecular protein substances and pentosans (see Fig. 1.3 b). When B-glucan goes into solution, the molecules yon anon on a AN, vi cH ony AA Vir api _ Cap: on f re become associated with one another as the result of the formation of hydrogen bonds and form so- called fringed micelles [216] (Fig. 1.5a). The breakdown of B-glucan acquires great importan- ce during the malting process. An inadequate breakdown of B-glucan can have an adverse effect on the finished beer. > Pentosans Pentosans consist of the pentoses xylose and arabinose. In essence pentosans consist of long chains of 1,4-D-xylose residues to which arabino- se residues are linked in some places. The pento- sans surround the B-glicans of the starch cell walls, They have therefore first to be broken down during germination. Their effect on the pro- duction and the quality of beer is unimportant and in no way comparable to that of the [glucans Fig. 1. Associations of B-glucan molecules (fringed micelles) a: H.OH Ce Goc aN YY Sa An, Vi oe" : A) Ni i gh NN on HoH 39Pentosan HOH 1.1.4.2 Nitrogen Compounds The nitrogen content of barley can vary from 8 to 11 to 16%. About 30% of the proteins are sto- red as transport proteins (see Fig. 1.23 b) in the cell walls of the endosperm (see sect. 1.1.3.2) and regulate the mass transfer. Only about a third of this protein passes into the finished beer. Although the amount of protein in beer is relati- vely small, it can have an important effect on its quality. Thus proteins make a considerable con- tribution to the head retention but can on the other hand have an important influence on the occur- rence of hazes in beer. In any case, the potential extract obtainable from malt decreases to almost the same extent (0.7 to 1.0%) as the protein con- tent of the barley increases. The normal commer cial requirement is therefore a maximum of 1.5% protein in the dry matter. The molecules which make up protein substances are amino acids. The protein substances are made up of 20 different amino acids, which are arranged in an exact sequence by the organism, This enables a vast variety of possibilities, Because of their involvement in the beer pro- duction process, nitrogenous substances in barley are divided into two main groups: proteins and their breakdown products. J14.2.1 Proteins Proteins are the very high and high molecular weight nitrogen compounds with a relative mole~ cular mass of up to several million which are in- soluble in aqueous solution or precipitate on boi- ling. The molecular size is usually expressed in 40 kDa (kilo Dalton), whereby 1 Dalton represents the mass of a proton; as a result the molecular mass and Dalton both receive the same value (mol, mass 10,000 = 10 kDa). Since wort is boiled in the brewhouse (see Sect. 3.4), intaet proteins do not pass into the finished beer. Most of the nitrogenous material in barley consists of protein (92%), Proteins are classified according to Osbourne into various groups depen- ding on their solubility in aqueous solutions. Barley contains proteins of the following groups: > Glutelin About 30% of barley protein is glutelin which dissolves only in dilute alkali, This protein is lo- calised almost entirely in the aleurone layer, is not broken down later on, and passes unchanged into the spent grains, » Prolamin The prolamin in barley is called hordein and it constitutes about 37% of the barley protein. It dissolves in 80% alcohol and part of it passes into the spent grains. » Globulin The globulin fraction of barley is called edestin, It dissolves in dilute salt solution and also in the mash. It forms about 15% of the bar- ley protein. Edestin consists of 4 components (0, B, 7, 8) of which the sulphur containing B-globu- lin does not completely precipitate even on pro- longed boiling and can give rise to haze in beer. > Albumin The albumin of barley is called lencosin. It dis- solves in pure water and constitutes about 11% of the protein in barley. On boiling it is completely precipitated.As well as these proteins, proteids such as the elyeoproteids also occur in barley, which produ- cea linkage of proteins with a carbohydrate, for example, glucose, mannose or galactose The amount of protein decreases during mal- ting and brewing because they are partially decomposed enzymically to breakdown products. 1.1.4.2.2 Protein breakdown products Protein breakdown products are characterised by always being soluble in water and do not pre- cipitate on boiling. Finished beer contains al- most exclusively protein breakdown products. Protein breakdown (or constituent) products form the smallest fraction of the barley nitroge- nous compounds (about 8%). The proportion increases during malting and brewing, Protein breakdown products can be classified as: High molecular weight breakdown products consisting of the proteoses, complex degradation products of proteins, which are named according to the proteins from which they originate (alb- umoses, globuloses) and complex peptones, The high molecular weight breakdown pro- ducts improve the head retention of the beer but are also involved in beer haze. Low molecular weight degradation products consisting of the molecules making up the pro- teins, the amino acids, and the peptides formed from them by polymer formation, With the splitting out of water, two amino acids form a dipeptide. The-CO-NH-bond is cal- led a peptide bond. It is the bond which charact- erises the linkage of amino acids in all proteins (see Fig. below) Oligopeptide R HO RH | i | C. NHC. CNH \wia Ne S07 SH 0% Ser i 1 il HO RB H OO R Oligopeptides are peptides containing 3 to 9 amino acids; polypeptides are compounds con- taining 10 to 100 amino acids: The lower breakdown produets are absolutely essential nutrients for yeast cells, Each protein is characterised - by the number of amino acids it contains - by its sequence of amino acids linkages - by the three-dimensional arrangement of the amino acids in the molecule. The arrangement of the amino acid molecules is categorised thus: © Primary structure, which is the sequenced arrangement of the amino acids in the molecu- le as a whole, '® Secondary structure similar to how the gluco- se residues coil in the amylose molecule (see Fig. 14 a), so the amino acid residues in pro- tein coil in the secondary structure, ble to a telephone cord, © Tertiary structure; just as it is possible to squeeze a coiled telephone cord into a ball, the secondary structure is pressed into a ball with a defined sequence, thereby forming loose bonds between certain groups which determine the tertiary structure, This structure is held together in a set structure by hydrogen- and disulphide links. The stability of the structure depends on the temperature and the pH value and determines the solubility, the denaturation and finally the precipitation of proteins under certain conditions. © Enzymes are mainly proteins with such a terti- ary structure and have a pocket, gap or furrow, specifie for the enzyme, in which the substrate fits exactly (lock and key action). The tertiary structure of the protein enables the optimal tem- perature and optimal pH value of the enzyme ‘The amino acids are the most important source of nutrition for the yeast in the production of new cell substances. Because of their structural size, the yeast can only absorb amino acids directly ot extract the amino groups. If several amino acids compara- alare linked, only one final NH, group is left over, all the others are NH groups which are unavaila- ble to the yeast. The NH, content which is very important for the nutrition of the yeast is known as *® free o-amino nitrogen (FAN) or © g-amino nitrogen. Higher molecular weight proteins play a con- siderable role in head retention. As well as hor- dein- and glutelin fragments being important in this process, the protein known as Protein Z is of particular significance with 40 kDa, as is the dd transfer protein (LTP1), a large 10 kDa pro- tein, Both of these undergo several changes du- ring the malting process, 1.1.4.3. Fats (Lipids) Barley contains about 2% fat. This barley fat is deposited mainly in the aleurone layer and in the seedling. There is nine times as much fat in the aleurone and husk as in the seedling. The fat (lipids) consists mainly of fatty acids. Fatty acids are hydrocarbon bonds resulting in COO-H" groups by which the (weak) acids are determined These are categorised as follows: ~ Short chain fatty acids - these include, for example, acetic acid CH;COOH = Medium chain fatty acids with 5 - 14 C atoms ~ Long chain fatty acids with 6 - 18 C atoms. In the course of the following procedural steps, we will continually come across these fatty a whereby the unsaturated fatty acids have taken on particular importance. Unsaturated fatty acids are those where there are one or more double bonds between two specific carbon atoms (Fig. 1.5b). Unsaturated fatty acids are not only important for our nutrition, especially as some cannot be synthesised by the human organism (essential fatty acids), they also play an important role in the production of beet. Thus unsaturated fatty acids are necessary for the structure of the yeast cell wall (see sect. 1.4.1); their derivatives are also responsible for ageing processes in beer taste after filling, During the further technological processes, therefore, changes in the amount of unsaturated fatty acids and their derivatives will be monitored, | Anzai der Doppelbindungen ——" Postion der Doppeindungen ‘Amelseneiure 1:0 9 vpn EssigaBure 20 Sy _|nicttenttatien Fig. 1.5 Proplonssue 0 ‘ ; Siar ars a Overview of the most Valeriansaure 50 aw important fatty acids. Capronsaure =O OLS HOH CH, cH, Ch, jebure 0 Gaprredure 10:0 Circle: the COOH Couinedure 12.0 ae Myisinsaure 140 |Paimitinsaure 16:0 |Stoarinsdure 48:0 Bend: a CH, or in the Pee aouianants 3 cooled case of tnsaturated fatty 18:3;9,12,15 acids, a CH-group and 20:0 20455, 811,14 end of the chain: CHy-group.Unsaturated fatty acids are very reactive. Reac tions can occur through the enzyme lipoxygenase or through the non-enzymatic process of auto-oxi- ation, Medium chain fatty acids oceur mainly du- ring primary fermentation and are increasingly excreted by the yeast as the beer matures. They have a particularly adverse effect on head retention. Lipids are the ester from fatty acids with gly- cerol, Esters are bonds of acids with an alcohol. Glycerol isa trivalent propyl alcohol (propanol). The fatty acids react with the glycerol when wa- ter is removed in the following ways: Fatty acid residue - COO — —-¢-ny Fatty acid residue - COO — / 4 -H Fatty acid residue - COO — -¢-H, A lipid (fat, oil) is formed. If the beer goes rancid, the contents separate when water is added. L144 Inorganic material Barley contains between 2 and 3% mineral ma- terial, most of which is present in inorganic com- pounds. Important inorganic compounds include: phosphates, about 35% (expressed as phosphorous [V]- oxide P,0;), silicates, about 25% (expressed as silicon dioxide SiO,), potassium salts, about 20% (expressed as potassium oxide KO). Phosphates not only constitute the main com- ponent of the inorganic material and their bonds, but are also important because they occur in the structures of the most important inorganic com- pounds in the barley coms (e.g. in phytin, in nu- leic acids, in coenzymes, in proteins ete,). Phos- phate is released from these compounds in reac- tions occurring in the maltings and in the bre- wery. For many processes the presence of phosphate is extremely important. For instance, it is com- pletely impossible for alcoholic fermentation to take place without phosphate because phosphate groups are chemically involved in many of the reactions which occur during fermentation. Silicates occur particularly abundantly in the husk but are also present in starch. They are solu- ble as colloids and can be detected in every beer haze. A number of salts are important in beer pro- duction because they provide trace elements, for example, zinc salts are necessary for fermenta- tion, Most of the salts originate from the barley. A 12% beer brewed with an average amount of water contains about 1600 mg of inorganic mate- rial, including oxides, per litre. Of this about 400 mg is derived from the brewing water and about 1200 mg from the malt (but all the carbonates originate from the water). 1.1.4.5 Other substances Barley also contains a number of other sub- stances which, although only present in small amounts, affect beer quality and beer production ‘These include polyphenolic and bitter substances, vitamins and enzymes. 1.1.4,5.1 Polyphenols or tannins Polyphenols are deposited in the husk and also in the aleurone layer of barley. When present in large amounts they make their presence felt by unpleasant harsh and bitter tastes. Their concen- tration in general increases with the thickness of the husk, therefore, importance is put on barley with thin, finely wrinkled husks or an effort made, in the case of thick husked barley, to remove a substantial amount of this material in the maltings. hhe same applies to bitter resins in the barley. In the case of polyphenols, it is anthocyanins and their preliminary stages which are a particular pro- blem, Anthocyanins are extremely bitter artificial aromas and colourings which are present in many types of fruit and can change their colour depen- ding on their acidity (pH value), In beer these can form bonds with protein substances with a high molecular weight and cause haze through precipi- 43tation, which can adversely effect the beer or ren- der it completely undrinkable. To avoid such haze, these polyphenols have to be removed before filling 1.1.4.5.2 Vitamins Vitamins are mutritional components. They ean be produced only by plants and not by human metabolism. They are, however, essential for pro- per functioning of many metabolic processes in the human body. Consequently adequate amounts of them must be consumed. Vitamin deficienci can lead to illnesses Barley contains, essentially, the following vitamins © vitamin B, (thiamine) - deposited mainly in the outer parts of the grain, # vitamin B; (riboflavin), @ vitamin C (ascorbic acid) ~ present in small amounts, © vitamin E (tocopherol) in the fat of the seedling. Vitamins have complicated structures. During storage and processing they are increasingly damaged. 1.1.4.5.3 Barley enzymes All living organisms contain enzymes. Both barley and yeast contain a very wide range of enzymes, The numerous transformations occur- ring during brewing and malting depend almost exclusively on the action of enzymes. It is there- fore essential at this stage to discuss enzymes, their structures and how they work. Emymes are high molecular weight proteins which, as biocatalysts, either enable specific reactions to occur or considerably accelerate them. They are active even in very low con- centrations and determine the action and rate of biochemical reactions. The name of an enzyme is usually formed from the name of the substrate to be broken down with the addition of the final syllablease. Thus 44 the enzyme which degrades sucrose is called sucrase. Barley itself contains a number of enzymes, but most of them are present only in small amounts, Most of the enzyme content of malt is produced during malting, © Enzyme structure Enzymes are built from amino acids linked together by peptide bonds ~ CO-NH — The peptide chains are not arranged in one plane in the enzyme but have a spiral structure (helical structure) formed as a result of various types of bridges inside the molecule. These spirals are then further diversely folded and convoluted by ‘other types of bonds. The helical, folded and ‘convoluted structure is pre-programmed exact- ly by the organism forming it and is essential for the action mechanism of the enzyme. In all known cases, enzymes consist of intri- cately folded proteins having a pocket, gap or furrow, specific for the enzyme, in which the ‘substrate fits exactly (lock and key action). J + rf We ig : 7 2 a) o) a ¢) Fig. 1.6 Action mechanism of an enzyme (the example illustrated represents B-amylase) (1) enzyme pocket, (2) active centre, (3) substra- te, (4) product 4a) insertion of the substrate, b) binding to the active centre, ©) amino acids return to their original positions, ) product moves away from the enzyme pocket¢¢ Action mechanism of an enzyme The pocket, gap or furrow, specific for the enzy- me (Fig. |.6), which is formed within the convolt- ted molecule, contains the active centre (2) of the enzyme, consisting of specifically arranged amino acids and other groups involved in the reaction. The active centre exerts an attractive foree on the substrate (a). When the substrate is positioned in the enzyme pocket, the amino acids and other a ve groups of the enzyme bind to the substrate, The bonds are electrostatic or chemical in nature. As a result the spatial organisation of the amino acids is changed. The substrate finds itself in a kind of trap (b) [19, 20]. When the bond in the substrate has been split (c), the amino acids of the active centre spring back into their original position, the product diffuses away from the enzyme (d) and the enzyme is ready for the next bond splitting process (a). Because of the particular structure of the pocket and the amangement of the active centre, each enzyme can only react with a quite specific sub- strate. This gives rise to the high specificity of every enzyme. The action mechanism of an enzy- ‘me can consequently be represented by the cataly- tie reaction cyele shown in Fig. 1.7. Inthe case of many enzymes a prosthetic group (coenzyme) is involved in the catalytic action Meials which are ambivalent, for example, iron, ‘magnesium or calcium, are also often involved in the action of many enzymes, These metal ions are bound in the enzyme. Fig. 1.7 Catalytic reaction cycle of am enzyme ® Reaction acceleration by enzymes For many reactions to occur, especially in the degradation of energy-rich compounds, an ener- gy barrier must be overcome before the energy can be released. When, for example, energy-rich cellulose (wood) is oxidised (burnt) to form energy-poor water and carbon dioxide, energy (heat) is relea- sed. However, this heat-producing (exothermic) process does not occur spontaneously but needs an endothermic initiation in which, as a result of supplying heat (lighting the fire), the energy bar- rier is overcome. This is very important for eve- rything which happens in nature. If no energy barriers were present, then very soon everything would be in a state of equilibrium. There would no longer be any energy differences and life would no longer be possible Energicintervall Fig. 18 Lowe ing of the activation energy by an enzyme (catalytic action) Ifa substrate having a particular energy con- tent (Fig. 1.8) is to be transformed from the more energy-rich state (A) to the less energy-rich state (©), it must first be brought into the activated state (B) by the supply of energy. The energy required for this is known as the activation ener- gy (E). Only after overcoming this energy barrier can the energy state (C) be reached [21] } In the presence of an enzyme (catalyst) the activation energy is decreased. This means that the energy barrier is considerab- ly lower (BI) and consequently substantially less 45activation energy (El) is required. This is vespon- sible for the much greater reaction velocity of en- zyme-catalysed breakdown (catabolic) processes. In resting barley only a few enzymes are pre- sent and these are mostly bound in an insoluble form, Most of the enzymes are formed or relea- sed during germination of the barley. These enzymes are necessary to transform the insoluble substances stored in the endosperm into a soluble form so that they can be supplied to the seedling for the synthesis of new cell mate~ rial or as a source of energy. This formation of enzymes during germination is one of the main requirements of malting be- cause these enzymes are absolutely essential sub- sequently for the breakdown processes which oceur during mashing in the brewhouse. 115 Barley evaluation The quality of the barley offered for purchase or delivered has a decisive effect on the quality of the malt and the beer produced from it, Barley evaluation therefore very important for a maltster. Barley is evaluated ‘© by assessment by hand ‘« by physical and chemical examinations, Assessment is made at the time the barley is offered for sale and by sampling at certain posi- tions in the load being delivered (check that the results agree). The larger the barley delivery, the larger the vari- ations in the composition of the load delivered may be, To obtain a correct picture of the average com- position it is necessary to take as many samples as possible at different points and to mix them. 1.1.5.1 Hand evaluation Barleys for malting are selected mainly on the basis of the variety and the growth site. In addi- tion to the rapid methods commonly used today when barley is delivered, hand assessment, i.e. evaluation of the barley from its external appea- rance, is important. Features examined are: 46 © Smell It should smell clean, fresh and straw-like. Earthy, musty, mouldy smells indicate a barley which has undergone damp, inappropriate stora~ ge. Reduced germinative capacity and processing difficulties are then to be expected. © Dampness ‘The barley should feel dry and flow easily. IF grains stick to the hand, this indicates a high moisture c © Colour and brightness The barley should have a light yellow straw colour and a bright, uniform appearance. Greenish corns indicate too early harvesting. Barleys which have suffered rain damage appear grey and dull, Brown tips may be a varietal characteristic, but in most cases are caused by wet harvesting and this leads to water-sensitive coms. © Red corn Red coms (red coloured endosperms) indicate a massive infestation of fusarium, In the case of this malt, there is a great danger of the formation of gushing in the beer. Barley with red corns is not suitable for malting, ‘© Husk properties The husk should be finely wrinkled - this shows a thin husk, Fine wrinkling indicates a good, extract- rich barley. Insutficiently ripened coms often have a thick or smooth husk. Thick husks contain more polyphenols and bitter substances. In some years cracking of the barley grains occurs during the maturation phase. This is caused by alternating warmth (sunshine) and rain in the grain filling and ripening time. This effect is either strengthened or weakened by genetic varietal properties and the influence of mould which delays ripening [192] This can have different effects [191]: ‘© Cracking of the husk: this is when the back and front sides of the husk are not completely closed. The peel underneath, however, is not damaged Cracking of the grain: this is when there are cracks in the husk and the layers found beneath, sometimes even into the endosperm. Cracking of the husk makes the production of good quality barley infinitely more difficult. ntent,‘Sprouting occurs when in extremely damp conditions, the barley starts germinating and shoots are visible, The barley can then no longer be used for malt production. Under normal con- ditions, a natural dormant period prevents the arain from growing. This is known as concealed sprouting. The safest method for checking for concealed sprouting is to determine the ester activity using the fluorescindibutyrat_ method. The esterases are enzymes which degrade the ester bonds in the lipids (fats), The commence- ment of the ester activity is a sure sign that the germination process has begun. Premalting is an imprecise term which basical- ly covers all the aforementioned terms. ‘¢ Amount of impurities (purity) ‘There should be no foreign bodies such as wed seeds, sand, stones, string, straw, cars, awns, metal objects, half-corns, ergot or foreign cereals. ‘# Damaged coms (not intact) Damaged corns cause technological and bio- logical problems during processing and must be removed. Damage is caused mainly during threshing and by animals (including insects). ‘© Com shape and size The coms should be large, well-filled and rounded, Such barley corms usually produce more extract and contain less protein than thin long coms. However, the com shape depends pri- marily on the variety. © Uniformity A uniform barley with a high proportion of wellfilled coms is desirable, ‘© Appearance of the seedling (sprouting) With very wet harvests the barley batch may: contain already germinated coms, Such batches are unusable for malt production because the barley does not then germinate uniformly. ‘e Presence of pests The most common grain pest is the grain weevil Comms which have been attacked by a grain weevil clearly show the holes eaten away and float on the ‘op during steeping, Such damaged barley cannot be used to make malt, 1.1.5.2: Physical and chemical examina- tions 1. 1 Grading Grading by size is the most important physical examination of barley and can be performed quickly and easily. The barley is sorted by 2.8 mm, 2.5 mm and 2.2 mm vibrating sieves into four components, Everything which remains on sieve 1 (2.8 mm) and sieve 2 (2.5 mm) is Grade I (well-fil- led barley). Everything which passes through sieves I and I but is retained on sieve IIL is Grade IL Everything which passes through sieve UII is soreenings and is sold feed barley. Because 100 g of barley is always examined, the weight in g = the percentage. For example: Sieve I 42.5 ¢ Grade | Sieve I 46.02 88.5% (welbfilled fraction) Sieve II] 105g 10.5% Grade Il Base log 1.0% Screenings 100.02 =T000% Normal values for the well-filled fraction Malting barley (average properties) min. 85% Fine malting barley min. 90% Premium quality barley min, 95% Normal values for screenings | bark 1.1.5.2.2 Thousand corn mass Because the thousand corn mass (still someti- mes known as thousand corn weight) increases With increasing water content, it is calculated on a dry weight basis. The thousand corn mass can be related to the classification results and the extract yield from the barley, With an increasing 47thousand corn mass the Grade | percentage and with it the extract content of the barley can incre- ase, The thousand com mass is determined with a counting device and a balance. Broken and foreign corns must be removed previously and their weight subtracted. The calculation is done using the equations 1000 corn mass, air dry (g) = Corrected corn mass x 1000 number of whole corns 1000 corn mass, dry weight (g 1000 corm mass (air dry) x (100 - W) 100 W = % water content of the barley. » Example: A 40 g sample contains 1.6 g broken and foreign coms and 1048 barley corns. The water content of the barley is 11.5%. 1048 coms weigh 40.0 - 1.6 g=38.4 g 1000 corn mass, air d 384-1000 _ 1048 1000 com mass, dry weight = 36.6-(100- 11.5) = 3249 100 ‘The thousand corm mass of the barley is 32.4 g. 36.6 8 Normal values for thousand corn mass air dry barley 37 to 40 g light barley 41 to 44 g average barley above 45 g heavy barley water-free barley normal value 38 to 40g limit values 30 t0 45 g 1.1.5.2.3 Hectolitre mass The hectolitre mass (still sometimes known as hectolitre weight) is the mass of a 100 litres of barley. In general a brewing barley has a hecioli- tre mass between 68 and 75 kg. 48 The predictive value of the hectolitre mass depends, however, on so many factors that it is hardly ever measured nowadays, 1.1.5.2.4 Hardness (endosperm property) Determination of the hardness of barley can allow useful conclusions to be made about the ease of processing to be expected in the maltings and the quality of the malt which will be produ- ced. The hardness of the endosperm is examined by cutting sample corns with a farinator, or a transverse or longitudinal cutter. A good barley for brewing should contain not less than 80% floury (mealy) corns, The glassi- ness of the other corns may be temporary or per- manent, To distinguish between these, the corns must be steeped for 24 hours, dried and cut again. Permanent glassiness produces malt with unfa- vourable processing features. 1.1.5.2.5 Chemical property examinations The water content and protein content of every batch of barley is measured. Other examinations are made as required. > Water content The water content is determined using the standard drying procedure in which ground bar- ley is dried at an exactly defined temperature for a predetermined time. There are also rapid mea- surement instruments which also allow determi- nations to be made before acceptance of a barley delivery. > Protein content ‘The protein content of barley has an important role in malt and beer production. Protein-rich barleys are more difficult to process and produce a higher malting loss. Every percent of additional protein results in approximately one percent less extract, The protein content therefore is a parti~ cularly important item in the barley supply con- tract, If the agreed protein content is exceeded, a deduction corresponding to the percentage is made.‘The protein content is determined in the labora- tory using the Kjeldahl method or a rapid method. 1.1.5.3 Physiological examinations 1.1.8.3.1 Germinative capacity The germinative eapacity is the percentage of all living coms in the sample, whether their dorm- aney (see sect, 2.2.5) has been overcome or not. At least 96% of the corns should be able to germinate. 1.1.5.3.2 Germinative energy ‘The germinative energy is the percentage of corns which, at the time of the test, germinate under normal malting conditions. ‘The germi- native energy test shows whether the corns have started to germinate after 3 and 5 days, A high germinative energy indicates a healthy barley condition and that malting will be suc- cessful, After 5 days the germinative energy should average brewing barley at least 95 % pr good brewing barley at Least 98 % ‘outstanding barley at Icast 98 % erminative energy after 3 days should close as possible to that after 5 days. In addition to the determination of the germi- native energy, a rapid determination of germina- tion potential can also be made using the TTC (tetrazoliun-tetrachloride) method, which is pa ticularly suitable for determining the germinative capacity within the first six weeks after harvest, I. 3.3 Water sensitivity Barleys differ in their sensitivity to water uptake. This must be born in mind during stee- ping in the maltings. As the water sensitivity increases, the water steep time must be reduced Water sensitivity is determined by the differen- ce in germinative energy with different amounts of water (4 ml test result minus the 8 ml test result) Barleys with a water sensitivity of up to 10% are not very water sensitive, from 11 to 25%, they are slightly water sen- sitive, from 26 to 45% rather water sensitive and above 45%, they are very water sensitive. 1.15.34 Water uptake capacity (swelling ability) ‘The more enzymically active a barley is, the greater its water uptake capacity and the higher the value of the barley for brewing malt. The test should show whether the barley is able to acl ve as high a water uptake as possible within a ‘minimum steeping time. Assessment of the water uptake capacity (swelling ability) after 72 hours steeping: below 45.0 % insufficient 45.7 047.5% satisfactory 47.6 to 50.0% good above 50% very good. 1.2. Hops The hop (Humulus lupulus L.) is @ perennial, ivecious climbing plant of the hemp family and belongs to the order (Urticales) which also inelu- des the nettle family. In the brewery it is the inflorescences of the female plant which are sed. These contain bitter resins and ethereal oils which supply bittering and aroma components to the beer, As far as brewing is concerned, hops are the Gried hop cones of the female hop plant and pro duets made from them which contain only com- ponents from hops. Hops are grown in special growing regions where the necessary growth conditions exist, 49After the harvesting of the hops, they are dried and processed to avoid a reduction in their val The structire of the hop cone and its compo: tion provide important information for the evalr- ation of hops. 1.2.1 Growing regions By far the largest hop growing countries are Germany and the USA, followed by the Czech Republic and more recently, China. In the past few years, hops have been grown and harvested in the following arcas [217]: Country Growing area Harvest int in ha 200119952001 Germany 19023 3412131739 England 1865 4078-2563 Spain 71617241392 France 81611081212 Belgium 249 603 416 Austria 215 335 337 Portugal 38. 128 32 3 10 2 Europ. Union Total 2292542109 37715 Czech Republic 6088 99106637 Ukraine 1400" 25651100" Russia 1100-2500" 460 Poland 2250 3264 = 2200 Slovenia 1807 3967-2149 Rumania 100° 1839 50° Slovakia 350 1035 300 Yugoslavia 448 808 730 Bulgaria 320 360 295 Turkey 356 300 166 Switzerland 24 50 52 Hun; 34. 37 EY Total 14277-26634 14193 Europe Total 37202 68743-51908 USA 14505-35768 30259 Argentina 120. 375 128 America Total 14625 36143 387 50 Country Growing area Harvest in t inha 2001 1995 2001 South Africa 500 1209 766 Africa Total 500 1209 766 China 5000 16005" 12500 Japan 314 956 643 India 50, o4 2 South Korea 1 9 0 Asia Total 536517064 13186 Australia 862 2558 2181 New Zealand 392 756 Us Australia Total 1254 3315 2896 World Total 58946126474 The worldwide hop growing regions have con- tinued to decrease since 1994 from 86,786 ha to 58,946 ha (2001). This represents a 32% reduction in the hop growing regions in seven years, Altogether there is a hop requirement of appro- ximately 125,000 1, which is not always covered by the fluctuating annual harvest (Fig. 1.9). On the other hand, the global reserves of hops covers a whole year's requirement, Apart from the re- gions where beer consumption is increasing stron- gly, the hop requirement is decreasing for the fol- lowing reasons: a stagnating and at times decreasing beer con- sumption > 2 general decrease in beer bitterness > the increased use of high-c1-varieties (more bitter), Germany By far the largest hop growing region in Germany is the Hallertau (Bavarian: Holledau) (Fig. 1.10), Between Augsburg and Regensburg with its centre around Mainburg, the largest amount of German hops are harvested on a total surface area of 15510 hha (in 1997 this was still 17440 ha), ‘The Termang growing region extends, with a total growing area of 1547 ha, northwards from Lake Constance (in 1997 there were still 106 ha)fafa 1991 1992 1993 1984 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 | Fig. 1.9 Global hop harvest In the Elbe-Saale region, 47 hop producers (1996) grow a total of 1395 ha (in 1997, this was. still 1526 ha). The Elbe-Saale region is not a sin- gle region but is spread through the federal states of Saxony, Thuringia and the southern part of Saxony Anhalt. The Spalt growing region, with a hop growing area of 455 ha (in 1997, this was still 627 ha), is located to the south west of Nuremberg. Hershruck, situated to the north east of Nuremberg. is on the edge of the Frankish Alps. With a growing area of 98 ha (still 106 ha in 1997), the Hersbruck region is one of the smal- lest hop growing regions in Germany. With three growers and a growing area of just 16 ha, the Baden/Bitburg/Rheinpfalz region is the smallest in Germany. Fig. 1.10 Hop growing regions in Germany (1) Hallertau 2) Tetmang (3) Spalt (4) Hersbruck (3) Elbe-Saale region (6) Baden/Bithurg/Rheinpfalz SIAbout a third of the global hop harvest consists of so-called aroma hops. For the past few deca- des, however, an increasing amount of bittering hops and high alpha hops have been grown, which produce a stronger bittemess with less tending. These bitter hops make up over 40% of the glo- bal harvest, whereby the USA and Germany above all, contribute to 70% of this figure, In Germany the aroma varieties dominate, but there is a definite shift towards the high alpha varieties. The following are figures for hops har- vested in tons: 1996 2001 ‘Aroma hops 24316 16829 Bitter hops 8735 2886 High alpha hops 630011912 Germany Total 3951131739 For differentiation on varieties, see sect. 1.2.6 usd In the USA the largest amount of hops are har- vested in Washington State (2001: 22977 1), fol- lowed by Oregon (5191 t) and Idaho (2091 t) The following were grown and harvested: 1997 __ 2001 Aroma hops 7741 6052 Bitter hops 5030 639 High alpha hops 19550 22096 Others 1684 1472 Total 34006 30259 ‘The aroma varieties are dominated by the Willamette variety, followed by Cascade and Mt. Hood. The bitter and high alpha varieties consist mainly of Galena, Nugget, Columbus and Zeus. The Czech Republic The main hop growing area is the Saaz region with 3494 ha (2001), followed by the smaller regions of Auscha (773 ha) and Tirschitz (597 ha). Only aroma varieties are grown, The Saazer s with an average o-acid content of 4.0% is, still viewed as one of the best aroma hops. 52. England In England hops are grown on 1865 ha (2001; in 1997 the figure was still 3067 ha) in the coun- ties of Kent and Herefordshire, The main varie- ties are the high alpha variety Target and the aroma varieties Goldings and Challenger. China Beer production in China has increased strongly and hop production has been inereased correspon- ingly. In 2001, on a growing surface of $000 ha (in 1996 this was only 4400 ha), about 13000 t of hops were harvested in China. Hops were grown, above all, in the following provinces: Xinjiang 2500 ha 7500 t Gansu 1700 ha 4000 Ningxia 150 ha 400 The bittering varieties Tsingdao Flower 641 and Toyomidori are the varieties which are main- ly grown, 1.2.2. Harvesting, drying and stabili sing hops After harvest the hops must be dried and con- verted to a storable form. 1.2.2.1 Harvesting Hop picking occurs at the time of technologi- cal ripeness at the end of August and should be completed within 14 days. Harvesting consists of unfastening the hop bines from the support wires and picking the cones (female inflorescences) with a short stalk. Nowadays hops are harvested entirely by hop picking machines. 1.2.2.2 Drying ‘The picked hop contains 75 to 80% water. In this form they cannot be stored, therefore the hops must be dried immediately. Drying is per formed on belt dryers, or in small firms, in bat- ches in kilns, The hops are carefully dried at a maximum temperature of 30° C to a water con-tent of 8 to 12%. The hops are then compressed, ic, pressed into loose bales (pockets) or larger units, Even in this form, the hops cannot be sto- red fora Jong time without a reduction in quality. Asa result of «the action of oxygen, «the effect of moisture and ‘heating, the bittering value soon decreases and other adverse effects occur, The hops must therefore be made stable. 1.2.23 Stabilising the hops Most of the harvested hops are processed into extract and pellets, with only a small amount added as natural hops. In all eases, time passes between harvesting and processing. in which the hops have to be protected from further spoilage Todo this, the dried hops are pressed by means of hydraulic presses into ballots of about 1.1 m in length and 0.6 m in diameter, then covered by, and sewn into, a sack, The resulting ballot weighs about 65 kg. As a result of the compression, the amount of air accessing the hops is reduced and thus the moisture absorption made more difficult Toachieve optimal use of the storage capacity, the storage of the ballots has, for some time, been changed to an easily stackable, right angled form (60 x 60 x 120 em) and this has replaced the loose bales. The right angled bales have provided the basis for cold storage, which is effective, as well as maintaining the value and quality of the hops. 1.2.3 Hop cone structure Although the hop is dioecious (there are sepa- rate male and female plants), only the female plants are cultivated by hop growers. From their second year onwards, these plants bear inflores- cences which, because of their shape, are called hop cones, It is important to understand the struc- ture of the hop cone (Fig. 1.11) in order to know where the important components are located. Fig. 1.11 Hop cone (1) stalk, (2) central axis, (3) flowers, (4) bracts, (5) lupulin gland. Partofthe cone Properties Stem (1) should be short Sprig (2) zig-zag shaped central axis Floret 3) at each bend, there are very inconspicuous florets with large covering bracts (leaves). ‘When the hop is fertilised.seeds are formed in the flowers. The cones of fertilised hops open out more: Bmets(4) egg-shaped, yellowish-green leaves, more yellow at the base than at the tip. The bracts are arranged to form a cone. Lupulin (5)__yellow, sticky powder on the bracteoles which are located between the sprig and the bracts. It occurs in beaker-like glands into which the resins and etherealoils are secreted. The gland is covered by a membrane to prevent the contents escaping. When disturbed tgland is broken off. The lupulin glands contain all thecomponents which, except for the polyphenols, areuseful in beer production. 531.2.4 Composition and properties of the components ‘The composition of the hops is extremely important for the quality of the beer produced from them, The composition of the hop dry weight is Bitter substances 18.5% Hop 0.5% Polyphenols 3.5% Protein 20.0% Minerals 8.0% The rest consists of cellulose and other materi- als and other materials unimportant for beer pro- duction, The most important components for the production of beer are the bitter substances and the hop oil. 1.2.4.1 Bitter substances or hop resins Already in the early stage of development, the hop plant produces an only slightly bitter B-acid, which is secreted by the developing lupulin gland. In the course of the maturing process, a part of these B-acids is converted into the considerably more bitter ceacids. This conversion, which only applies to a part of the B-acids, is very dependent on the weather conditions, Hot and dry maturation, periods, for example, impede this conversion pro- cess more than cool, damp summers. The c-acids or humulones are the most impor- tant bonds for the bittering of the beer. However, these bonds are not uniform. One of the bonds, the cohumulone, has a more negative role in beer bittering, Owing to the fact that the amount of the Gi-acids formed and their composition are varie~ tal features, hop growers today attempt to culti- vate mainly varieties with a low proportion of cohumulone. The proportion aimed at is less than 20 to 25% of cohumulone in the cacid content, The a-acid content makes up an average 4 to 5% in the case of aroma hops. Some hop varieties, for example Northern Brewer, have a higher c-acid content (6 to 9%), but also frequently a higher proportion of cohu- mulone (over 30% of the o-acids). As 2 result, 34 they are more bitter but because of the higher cohumulone content, they are not always quali- tatively as good as other varieties with a low proportion of cohumulone. New hop varieties are being cultivated with a considerably higher o-acid content up to 15 and 16%. Examples of these high alpha varieties are, for example, Nugget, Target, Hallertauer Mag- num and Hallertauer Taurus, and the proportion of high alpha varieties is continually increasing. The initially insoluble G-acids are later con- verted during wort boiling into the soluble iso- c-acids (isomerisation), which, apart from pre- cipitation during cooling and fermenting, find their way into the finished beer and cause the bittering The bitter substances are very surface active and thereby improve the foam stability of the beer; hence a better head retention ean be expee- ted of a strongly hopped beer. The bitter sub- stances also inhibit the development of micro- organisms in beer; this bacteriostatic power is, however, not particularly great and does not replace the necessary measures needed to achie- ve beer stability. The o-acids are not durable indefinitely because the membrane on the lupulin gland is porous and only provides little protection for the contents, Due to the influence of oxygen, higher temperatures and higher humidity, the ct-acids are increasingly broken down, It can therefore be calculated that, at a storage temperature of 18° C, in two months up to 25% of the c-acids will have been broken down [155]. This means that afier the production of c-acids to their maturation, the breakdown process begins straight away. This gives rise to the necessity to store the hops cold, dry and with the exclusion of air until their processing. The conversion of the ot and B-acids occurs exclusively to the hard resins which no longer have any brewing value. At the same time, the bitter substances split off the valeric acid side chain, which gives old hops a cheesy smell‘The bitter substances or hop resins can be divided, mainly according to their solubility, into the following categories: gp resins are the most valuable and most characteristic components of hops. They give beer taste, improve foam stability and due to their antiseptic properties, increase the biologi- As already mentioned, the individual hop resins have very different bittering values. The o- acids contribute a 9 times greater bitterness than the P-acid fraction. This gives rise to the formu- Ia for the bittering by hops according to Wéllmer: Bittering value = o-acidls + BeBe The c-acid is by far the most important factor and also mainly determines the trade value of the hops, As a result, @ great deal of emphasis has been put on cultivating and growing high alpha varieties in recent decades. More recently, high alpha hop varieties with an ceacid content of 12 to 15% and at the same time having a proportion. of cohumulone of less than 25% are on the mar- ket [156]. On a global basis, the cultivation of high alpha hop varieties with high bittering values has a market share of 8.8%, and this figu- reis increasing. lity ofthe beer. eacids hulupone humic acids include lupulone, colupulone, r ° ‘otal adlupulon Beftaction | | oF sing ; thexane | Toles sot) cold methanol and diethyl isohumulone, ether) ‘isocohumulone. isoadhumulone Hard resins not defined in more detail (insoluble in hexane) 1.2.4.2 Hop oil Hops contain 0.5 to 1.2 % hop oil: this implies between 200 and 250 different ethereal substances which are increasingly volatile on boiling. They are seoreted from the maturing plant by the lupulin gland and give the hops a characteristic flavour. Hop oil can be classified under hydrocarbons and oxygen-containing bonds. It is only with the aid of gas chromatographic examinations that it is possible to record the pro portions of the individual components of hop oil Here the bonds appear as chit (piks), No conelu- sions, however, can be drawn here about the inter~ action of the individual aroma components which determine the overall aroma. As a result, evalua- ting the quality of hops is mainly carried out as before by hand. The different composition of hop oil is specific 10 the variety, Some bonds, however, have a par- ticular effect on the aroma: 55Low boiling monoterpenes of the myrcene variety gives a sharpness to hop aroma and gives beer a rough and disagreeable nuance; myrcene is therefore undesirable. On the other hand, the sesquiterpenes B-caryophyllene, b-farnesene and numulene or its epoxide are examples of benefi- cial aroma components. Oxygen-free —<— Hop oils sulphur bonds J 1 Hydrocarbons (ca.75% of the total oil) Oxygen-containing bonds (ca. 25% of the total oil) Monoterpenes myrcene (max. 60% of the total oil) Oxidised mono-, di- and sesquiter- penes Diterpenes (eg. dimyreene) Other oxygen-con- taining bonds Sesquiterpenes B-caryophyllene (max. 15% of the total oil) Humulene (0 to 40% of the total oil) Oxygen- and sul- phur-containing terpenes and other bonds Other oxygen- free bonds During the boiling process in the brewing house, the hop oil increasingly evaporates. In order to keep at least some of the aromatic hop oil,a part of the hop is added later to beers where value is put on an aromatic hop taste and smell, thereby renouncing a part of the isomerised acid (sce sect, 3.4.1.1). For ihis so-called aroma hops are cultivated which are varieties with a fine aroma and with ¢t- acid values of only 4 to 6% with a targeted pro- 56 portion of cohumulone of less than 20% and a highest possible proportion of humulene and far- nesene in the hop oil. ‘The proportion of aroma hops has increased in the last ten years in Germany from 48% to 63% of the total harvest. Examples of aroma varieties, are amongst others, Saazer, Tettnanger, Perle, Spaiter Select, Hallertauer Tradition and Hers- brucker. 1.2.4.3 Tannins or polyphenols Hops contain 2 to 5% polyphenol in the dry matter and it is located almost entirely in the sprig and bracts. Polyphenols have important properties for the brewer: 1. They have an astringent (mouth puckering) taste: 2. they combine and preci proteins; 3. they oxidise to reddish-brown compounds, the phlobaphenes, and 4, they combine with iron salts to form black compounds. As a result of these properties, the polyphenols are involved in the formation of hazes in beer and contribute to its taste and colour. The polyphe- nols are compounds of greater or lesser comple- xity containing several phenyl groups and hence giving them the name of polyphenols. They consist of @ mixture of tannins, flavonols, catechins and anthocyanogens. Of the polyphenols, the anthocyanogens are the most important quantitatively and qualitati- vely, About of the hop polyphenol consists of anthocyanogens. The anthocyanogens of malt, which are predominantly located in the aleurone layer, have basically the same structure as those in hops. In a normally constituted mash, 80% of the anthocyanogens are derived ftom the malt and 20% from the hops. The polyphenols of hops differ from those in malt mainly through their higher degree of con- densation and their greater reactivity. Polyphe- nols have an anti-oxidising effect. itate with complexStructural make-up of anthocyanogens (Leuko-Anthocyanidin) othe polyphenols which occur in hops, are also xanthohumole and isoxanthohumole. These com pounds are attributed to having anti-oxidative as well ani-carcinogenous properties. As only very ‘small amounts of xanthohumole well under 0.2 mg. pil have been identified in finished beer produced using standard processes, a procedure has been developed to achieve a xanthohumole concentra- tion of 1-3 mg pl in the finished beer [250] 1.2.4.4 Nitrogen compounds 12 to 20% of the hop dry weight is nitrogenous and 30 to 50% of this passes into the beer. For beer production (foam formation, palate-fullness) hop protein is unimportant because of the small amount present. The other components of hops (carbohy- drates, organic acids and inorganic substances) are wwith-out importance in beer production, 1.2.5 Hop evaluation Hops are evaluated by hand assessment of the hop cones measurement of the O-acid determination in hops or their products 1.25.1 Hand evaluation of hop cones Although standard analysis methods provide very exact information about the contents of hops, assessment by hand, as before, still plays a significant role and provides a good overall impression of the hops. According to the standard methods of the European Hop Producers Commission ‘© up to 100 positive points are awarded for value enhancing properties, and ‘© up to 30 minus points are deducted for value decreasing properties. The assessment includes: » Crop purity (i to 5 positive points) It should be free from contaminants, plant stems and leaves. A stem up to 2.5 cm long can be considered to be part of the cone. Up to 3% leaf and stem fraction is acceptable. > Dryness (1 to 5 positive points) In a pressure test the cones should not stick together or lose their leaves; the sprig should not disintegrate. If too wet the hops become dark brown, moulds develop easily and the odour becomes musty. © Colour and gloss (1 to 15 positive points) The colour should be yellowish-green and the cones should have a silky sheen. Grey-green cones indicate unripeness; yellowish-red to rust brown cones show over-ripeness (oxida tion); dark brown cones indicate heating as a result of too high moisture content ; reddish to brown flecks indicate blight due to red spider or damage by hail; white marks on stunted or withered cones indicate an attack of mildew; blackened cones indicate an attack of black mould; bright yellow cones with a green stem indicate intensive sulphuring. > Cone shape (1 to 15 positive points) Uniformly large, closed cones are desired, In the case of aroma hops the sprig should be well-branched and covered with many hairs. If the cones are tightly closed it can be concluded that they are sufficiently ripe and have been dried carefully, the lupulin grains will not be able to fall out. > Lupulin (1 t0 30 positive points) There should be as many Iupulin grains as pos- sible and they should be lemon yellow to gol- den yellow, shiny and sticky. Reddish-yellow to reddish-brown, dull and dry lupulin indica- tes too highly heated or aged hops. Lupuli 57naturally the most important feature of the hop for the brewer. > Aroma (1 to 30 positive points) The aroma should be clean, very fine and stron- gly persistent. In the sensory evaluation of the cones rubbed between the hands, a distinction is made between cleanliness, fineness and intensi- ty. The cleanliness may be considered to be clean, variable or unclean, The fineness is very fine, quite fine, moderately fine, not fine, straw- like, musty or deteriorated. The intensity is very persistent, persistent, fairly strong, weak, tran- sient, very strong, obtrusive or acrid. Each varie- tal type has its own aroma which can be detec- ted. Off-odours include smoky, burnt, onion, garlic, hay-like, grassy, straw-like and sulphury, > Diseases, damage, seeds (1 t0 15 minus points) This includes damage due to Peronospora, blackness (aphids), browning (spider mite), red- dish tips (strig midge), cone death and also loss of bracts and bracteoles, and seed formation. > Defective handling (1 to 15 minus points) This includes brown or burnt lupulin as a result of too high a drying temperature, deterioration due to too much moisture, extensive loss of bracts and bracteoles, spray marks and off odours. Overall evaluation: the hops are classified as fol- lows: < 60 points poor 60 to 66 points average 67 to 73 points good 74 t0 79 points very good, > 80 points premium 1.2.5.2 Bitter substance content ‘The most important information for the brewer is, of course, that concerning the bitter substance content of the hops. This can only be measured accurately in the laboratory. Various methods are available and used. The conductimetric method is used to deter- mine 38 total resin content, total soft resin content, and hard resin content. Normal values are approximately hop cone enriched hop hop hop extract powder powder Yealr dry Yair dry %air dry total resin 12-24 22-40 30-60 total soft resin 10-18 18-36 24-54 conducto- meter value 4-10 7-20 9-30 Befraction GP = Mh-d6 15-24 2-40 2-7 3-10 corresponds to the To be able to obtain a reliable hop dosage, the vacuum packaging of the pellets or the container is always marked so that the total amount of o- acid contained is shown in grams. For example, the vacuum packaging of 1,350 g shows, in addi- tion to the other marking showing the orig variety and year, the marking 196 Ga. This means that the 1,350 g of powder or pel- lets in the packaging contain 196 g of c-acid, Expressed as a percentage: 1,350 g package contents = 100% 196 g o-acid = x% 196 - 100% = 14.5294 1350 ‘The hop product has an o-acid content of 14.52%, 1.2.5 Hop varieties Hops are by far the most expensive raw materi- al used in beer production. Consequently the selection of varieties when growing and trading in hops is of great importance. The features taken into account when evaluating hops have already been mentioned. It has also been pointed out that in addition to hops with a high bittering value, aroma hops with a low bittering value are also much in demand. In hop trading a distinction is made between > aroma varieties, » bittering varieties, and > high alpha varieties Fig. La High alpha variety Hallertauer Magnum Aroma varieties are distinguished by their ple- asant hop aroma, a cohumulone proportion of less than 20% and a high proportion of finely aromatic components (caryophyllia, farnesene).. Despite their low o-acid content of 2.5 to they are sometimes traded at higher prices Desirable aroma varieties are, for example © Saazer Tettnanger ‘© Hersbriicker Spit @ Perle # Hallertauer Tradition Spalter Select. Bittering varieties are distinguished by their high o-acid content, Examples of significant bit- ter varieties are: ‘¢ Northern Brewer ¢ Brewers Gold. High alpha varieties are bitter varieties which are distinguished by their very high o-acid con tent of over 10% and up to 18%, A good high alpha variety is expected to have a proportion of cohumulone of no more than 25%. Important high alpha varieties include: ® Hallertauer Magnum (Fig. 1.11a) © Hallertauer Tradition ® Nugget © Target As the quality of the hop is not only dependent on the variety but also on the growing region, the hops are identified firstly by the growing region and then by the variety e.g, © Hallertau: Hallertauer Tradition or @ Elbe-Saale Hallertauer Tradition The a-acid content is furthermore dependent on the year of harvesting and can, depending on the weather conditions in any particular year, show extreme variations, The following table illustrates a-acid content in percent for different hop varieties taken between 1994 and 2001: Variety of hop 1994 1997 2001 Hallertauer Hersbriicker Spat 13° 43 Hallertauer Perle 33 85 Hallertauer Spalter Select 22. 62042 Hallertau Hallertauer Tradition 3.7 6.4 6.0 Hallertaw Halleriauer Mittelfrih 2.6 0 5.1. 4.2 Hallertauer Nugget 88 125 109 Hallertau Hallertauer Magnum 9,615.7 13.1 Hallertau Northern Brewer 53 99 89 Elbe-Saale Northern Brewer 45 8.9 70 Elbe-Saale Hallertauer Magnum 9.2 13.912.8 Tettnang Tettnanger 29° 5.0 40 Spalt Spalter 28 52 40 39In Germany there is a development trend towards varieties of qualitatively high-value high alpha varieties such as Hallertauer Magnum, whe~ reas the old bittering varieties such as Northem Brewer, Brewers Gold or even Hersbrucker Spit are in lower demand, Highly valued are, for exam- ple, the aroma varieties Perle, Spalter Select, Hallertauer Tradition and and Hallertauer: Variety Growing area in ha 1994 1997 2001 Hersbrucker 5485 2004 1643 Perle 3591 3985 3606 Spalter Select 1253 1436 1080 Hallertauer Tradition 859 3104 1849 Hallertauer 926 1390 1411 Tettnanger_ 1057, 1102 994 Aroma varieties total 13354 13207 10736 Northern Brewer 482129621695 Brewers Gold 1316 505 127 Bistering varieties total 6137 3467 1822 Hallertauer Magnum = 1317 2984 4535 Hallertauer Taurus 0 608 1184 Nugget 503 716 S81 High alpha total 1917 4469 6335 The number of hop growing companies (main- ly hop farmers) amounted to 2095 in 2001, repre- senting a fall of 102 on the previous yeat. In 1995 in Germany, there were still 3122 hop farmers, representing a fall of one third in very few years. At the same time, the average size of companies increased to 9.08 ha hop growing area per com- pany. Nevertheless, there are still too many hops being grown, particularly in Germany and the USA, causing the hop trading price to suffer. The reason for this is that an inereasing number of high alpha varieties are being grown and simul- taneously, the bittering of beer is decreasi Today, 5.1 g alpha/hl beer is regarded as the ave- 60 rage global figure, The global requirement of alpha acid amounts to 7000 t annually. The strong trend towards bittering varieties can be seen in the following table for the 2001 harvest (figures in ) [217]: Aroma Bittering- and varieties high alpha varieties USA 6052 22735 Germany 16829 14797 England 1236 1307 Australia 2374 To ensure the quality of the hops supplied and to prevent fraud, every batch of whole hops from a German growing region is sealed and provided with an accompanying certificate (Fig. 1.11 b) which shows © the State in which it was grown (e.g, Bavaria), the growing region (e.g, Hallertau), ® the year (e.g. 1993), © the variety (e.g. Tettnanger), the number of the bale or ballot, and the weight in kg 1.2.7 Hop products The number of breweries which use hop cones is continually decreasing because the introdue- tion of hop products provides the following great advantages: ‘© Asa result of the use of hop products it is pos sible to obtain a constant bitterness in the beer. ‘ Hop products can be stored almost indefini- tey. Consequently it is possible to purchase the reserve hops in favourable harvestyears. At the same time one is no longer dependent on the enormous price variations on the hop market, ‘© The bittering yield can be improved by the use of hop products. @ Hop products give rise to lower transport and storage costs. © Use of hop products removes the need for a hop separator. ® Hop products can be dosed automatically,> enriched pellets > isomerised pellets — 2-5 2 | —— 40-50°C Normal (90) Angereichert (45) Abiail > 0,3 mm Pulver<0,3 mm Fig. Lib Certificate to accompany a sealed German hop package ‘The most commonly used hop products can be divided into two groups: # Hop pellets <55°C Hop extracts t : Sa t Ona global basis, approximately the following # Isomerised products 10% 8 — Hh proportions of hop products are processed [195]: 1.2.7.1 Hop pellets [so A very effective way of preserving the con- tents of hops is pelletisation. In this process the dried hops are milled to a powder and then com- Fig. 1.12 pressed into pellets. In the pellet form the hops Production of hop pellets can be poured and easily added. (1) Infeed of the hop cone, (2) drying to 7 10 9% There are three kinds of pellets: of water content, (3) milling, (4) sieving, > pellets type 90 (3) mixing, (6) pelleting, (7) cooling, (8) packing Natural hops 15 to 20% © Hop pellets 40 to 45% ‘¢ Hop extracts 30% 61» Pellets type 90 In the production of type 90 pellets, 90 kg of powder. containing all the important contents of the original hops, are produced from 100 kg of intact hop cones. The type 90 hop pellets are manufactured [6] (Fig. 1.12) by first drying the hop cones with air at 20 to 25°C (68 - 77°F) , and then with hot air at 40 to 50°C (104 - 122°F) toa water content of 7 to 9% (2), and then milling to a powder with a grain size of 1 to 5 mm (3). This powder is mixed (5) and pelleted in a pelleting device (6) which has a moulding die containing cylindrical holes (Fig. 1.13). In this way the milled material is pres sed together and converted into the typically cylindrical pellet form. During this process the hops become warm and this can lead to a redue- tion in their value, It is therefore important not to allow the temperature to rise above 50°C (122°F). Fig. 1.13 Pelleting device (I)moulding die, (2) pressure rollers, (3) distri- hutor; (4) roller frame, (5) detaching knife, (7) pellets (from Rohner, MK Miller) In the subsequent cooling process (7) the pel lets are cooled and packed under the exclusion of air (8), and the package is filled with CO, or nitrogen as protective gas. This is necessary to maintain the quality of the contents. The pellets should be stored at a low tempera- ture of 1 to 3°C; at higher temperatures there is an increasing fall in value due to a decrease in the bittemess and formation of hard resin, 62 > Enriched pellets (type 45) To produce lupulin enriched pellets (formerly known as type 45), use is made of the fact that all the resin and oil is in the lupulin glands. These have a natural particle size of about 0.15 mm. The task is to remove the lupulin glands from the cone and to separate part of the bract and strig fraction, For this milling and sieving machines are used. However, in order to mechanically process a lupulin gland it must be hard and must lose its adhesive power, Its liquid content must conse- quently be solidified, Milling and sieving is the- refore performed at very low temperatures, pre- ferably at - 35°C (- 30°F) Fig. 1.13.4 Production of enriched pellets (Starting value = milled crude hops) FG Finely mil- fed material GG Coarse material‘The finely milled material contains the lupulin glands and half the dried cone mass. The coarse faction consists of bract and axis fractions and is regarded as waste, For the production of enriched pellets the lupulin glands must be intact and not crushed. To achieve this itis not possible to sepa- rate the lupulin glands in one sieving process. Only through repeated crushing and sieving, is it possible to ensure that all of the intact lupulin glands are in the finely milled matter and virtual- ly none in the coarse fraction (Fig. 1.13 a). For this, the choice of crushing technique and the rash size ofthe sieve (150 to 500 jtm) are eruci- al forthe separation. This separation process can be continued to produce type 25 through a furt- her concentration of lupulin (164) In recent years there has been an increasing tend of using enriched pellets. An important rea- son is that with the use of enriched pellets, as a rest of reducing the amount of waste material Production of isomerised pellers (1) mixing of hop batches, (2) raw hop drying, (3) warm air at 50°C (120°F), (4) removal of foreign objects (stones, stems), (5) deep freezing, (6) by removing some of the bract and strig fraction, there is also a reduction in the amount of poly- phenols in the pellets. Pellets give about 10% more bittering yield compared with cone hops. This is mainly due to the more rapid distribution of the contents in the wort copper and the consequent inerease in their surface area, This results in more rapid extraction and isomerisation, The ability to store the oxygen-sensitive pel- lets depends on the use of air-tight packaging. To achieve a residual oxygen content of less than 0.5 vol%, the package is filled with inert gas. By use of a four-layered foil with an aluminium bar- rier layer, oxygen is prevented from entering the package, Packaging may be performed either in accor- dance with @ kg pellets, or © alpha-aeid per package. -e reduction, (7) sieving into two fractions, (8) leaves of the cones, (9) lupulin, (10) milling, (11) mixing vessel, (12) addition of magnesium oxide, (13) pel- leting, (14) cooling and sieving of the pellets, (15) screenings, (16) homogenisation of the pellets, (17) packing, (18) heating chamber, (19) warm air at 50°C (120°F) 63> Isomerised pellets Isomerisation of the o~acids can be caused by the addition of magnesium oxide. This isomeri- sation has advantages in comparison with the conventional pellets since the hops do not have to be boiled for as long a time in order to achieve isomerisation: © the iso-ot-acid yield is improved © the boiling time can therefore be shortened © consequently the costs of hops and energy are reduced ‘© isomerised pellets do not have to be stored cold ‘© less hot break is formed. Isomerised pellets are manufactured in the same way as enriched pellets (Fig. 1.13 b). Differences are: before pelleting, magnesium oxide, which catalyses the isomerisation of the o-acids, is mixed into the milled hops, and after the packing of the pellets to which mag- nesium oxide has been added in foils and car- tons, they are placed in a warm chamber at a temperature of 50°C (12°F) until isomerisa- tion is completed. This process is monitored. Because the pellets are enclosed in air-tight foil, no additional oxy- gen can enter. The pellets have to be kept cold at a temperature of 1 to 3°C (34-37°F), otherwise over a period of time, there is reduction in value. Because of the Reinheitsgebot, the use of isome- rised pellets is not permitted in Germany. 1.2.7.2 Hop extracts By extraction is meant the dissolving of parti- cular components from a solid by means of a sui- table solvent, In the food industry, however, the interest is usually not just in the dissolving pro- cess and the solution is subsequently concentra- ted to a desired extent by evaporation of the sol- Vent, In other words the solvent is simply used as a transportation means which releases the sub- stances from the solid, The solvent used to produce hop extracts nowa- days is preferably liquid CO, or ethanol, since 64 extraction with methylene chloride, which for a long time was the method normally used, has been stopped for environmental protection reasons. The two solvents now used are both particularly well suited to the extraction of hops because they dis- solve the hop resins and oils completely. Use of other solvents has caused problems be- cause the extracts produced with them contain an unavoidable residue which is either considered to be toxic (poisonous) or does not satisfy the speci- fications for purity as set out in the purity law. 1.2.7.2.1 Hop extraction with ethanol Hop extraction with ethanol is a continuous process in which commercial hops are fed through devices for removing heavy objects and metal objects and then mixed in a screw convey- o with 90% ethanol, The hop / ethanol mixture is pumped through a wet mill into a continuous multi-stage countercurrent extractor. Alcohol flows continuously in the opposite direction to the hops and is thereby enriched with the hop contents. The almost completely extracted spent hops are removed from the extractor and dried. The alcoholic solution, which is now called a miscella, contains all the useful contents. The miscella must now be concentrated to pro- duce the ethanol extract, This is done in a multi- stage evaporating unit with a concentrator. This unit produces a concentrated crude extract. In a further processing step there is a further reduction of the alcohol content and separation into a resin extract and a hot water extract. Ina following washing column stage the alcohol com= pletely driven off by steam. This washing column stage is performed under vacuum (120 mbar) so that the steam treatment can proceed gently at 60°C, more hop oil remains in the extract and less alpha acid is isomerised. 1.2.7.2.2 Hop extraction with fluid carbon dioxide It is possible to dissolve the hop contents by means of fluid CO,. As CO, is gaseous undernormal conditions it is necessary to make it fluid. This is achieved © under normal pressure only by extreme cooling ‘© under normal temperatures through greatly increased pressure. By extraction with fluid CO,, temperatures of about 20°C and pressure around 70 bar are used Here the fluid CO, becomes saturated with the hop content substances in an extraction vessel. In a second vessel, the of CO, evaporates and lea- ves behind the volatile hop extract. ‘The evaporated CO; is again compressed and liquified by means of mechanically supplied ener- ay and is returned again to the extraction circuit. Approximately 20 kg of fluid CO, are required perkg/ hops. The energy consumption is greater and hence the costs higher using this method. However, the product is very clean, and about one third of the hop harvest is extracted by means of this method. 1.2.7.2.3 Hop extraction with supercritical CO Prifciple CO, exists in wo states which ean be used for extraction. The critical pressu- of CO, is 73 bar and the critical temperatu- °C, Above this pressure but below this CO, is a liquid but its solvent ies are very limited. tical or fluid CO,. For hop extraction useful solubility properties are obtai- hop extraction is nowadays per- supercritical CO, at pressures of 00 bar and temperatures of 32 to Fig. 1.14 shows hop extraction with supercritical 00, The hops to be extracted are put, as pellets, imto the extraction vessel (1) and the latter is brought to extraction pressure. Liquid CO, at 60 to 70 bar is drawn from a working tank (2) and compressed (3) to the extraction pressure. The heat exchanger (4) is set to produce the extrac- tion temperature and the CO; is pumped through the extraction vessel, The bittering and aroma substances are thereby dissolved in the CO,. The enriched CO, passes into the separation tank (5). Before the pressure is reduced to 60 to 70 bar in the expansion valve (7) and the CO, evaporated in the heat exchanger (7). As a result the CO; loses its ability to act as a solvent and the extract separates (5). The gaseous CO, is liquified in the condensor (8) and returns again to the extraction cireuit, The overall extraction process is performed batchwise, Most extraction plants operate several extractors, With high pressure extraction the sol- vent properties can be exchanged by altering the temperature or pressure, Both oxidation and envi- ronmental pollution are prevented; the aroma components are obtained without other residues. CO, extract is the most widely used extract nowadays: Fig, 1.14 Hop extraction with super (i) extraction vessel, (2) CO; tank, (3) compres- sion, (4) heat exchanger, (5) separated extract container, (6) expansion valve, (7) heat exchan- ger, (8) condensor ical CO}4 Hop extract powder By this is meant hop extract sprayed onto ki gel (silica gel). In order to make the hop extract powder pour casily, at least 30 to 40% silica gel is required. Instead of silica gel, hop powder or hop pellets can be used. In such cases a large powder or pellet fraction must be used since they cannot absorb as much extract and the powder would become sticky and no longer pourable. 1.2.7.2.5 Isomerised hop extract It is possible to isomerise the hop extract. As a result of the prior isomerisation the isomerised hop extract can be added at various processing stages. This utilisation rate is up to 95% whereas with the use of hop cones or pellets only about 25, to 30% can be used because the intermediate pro- ducts precipitate during the brewing proc: Isomerised hop extract involves very low stora- ge and transport costs and can be kept unopened for two years without deterioration in quality. After dilution it is easy to add and it enables the bittemess value of beer to be produced exactly. When it is combined with other hop products, the isomerised extract fraction should be 30 to 40%, Caution: according to the Reinheitsgebot, the use of isomerised extracts is not permitted in work in Germany. Manufacture of isomerised hop extract CO, extract is used to produce isomerised extract (Fig, 1.14a). The extract is heated and emulsified with degassed water (1). This emul- Fig. 1.14a Production of isomerised hop extract (1) Degased watei (2) steam, (3) addition of potassium carbonate, (4) separation of s i resins, (5) cooling, (6) separation of B-acids, (7) separation of unisomerised alpha acids, (8) addition of actd, (9) precipitation of free isohumulone, (10) standardised isomerised extract (20/30%), and filling with the isomerised extract. 66sion is further heated (2) and isomerised by the dition of a basic catalyst (3). This isomerisa- tion must be controlled. After the isomerisation, hop waxes and uncharacterised soft resins , which are of no use in the further processing, are removed (4), the solution is then cooled (5) and brought to a pH of 7-8. This results in precipita tion of the B-acids and they are removed (6). As a result of further pH adjustment to 5-6 the uni- somerised a-acids are precipitated and they are then removed by a separator (7), The free iso-o1- acids are now precipitated by a drastic pH redue- tion to pH 2 (9) and stored in this form until final packing. Only shortly before delivery to the bre- wery is the iso-c-acid converted to the potas- sium salt (3) and then brought to the sales con- centration and filled into containers, 1.2.72.6 Tetrahydro-iso-extract In tetrahydro-iso-extract, as in reduced iso- extract, the a-acid in the CO, extract is comple- tely isomerised and is reduced, Use of this extract provides the following advantages: @No light struck flavour can be formed (see sect, 4.63), Consequently beer flavour cannot be damaged even when filled into colourless boitles. #The foam stability of beer produced with this extract is improved considerably. © This extract is very easy to use and, because of its efficient bitterness utilisation, it is econo- mic even though its complicated manufacture must be paid for. Tetrahydro-iso-extract produces a softer bitter ness; hexahydro-iso-extract provides much grea~ ter foam improvement, although it slightly alters the taste. Rho-iso-extraet is produced in a similar way, 13 Water Quantitatively water is the major raw material used in beer produetion, Only a part of the water required is used directly in the beer while another part is used for cleaning, rinsing and other pur- poses. Supply and preparation of the water is particu- larly important to the brewer because the water quality affects the quality of the beer produced. 1.3.1 Water cycle Waier is involved in a continuous cycle on earth, The sun causes water to evaporate from the surface of exposed water and from the ground, It falls back to earth again as rain or snow. The amount which falls is highly dependent on the climatic conditions. Fig. 115 Water Cycle (I) exaporation, (2) rain or snow precipitation, (3) above ground flow, (4) underground flow, (5) spring 67About 50% of the water which falls evaporates directly or is taken up by plants and evaporates again from them. The remainder flows for the most part on the surface of the ground and only a part soaks into the lower ground layers where it collects as ground water. The availability of water and water utilisation differ greatly in different river basins and are subject to large variations within a year. Whilst there are chronic water shortages in the hot sum- mer months in many regions, after heavy rain- falls or at the time when snow melts, vast quan- tities of water flow unused into the sea. ‘The requirement for drinking water in recent decades has increased continuously because of the modernisation of housing, increasing indus- trialisation and agricultural requirements, On the other hand, the rising costs associated with the acquisition and purification as well as the waste water processing, ensure measures to save water are taken both in private households and in pro- duction, At the sane time the specifications for drinking water quality are constantly being raised. For beer production, water has to fulfil at least the same quality requirements as drinking water. Further-more, beer production places further demands on water quality. Basically, for all water used in the brewery, the Drinking Water Regulation (TrinkwV) applies in Germany. This will be expanded on in section 1.3.4. 1.3.2. Fresh water use in the brewery Owing to increasing costs for obtaining fresh water and waste water disposal, breweries have been forced to minimise their water consumption. ‘The use of fresh water in breweries is on average between 5 and 8 hi / hi sales beer, Small brewe- ries usually use more water than large ones ( 1.15) [234, 235], the water consumption of which is in some cases under 3.5 hl / hl sales beer. According to Koller [225] it is possible to cal- culate the following water consumption per 1 hl sales beer for the following departments: Department / section Usage in water HI water / hl beer Brewhouse up to fermentation cellar 1,80 - 2.20 Fermentation cellar and yeast treatment 0.50 - 0.80 Storage cellar 0.30 - 0.60 20 | 20-50 50-100 100 - 500 : >500 middie Fig. 1.15a Specific water consumption based on company size Output in hl: (1) under 20,000; (2) 20,000-50,000; (3) 50,000-100,000; (4) 100,000-500,000; (5) aver 500,000; (6) mean value 68 Ist vane = 1999; 2nd value = 2001; lines = Mas /Min. valueDepartment / seetion Usage in water hl beer Filter and pressure tank room = 0.10 - 0.50 Bottle filling (70%) 0.90 - 2.10 Cask filling (30%) 0.08 - 0.24 Other cleaning incl administration 1.00 - 3.00 Steam boiler 0.10 - 0.30 Air compressors 0.12 - 0,50 Total water usage 4.90 - 12.64 Other examinations in a brewery with 4.08 hl water consumption per hl / sales beer show the fol- lowing water usage proportions (Fig. 1.15b) [236]: Fig. 1.15b Freshwater consumption according to purpose of use (Y) Cleaning and disinfection; (2) cold wort; (3) water treatment; (4) by-products; (5) vapour condensation; (6) other use The costs for water are today (2002) on average 1 .80/ mé and the waste water fees are 3.50 10 7.20/m’, Asa relatively large amount of water is required for the production of beer, it is now one of the major cost factors. Attempts are therefore made to limit water use as much as possible. We have also seen that in some regions water can be in very short supply in the hot seasons of the year. This also compels economic use of water, This will be dealt with in more detail in individual sections, Water recyeling The necessity to reduce water usage brings the realisation that water that has already been used in a company should be reused, if necessary after recycling, The Drinking Water Regulation of 2000 specifies in § 10 (1): The local authority may permit certain food- stuffs companies to use water for certain purposes which does not fulfill the quality requirements set out in §§ § ~7 or 11 as long as itis guaranteed that the foodstuffs produced or treated in the company are not so adversely affected by the use of water that their consumption may damage human health, This means that as far as the authorisation of the process recycling procedure is concemed, there is no difference between the procedures which, within the framework of the water cycle, lead to treatment resulting in water below drinking quality” and those which fulfil all microbiological and physio- chemical limiting value requirements of the Drin- king Water Regulation [218]. The prerequisite for process water recycling is in every case a microbio- logical and chemical monitoring programme, which is supervised by the local authority. 1.3.3 Obtaining water A sufficient supply of water is a basie require- ment for human, animal or plant life. In Germany most of the drinking water was always obtained from ground water; only rarely was surface water or its filtrate used as drinking water, Later the first ground water treatment plant was construeted and soon after that the first company began to con- struct dams across valleys in order to obtain the abundantly occurring surface water in an undirtied state to supply drinking water. A small part of this water is obtained as spring water. 1.3.3.1 Extracting ground water Ground water is that part of the water which percolates into the ground. Percolation depends on the properties of the ground and its topogra~ phy and how heavily and for how long rain falls. 69The different types of rock from which the ground is formed differ in their resistance to the percolation of water. Depending on their diffe- rent pore formations, the ground layers either absorb water (water bearing strata or aqui- fers) or hold it back (water damming strata) The water percolating through the ground des- cends along natural gradients until it reaches a water damming layer (¢.g. argillaccous rock, slate, marl, granite, syenite, etc.) and fills the pores of the aquifer layers above it (e.g. sand, gravel, chalk, flint, gypsum, loess, ete.). The water is called ground water and its upper sur- face is called the ground water level. On run- ning through the aquifers ground salts dissolve in the water. This causes the quality of the water to change. The height of the ground water level can vary markedly. It is raised by the rainfall, which is very different from year to year, and lowered by natural outflow (ground water streams and springs) and by removal at wells. As a result of the continuously increasing water requirement, and the associated continuously increasing water removal, the ground water level has been lowered in some regions to an extent causing anxiety about supplies. Even a summer with a lot of rain cannot raise the ground water level substantially because water evaporation from plants uses up most of the rainfall, The ground water level rises mainly in the low growth and frost free time of October to March. Riverbank-filtered water has a place between surface water and ground water. It is river water which is filtered more or less effectively by the water permeable layers of the river bank Its composition varies with that of the river water because dissolved substances are not fil- tered out. Ground water is extracted ® predominantly by tube wells © by horizontal filter wells rarely through older excavated wells ‘@ in some cases the ground water comes to the surface as a spring. 70 Tube wells are water extraction plants which extract ground water through a vertical bored hole. The walls of the tube well consist of perfo- rated pipes, Tube wells are driven more than 300 m deep in the ground and their long filtration length extends over the entire depth of the water bearing layer. Consequently they can supply large amounts of water, ‘The water contains fewer micro-organisms the deeper it is driven because the flow through the ground layers results in a filtra- tion which improves the water biologically. This, however, does not apply to rocky regions. The water is delivered by pumping. Because rotary pumps have a limited suction height of 6.50 m, the water is delivered by bore hole pumps (Fig. 1.16) or underwater pumps in which the pump and motor are combined in a water- tight unit and operate under water. 1.3.3.2 Extraction of spring water A spring can occur when the ground water rea- ches the surface of its own accord if the ground formation is uneven. A spring requires mountai- nous surroundings. Spring water enjoys a reputa- tion amongst the population of being valuable and particularly pure. It is therefore understanda- ble that also breweries promote the use of spring water in their advertising campaigns, especially for their beer production, as long as the spring provides the required water quality, the amount of water flowing out is sufficient and that it is available throughout the year. The spring water is collected in a spring tap- ping which also protects the area surrounding the spring from negative influences. 1.3.3.3 Extraction of surface water Surface water can be obtained from rivers, lakes, and increasingly from dammed valley: River water is always polluted by waste water inflows from industrial firms and towns.Processing of river water is difficult and if possi- ble. for hygienic reasons, river water is not used, If it must be used then it is taken from unpopula- ted regions and away from waste water outlets. Water is extracted from straight stretches of the river or the outer side of river bends since these regions are eleaner. The erection of dams in valleys to block the upper courses of rivers is becoming increasingly important. Asa result of the erection of such dams the amount of water flowing off ean be controlled, flooding prevented, relatively clean surface water can be removed and a part of the stored water used for the production of electrical energy. Dams are located in the upper region of the river flow, The valley is blocked by a dam wall ata geo- logically favourable site in such a manner that a large storage reservoir is created, For drinking water dams it is essential that the collection area is without industries or water uses which produce ‘waste water. In these reservoirs bathing is also for- bidden, The water running into the reservoir Fig. 1.16 Bored well (1) well house (2) insulation (3) banking and backfilling (4) grass covering (5) control room (6) ventilation (7) bottom of the bored hole (8) stoneware pipe (9) filtration gravel filling (10) stoneware filter pipe CD. groundwater level (12) suction opening (13) rotary pump (14) stoneware top pipe (45) dip pipe (16) riser pipe (17) motor (18) water meier (19) nonreturn valve (20) gate valve 1remains a few months in it and becomes purified during this time. Because the surface water has not come into contact with salts in the ground it contains little salt, Ithas therefore no buffering ability and a low pH which makes it aggressive to iron and steel, 1.3.3.4 Importance of a private water supply Water costs money! It is therefore quite understandable that most breweries have their own extraction plant, Usually there are several wells from which water is supplied or a spring tapping, Attention has to be paid that an even water supply is guaranteed throug- hout the entire year. Of course importance is then placed on the fact that the private water supplied has quite special properties. 1.3.4 Water requirements ‘The water extracted in the plant does not always fulfil the quality requirements; the water has at least to be continually examined comply- ing with certain parameters sin order to fulfil all the requirements. Firstly the brewing water has to comply \ the drinking water regulation concerning the quality of drinking water, thereby fulfilling all sensory, physiochemical, microbiological and chemical requirements of drinking water, Furthermore, it has to comply with a series of brewing technology specifications designed to have a positive influence on beer production. The Drinking Water Regulation (Trinkw¥) 2003 has been in force since 1.1.2003 in Germany [218]. 1.3.4.1 Drinking water requirements The Drinking Water Regulation demands that drinking water be colourless, odourless and free from hazes. Concerning the content and compo- sition of the substances dissolved in the water, corresponding limiting values for the individual substances are laid down in EU guidelines and the Drinking Water Regulation [134, 218], some of which are shown below: old value mg/l 30 Nitrite 0.5 Lead 0.01 Copper 2 Nickel 0.02 Plant protective agents and Biocide products 0.0001 Benzene 0.001 High specifications are also demanded of the microbiological properties of water. Water is the most important foodstuff and therefore the grea- test value is placed on its purity. Water almost always contains a few micro- organisms and of course it is impossible to say, without tiresome investigations, whether they are harmless or can cause illness, Most bacteria in water do not cause any illness, but how can this be determined? iness-causing (pathogenic) micro-organisms can originate only from people or animals which had these organisms in their bodies and have excreted them. In the large intestine of humans and warm blooded animals there are enormous amounts of a harmless but easily detectable bac- terium - (Bacterium) Escherichia coli - which is used to detect contamination and the possibility of illness transmission, Water is examined for the presence of Escherichia coli (E. coli). Ifitis present it can be concluded that there is a possibility of transmission of other pathogenic organisms present with possible epidemiological conse- quences. As well as E. coli bacteria, enter- ‘ococei and coliform bacteria can also indica- te the presence of pathogenic organisms. The German regulations relating to the quali- ty of water for human consumption (Dri king Water Regulation - TrinkwV 2001) sta-(Sin 5 - microbiological requirements: Tn water for human consumption, the values determined in attachment 1, for microbiological parameters must the types Escherichia coli or En- bacteria may be present Information on the necessary procedures regar- ding treatment of water is given in section 1.3.5. 1.3.4.2 Brewing water requirements In water there are always dissolved salts. As they are greatly diluted, they are no longer present as salls but almost exclusively as dissociated ions. Itis therefore more correct to speak of dissolved jons, Most of these ions do not react with the components of malt during mashing where they ‘come into contact for the first time. Some ions, on the other hand, react with certain malt components, As aresult, a distinction can be made between ‘ chemically inactive and ‘¢ chemically reactive ions. > Chemically inactive ions By chemically inactive ions is meant all those which do not enter into chemical reactions with malt components but pass unchanged into beer, When present in Jarge amounts they can affect beer flavour beneficially or adversely. Thus, for exam- ple, sodium chloride (NaCl) gives a more rounded tasie, Chemically inactive salts include sodium chloride, potassium chloride (KCI), sodium sul- phate (Na,SO, ), potassium sulphate (KS0,), etc. Some of these chemically inactive ions, howe- ver affect various processes during beer produc tion. The chemical inactivity of the ions mentioned. here relates only to their absence of reaction with the malt components they come into contact with during wort production. > Chemically reactive ions A number of ions in the brewing water react with malt constituents during mashing and as a result alleet the acidity (pH value) during beer pro- duction. > The pH value Chemically pure water does not only consist of water molecules, but a very small partis also elec- trolytically dissociated: HOS H+ OH Water is ucither acidic nor basic but neutral because the number of hydrogen ions is the same as the number of hydroxy! ions: In 1 | of water at 25°C there are 10° HP ions, i. one ten millionth of a gram of hydrogen ions, and 10° OH ions, ie, one ten millionth of a gram of hydroxyl ions. If as a result of the addition of an acid the num- ber of HP ions is increased, in accordance with the Jaw of mass action the number of OH-ions decrea- ses. Conversely, the proportion of OH-ions in-cre- ases as the result of the addition of bases and hydroxides whilst the proportion of Hons de-cre- ases. Every aqueous solution, even the strongest acid or base, contains H’ and OH" ions, but the propor tions of the ions are different in each case, Only in the case of neutral water are the amounts of both ions the same. But the product of the concentra tions of the hydrogen and hydroxide is always the same, The character of a solution is determined by the H ion concentration. The concentration of I" ions is expressed as numbers to the power of ten, But since if written out fully very long numbers with up to 14 deci- Fig. 1.17 Concentration of H and OH ions.mal places would result, only the negative power of ten is quoted and this is expressed as a pH. The pH value is the negative decimal loga- rithm of the hydrogen ion concentration in a solution (-lg H’ concentration). > For example: A solution contains 0,000,000,001 g H° ions. Expressed as a power of ten this is 10’ g H’ ions. The pH of the solution is 9.0. The pH of pure water (7.0) in which the numbers of H’ and OH- ions present are the same is taken as the neutral point (Fig, 1.17). Depending on their reaction, solutions are divi- ded into three groups: pH<7 — dllacids e.g. Hydrochloric acid, HCI, sulphu ric acid, H,SO, and acidic, salts, e.g. potassium, dihydro gen phosphate, KH,PO, water neutral salts, ¢.g. sodium, chlori- de, NaCl, sodium sulphate, all bases €.g. sodium hydroxide, NaOH, cal cium hydroxide Ca(OH),,basic salts, e.g. sodium carbonate Na;CO,, potassium carbonate, K,CO, The pH value is measured electometrically or (very seldom) colorimetrically and can also be measured approximately using specially impreg- nated pH indicator paper strips. The pH values of well known liquids are about: 0.1N HCl 10 0.1N CH,COOH Wine Wheat beer Light beer Casting wort Supply water 0.IN NaHCO, 0.1N Na,CO; 0.IN NaOH 13.0 ‘The pH has a great effect on many processes during beer production. Thus, for example, enzy- mes have an optimum pH and at other pHs are sequently the pH of the solution is lowered. 2KH;PO, + Ca(HCO,), > K,HPO, 4 potassium calcium dipotassium hydrogen bicarbonate hydrogen phosphate phosphate The pH is raised L 4 Example 1; the alkaline dipotassium hydrogen phosphate from malt reacts with neutral calcium. sulphate: 4 K,HPO, +3 CaSO, > Ca,(PO4), dipotassium leium calcium hydrogen sulphate phosphate phosphate The ealeium phosphate formed is insoluble. Potassium dihydrogen phosphate is acidic and con- Example 2: acidic potassium dihydrogen phosphate reacts with neutral caleium bicarbonate: Alkaline dipotassium hydrogen phosphate is formed from acidic potassium dihydrogen phosphate. +2 KH,PO, +3 K,S0, potassium potassium dihydrogen sulphat © phosphate CaHPO, 2,0 + — 2€0, caleium water carbon hydrogen dioxide phosphatejess active. As most of the processes during malt tind beer production are controlled by enzymes, the pH value during production has a considera- ble influence on the quality of the product, ‘The pH value during beer production is deter ined by the dissociated salts and organic com- pounds contained therein, These are derived from the water, malt, adjunets and hops. During mashing the chemically reactive ions digsolved in the water encounter and react with soluble components from malt to form new com- pounds » The chemically reactive ions can change the pH during beer production. The change may be in the acidic or alkaline direction. Even very small changes in pH have an important effect on beer quality. > Most processes in beer production proceed better or faster the more acidic the pH. The pH should therefore be as low as possible during the production process. At higher pHs dif ficulties are to be expected, ‘The chemically reac- tive salts are divided into pH increasing and pH decreasing ions. Because the salts in brewing water for the most part exist in the dissociated form as ions, itis better to speak of pH increasing and pH lowering ions or of © acidifying = pH lowering ions and © acidity neutralising = pH increasing ions. > Water hardness The hardness of water is caused by the caleium and magnesium ions dissolved in it, The results are expressed as degrees of hardness (°dH). In Germany water hardness is defined as follows: IdH = 10 mg CaO = 1 g CaO/hl or also: 7.19 mg MgO/ Water is classified in accordance with its hard ness (1gd = 0.357 mval/l) 18 mmol/L 12.1 to 18 relatively hard 4,33 - 6.48 18.1 to 30 hard 6.49 - 10.8 30 very hard = 10.8 5.3 The more recent classification is: Hardness range | up to 1.3 mmol/l = up tp 7°dH (soft) Hardness range 2 1.3 © 2.5 mmol/l = 7 to 14°dH1 (average hardness) Hardness range 3 2.5 to 3.8 mmol/l = 14 to 21.3°dH (hare) Hardness range 4 Over 3.8 mmol/l = over 21.3°dH (very hard) lons which raise the pH are bad for the pro- duction process flow and for beer quality (see sect. 6.4); carbonate and bicarbonate are pl increasing ions The carbonate plus bicarbonate content of water is referred to as carbonate hardness, tempo- rary hardness or total alkalinity. The pH inerea- sing effect of carbonate hardness opposes the pl! lowering effect of the other calcium and magne- sium ions existing as calcium chloride, calcium sulphate, magnesium chloride and magnesium sulphate. These salts are collectively included in the term non-carbonate hardness (or permanent hardness, or sulphate or gypsum hardness, since part of the hardness is caused by these salts). Total hardness - carbonate hardness = parcdarpon dia hardness Chemically reactive ions SS ee PH lowering ions PH increasing ions All Ca and Mg ions All carbonate and except for those whose bicarbonate ions effect is neutralised by pH increasing ions, i °dH earth alkaline ions per | Non-carbonate hardness Carbonate hardness mval mmol l | atte very soft 0.11 - 1.44 0.1 -0.7 sali to8 soft 145-288 0.7-1.5 dofal hardness. son laan2 A All Ca and Mg ions 8.1 t0 12 moderately hard 2.89 - 4.32 1.5Carbonate hardness and total hardness ned according to DIN 17640. The result of the competition between the pH increasing and lowering properties of water is dotermined by the residual alkalinity (RA). The residual alkalinity is the difference between the carbonate hardness and the non-carbonate hard- ness which is shown by the relationship is def Calcium hardness ~ 0.5 magnesium hardness 35 RA=KH- The higher the residual alkalinity the more effective the carbonate hardness and so the higher the pH to be expected. To produce Pilsner beer, for example, the residual alkalini- ty should not exceed 2°dH, otherwise the water should be treated. 1.3.4.3 Significance of individual ions As well as their importance for shifting the pH value in wort and beer, individual ions are also significant regarding their influence on taste and their relevance to health. Some of these will be examined her Sodium (Na’) and chloride (CI) increase blood pressure when present in large quantities. In the form of cooking salt, however, they play a con- siderable role in mellowing the taste. No cook omits to add the renouned pinch of salt to each meal, in many cases even to sweet meals, There are many examples of brewmasters who also used to add a pinch of salt to their brew to mel- low the taste when this was still permitted. Potassium (K°) occurs in drinking water with an average of 2 mg/l, The daily requirement for humans is 2 mg. The Drinking Water Regulation does not prescribe a threshold value for potas- sium, A balanced potassium content is responsi- ble for the diuretic (urinary) function, Ammonia (NH*) in drinking water almost al- ways indicates contamination, The drinking w: ter Regulation Specifications therefore preser bes a permissible threshold value of 0.5 mg NII". Nitrate (NO*) and nitrite (NO*) frequently occur 16 in ground water through the degradation of orga. nic substances, such as slurry, or through the diversion of domestic waste water. From a toxico- logical point of view, it should be borne in mind that nitrate can be reduced to the much more toxic nitrite by bacteria. This reaction occurs cither in the human intestine or by keeping nitrate rich food warm for a long period of time, which can be par- ticularly dangerous for babies. The threshold value for nitrates according to the Drinking Water Regulation Specifications is 50 mg NO'/| Sulphate (SO,*) causes fluid retention. This is the reason for the laxative effect of magnesium. and sodium sulphate, since fluid retention causes an increase in yolume in the intestine and this leads to increased pressure on the peristalsis. The Drinking Water Regulation even permits the exceeding of the limiting value of 500 mg SO,*/1 under certain cir 1.3.5 Water improvement procedures It is frequently necessary to change the quality of water. Here it is important what should be improved or changed, The purpose for which the water is to be used determines the treatment pro- cedure. Thus, for example, if the water is to be used as boiler feed water it does not matter if the water contains bacteria but the amount and natu- re of the dissolved salts is important. For cle: ning water it is exactly the opposite, One there~ fore needs to distinguish between procedures for © removal of suspended matter ‘© removal of dissolved substances # reduction of residual alkalinity in brewing water ® removal of microbes and ‘e removal of dissolved gases. 1.3.5.1 Procedure to remove suspended matter By suspended matter is meant undissolved earth and plant materials which have passed into the water. They are usually removed in two stages:> Clarification in settling tanks Asa result of the reduction of the flow veloci- ty of the water, the suspended matter carried in it slowly settles out. The larger the settling tank the more effective the clarification with the same throughput, because the flow velocity then decreases 10 almost zero, The dams are also natural settling tanks. Settling tanks remove 60 - 70% of the sus- pended matter. Not all the suspended particles ean be removed ina settling tank. It is therefore necessary to fil- ter the water afterwards. Microscopic particles and finely dispersed sub- stances which cause haze can be transferred into an insoluble and separated form by flocculation. Iron and aluminium salts are used as the coagu- lent. The precipitated substances which cause the haze are casily removed by the ensuing filtration > Filtration of prectarified water In the filtration process, the water is fed through a layer of pure, ealeined quartz sand of uniform grain size. The suspended particles remain behind in the pores of the quartz sand when the water flows through. For the large outputs of communal water treat ment plants open filters with a surface of up to 150 m? are used. In these the quartz sand is ‘almost 2 m deep on a filter bottom through which the filtered water runs off, After a few days water 'S forced through the filter in the opposite direc- Fig. 1.18 Sand filter (1) natural water, (2) oxidation air, (3) coagutem, (4) sand filter, (5) decarhonived water tion and the cleaning process is supported by for- cing compressed air through, Closed sand filters are used for smaller plants such as, for example, breweries. The quartz sand of 0.8 to 1.2 mm grain diameter forms a2 m high bed on a nozzle containing base and filters the water flowing downwards from above (Fig. 1.18). By the addition of oxidation air and coagulent , the precipitation and removal of iron and mang- anese salts as well as organic components is faci- litated. When using a sand filter, the backwashing occurs in three stages: . © air / water © water The air / water rinsing is above all responsible for the purification. The backwashing is particu- larly important in preventing microbial growth [159]. Sand filtration is not sterilisation, The filtration rate with closed pressure filters is 10 to 20 m? water per m? filter surface per hour, A pressure increase indicates the need to clean the filter. The filter is backwashed in the opposite dircetion and all the filter material loosened so that the foreign material is also removed. A filter in the decarbonation plant operates in the same way, 1.3.5.2. Removal of dissolved materials ‘The salts dissolved in water are in the form of ions. Some of the ions dissolved in the water: nin 77time form a deposit on the pipework or corrode it, ‘Therefore if large amounts of them are dissolved they must be removed. These substances include iron and magnesium salts dissolved in the water. These can deposit in large amounts in the pipes. The iron and magnesium are removed by aera tion by forming a spray, using a trickling injection or any other form of aeration, The salts are converted by this into an insoluble form and precipitated ystem, 2Fe (HCO), + % 0, + H,0 > 2Fe(OH); + 4CO, 2MnCl, + 0, + 4H,0 > MnO(OH), + 4HCI 4FeS, + 30, + 6H,0 > 4Fe(OH), + 8S. A subsequent filtration of the flocculent preci- pitated salts is necessary. In addition there are a number of other ions in water which admittedly do not cause problems with the pipes, but which can sometimes be very important for beer production. A difference has to be made here between open and closed venti- lation systems with regard to the excretion of iron and manganese salts. With closed systems, attention has to be paid to ensure that the air pres- sure is higher than that of the water. 1.3.5.3. Improvement of the residual alkalinity of water The residual alkalinity of brewing water is improved by deereasing it. This can be done by reducing the carbonate hardness: decarbona- tion increasing the no ‘© neutralisation. Addition of acid converts car bonate hardness to non-carbonate hardness. In Germany this procedure is not permitted ac- cording to the Reinheitsgebot if biological aci dification is not used! » Decarbonation By decarbonation is meant the removal of car- bonate hardiness, It can be performed by: arbonate hardness, or 78 © heating © addition of slaked lime @ use of an ion exchanger. » Decarbonation by heating When a carbonate-containing water is heated to 70 to 80°C, the calcium bicarbonate is conver ted, with the release of carbon dioxide, into inso- luble calcium carbonate which precipitates as mestone (scale) on the vessel wall: gt Ca (HCO), > Caco, +CO, +H,0 This process occurs to a slight extent in every domestic kettle which, after some time, can con- tain a substantial layer of scale. This impairs heat transfer. Scale formation would be very much greater in an industrial boiler and there would be a tisk of the boiler exploding. Boiler supply water must therefore be softened before use (¢.2 by an ion exchanger), Decarbonation of brewing water by heating is hardly ever used. Since the water has to be coo- led again subsequently the process is quite uneconomic. Its only advantage is that it does not need to be controlled > Decarbonation by addition of slaked lime The usual method of decarbonation is the addi- tion of slaked lime in the form of lime water. The calcium hydroxide in the lime water reaets with the bicarbonate in the water and forms insoluble calcium carbonate. Ca(HCO,); + Ca(OH), > 2CaCO; > + 2H,0 ‘There are one- and two-stas plants. The one-stage plants are generally built as rapid decarbonaters. Two-stage plants require somewhat more space. Fig. 1.20 shows a modem two-stage decarbo nation plant. In the lime saturator (3), a solution of saturated lime Ca(OH), (2) and untreated wa: ter (1) is prepared and the milk of lime solution is mixed with the water to be softened in theeactor (4) and sinks downwards, while reacting, in the central pipe. The lime scale slurry formed fettles in the cone, and must be removed from time to time, whilst the gradually clarifying water slowly rises. A similar process is repeated in the following adjusting tank (5) where the composition of the water ean be adjusted as des- ined by mixing with fresh water. In the following vel filter (6) the suspended matter still present is completely removed, The operation of a closed gravel filter is described in seet, 1.3.4.1 Carbonate removal by lime addi very widespread today and may be performed in one or two stages. The advantage of this proce- dure, in addition to its simplicity, is that the che- mical costs are low and furthermore iron, mang- anese and other heavy metals precipitate and the water is thus cleaned in the best possible way. Disadvantages mentioned are the necessary dis- posal of the slurry and the need to adapt dosing to the varying water composition. nis still > Decarbonation by neutralisation Through the addition of hydrochloric or sul- phuric acid, the carbonate hardness can easily be converted 10 non-carbonate hardness, Prerequisite isan exact dosage of the amount of acid required. This procedure, however, also produces free CO, which is aggressive and must be neutralised. This procedure is not permitted according to the Reinheitsgebot. If biological acidification is used (sect. 3.2.1.8), fications for residual alkalinity of the bre- wing water are less demanding. At least 30 mg Ca ions and as low a nitrate content as possible are of importance here [31] the spe > Hardening By increasing the non-carbonate hardness the harmful, pH increasing ¢feet of the carbonate hardness can be decreased and the residual alka linity reduced to a desired level. This can occur by the addition of CaCl, or CaSO, (brewing gyp- sum) although this inereases the Ca! ion content, which can have an adv the end product, This procedure is hardly ever used nowadays, se effect on the taste of > Sofiening by ion exchange Jon exchangers have been used for a long time for brewing water treatment to remove cations from the water and thereby reduce the hardness considerably, Cation exchangers are used mainly by breweries. There is only a switch to anion exchangers when the concentration of chloride, sulphate or nitrate has to be reduced. With the strongly acidic cation exchanger (Fig, 1.21), the resin is in the form of H+ after the regeneration with hydrochloric acid (4) in the exchanger (2). In the process, all the cations par- ticularly calcium, magnesium, and sodium are replaced by hydroxyl ions and free mineral acids Fig. 1.20 Decarbonation plant (hvo- stage precipitation) (1) untreated water, (2) mith of lime, (3) lime saturator (4) reactor, (5) adjusiment vessel, (6) gravel filter, (7) sludge drainage, (8) decar- honated water 79are formed (HCI, H;SO,, HINO,). The water now flows from upstream to downstream and beco- mes deionised, ‘The deionised water is then further treated in a two-stage twin street ion exchange plant where the free mineral acids are neutralised by the addi- tion of saturated lime water (8) and converted to calcium non-carbonate hardness. Finally, the desired carbonate hardness is set (9). The bre- wing water which is produced (10) contains free carbon dioxide. These plants must therefore be made of corrosion resistant stainless stecl. » Total desalination using reverse osmosis Reverse osmosis involves the untreated water being placed under a high pressure which is grea- ter than that of the osmotic pressure. The water molecules then move through a semi-permeable membrane whilst the water salts are retained. Thus, a so-called feed flow is divided into a permeate flow and a salt-containing concentrate. The perme- ate flow consists of the water molecules which have passed through the membrane, whilst the concentration flow consists of a smal] water flow enriched with salts. A desalination rate of 95 to 98% is achieved using this method; the plants are operated using 8 to 12 bar (EUWA, Gartringen). 80 1.3.5.4 Water sterilisation ‘The water used in a brewery must be of drin- king water quality, Water is obtained and main- tained free from micro-organisms by use of: active chlorine at a dose rate of up to 1.2 mg/l © chlorine dioxide with a maximum dosage of 0.4 mg/l © ozone with a maximum dosage of 10 mg/l at a concentration of 0.005%. Furthermore, the water can be sterilised by the addition of ozone, silver ions or UV irradiatio: The following treatments are used for water sterilisation: ® Sterilisation by filtration (sterile filtration) It is possible to remove micro-organisms by filtration. The relevant suppliers offer very good, high performance filters with a pore diame between 0.2 and 0.45p. It is important, howev to clean the water well before filtration otherwi- se the filter soon becomes blocked (sterilising fil- ters are described in sect. 4.5). » UV irradiation Micro-organisms are killed by irradiation with ultraviolet light rays, The process is clean and reliable, but ‘© the equipment cost is high and the treated Fig 121 Cation exchanger with eal- cium blend () untreated water, (2) cation exchanger, ) overflow; (4) hydrochloric acid for regeneration, (3) lime sauurator, (6) milk of time, (7) saturated lime water, (8) calcium blend Ist stage, (9) caleium blend 2nd stage, (10) brewing water.water production rate low «the treatment layer thickness must be small and turbidity and colour limit the effective- ness; moreover, with a high germ content a correspondingly high irradiation dose must be given, The UV lamps have to be replaced regularly and the functions monitored. » Sterilisation by ozone (O,) (Ozone is obtained from oxygen in the air by an electric discharge. It acts by oxidation with resul- tant destruction of the cell membranes. The pro- cess is reliable and clean but the investment costs are very high in this case, Both procedures (UV and ozone) can also be used in combination, > Sierilisation by chlorination Hypochlorous acid (HOCI) is formed by intro- ducing chlorine gas into water. It decomposes into HCI and atomic oxygen with a high oxidi sing power which kills the micro-organisms by oxidation of the cell membranes. The equipment costs are low but harmful products (organic halo- gen compounds, chlorphenol, trihalogenmetha- ne, etc.) are formed when the water contains phe- nols or other organic substances, ine dioxide > Sterilisation by chlo Chlorine dioxide is an unstable gas produced from hydrochloric acid (HCI) and sodium hypo- chlorite (NaCIO,). Use of this as a sterilant shows several advantages over the previous methods because © there is no change in the taste of the water ® very little formation of chloroform or other organic halogen compounds occurs ® the operating costs are very low @ it isa very safe process ® reliable sterilisation occurs. The procedure however requires a sufficient- ly long reaction time after the dosage and an exact dosage. The process must be monitored. {also has to be remembered that chlorine dio xide becomes more unstable with increasin; temperature. ® Sterilisation by silver ions Silver ions are bactericidal (kill bacteria). If the stream of water is led between silver electro- des the water can be sterilised by silver ions. 1.3.5.5 Degassing of water A large amount of air is dissolved in water. ‘The oxygen in the air damages the quality and ageing stability of the beer. There are several points where water comes into contact with beer. If the water still contains dissolved oxy- gen, it damages the beer. The solubility of air in water decreases as the temperature rises. Very hot water, for example sparge water, hardly contains any oxygen, but water at low temperatures contains a lot of oxygen and can spoil the beer. This applies to water, for example, in the following situations © pre and post rur e filling of the filter for suspending and precoating kieselguhr © water for diluting high-gravity for use as mashing-in water during filtration The methods used for degassing water are © CO, washing (stripping) @ vacuum degassing reduction with hydrogen thermal degassing using hollow fibre membranes, > Degassing hy CO; washing In this process, also known as CO, stripping, water is directed over Rieselkérper whilst oxy- gen free CO; flows upwards in a counter flow. Because of a large excess of CO,, oxygen is removed via mass transfer surfaces. This process is incomplete. > Vacuum degassing In this case the water is degassed in a vacuum container. In order to achieve complete removal of the oxygen, the vacuum deg combined with CO, washing. sing must be» Reduction by means of hydrogen If hydrogen is added, the oxygen reacts with the hydrogen to form water (Fig, 1.21b). How- ever, a catalyst is necessary for the reaction and small balls of palladium are used for this. The investment and operating costs are, however, relatively high and the plant has to be monitored and cleaned [36] > Thermal degassing In thermal degassing the water must be heated to at least 85°C (185°F). The water is then con- verted into a spray whereby the air is stripped using steam, The advantage of this is the integra- ted sterilisation of the water. » Degassing using hollow fibre membranes This process is dure (see sect. 4.8.3.1) with modules in which about 30,000 hollow fibres approximately 68 cm in length are combined. The hollow fibres each have a diameter of 300um and pores of 0.05um. The water to be degassed flows over the hollow fibres, oxygen free carbon dioxide acting as a strip gas flows through the fibres in @ counter current. The difference in concentra- tion between the water and the carbon dioxide is the driving force for the transport of the oxy- gen to the carbon dioxide, and thereby trans- porting the oxygen out of the hollow fibres. ‘The process does not need to be monitored (Cente, Hanau; Erox-system, EUWA, Gartrin- gen). imilar to the dialysis proce 1.3.6 Possibilities of saving water Permanently rising costs for fresh water and waste water are forcing breweries more and more to save water and as a result, cut costs. An importa n for recognising possi- bilities of doing this is firstly to record the water wnption at each separate point of usage. ‘The results obtained make it possible to identify starting points for saving water. Itis advisable to classify the ways to save water into three separate categories minimising consumption of fresh water in all areas @ reusing used water without it having been tre- ated for s purpo: on quality are not high recycling water to be used for the same purpo- se following one or more intermediate treat- ment cycles. An example of minimising fresh water use is in CIP cleaning through the improvement of the phase separation [241], ¢.g. using optical measure- ment methods; ie. the climination of safety rinsing time to prevent undesired mixtures or the adjust- ment of the set amount of rinsing water in the fiesh water spraying of the bottle cleaning machine ‘o the bottle flow at any given moment. Without treatment, for example, post-rinsing \water can be used for intermediate rinsing or inter- mediate rinsing water for pre-rinsing. A cascading multi-usage of the water in the bottle cleanir machine as well as other possibilities also exist. These will be described in the individual techno- logical sections [225]. precondit cons ‘ondar s where demands Fig. 1.21b Degassing of water using hydrc gen (principle) (8) palladium catalyst14 Yeast ‘Yeast is @ unicellular micro-organism which can obtain the energy it needs fin the presence of oxygen (aerobic) by respi tion and / ‘ein the absence of oxygen (anaerobic) by fer- mentation, During beer production the sugar in the wort is, fermented by yeast to alcohol and CO,. For this purpose yeast fungi of the species Saccharomyces cerevisiae are used, Selected strains of t are systematically isolated and grown as pure cul- ture brewers! yeasts, Other strains of this yeast are used as bakers’, distillers’ or wine makers’ yeasts. Because the yeast does not only produce alcohol but also, as a result of its metabolism, has a great influence on the taste and character of beer, know- ledge of the structures and composition of yeasts, their metabolis: There are a number of characteristic differences between different types and races of culture yeasts. yeast and their growth is important. 1.4.1 Structure and composition of the yeast cell Yeast is processed in the form of a thick paste. This paste consists of billions of yeast cells all acting independently of cach other. The yeast cells are oval to round with a length of 8 to 10 hm and a width of 5 to 7 um (Fig, 1.22). The yeast cell consists of about 75% water. The dry matter varies in its composition: protein 45 10 60% carbohydrate 5 10 35% fats (lipids) 4to ™% minerals 610 9% The minerals consist (per 100 g dry matter) of: 2000 mg phosphates 2400 mg potassium 200 mg sodium 20mg —caleium 2mg — magnesium 7mg — zine Traces of iron, manganese and copper. Fig. 1.22 Yeast cell (Electron micros Waldstetten ope picture Schenk-Filterbau, Furthermore each yeast cell contains a number of vitamins, in particular: thiamine (BI) 8 to 15 mg/ 100 g yeast dry matter riboflavin 2 to 8 mg nicotine acid 30 t0 100 mg folic acid 2 t0 10 mg pantothenic acid 2 to 20 mg pyridoxal 3 to 10 mg biotin 0.1 tol mg Each yeast cell (Fig. 1.22a) consists of the cell plasma (cytoplasma, cytosol) (1) which is sur- rounded by a cell membrane (3) and in which al series of organelles are imbedded which are res- ponsible for metabolic reactions. The most important organelle amongst them is of course the cell nucleus (10), the command centre of the cell. It is surrounded by a double nuclear membrane which is a closed unit but nevertheless contains pores. The cell nucleus contains a ground substance (plasma), the core matrix and the chromosomes. Through these each cell acquires its own construction plan which is coded in the form of genes. The genes are made up of a polymeric chain molecule, the deoxyribose nucleic acid (DNA), the information content of which lies between 109 and 1010 bytes and which controls all metabolic processes, growth and the development within the cell, In the nucleus, a nucleolus (12) is also embedded whieh consists of ribonucleic acid.Fig. 1.22a Yeast cell (according to Hough, Briggs and Stevens) (1) plasma, (2) cell wall, (3) plasma membrane, (4) bud scar, (5) mitochondria, (6) vacuole, (8) polymetaphosphate granules, (8) lipid gra- nules, (9) endoplasmic reticulum, (10) nucleus, (11) muclear membrane, (12) nucleolus The yeast cell contains a large number of mit- ochondria (5). ‘The mitochondria import the pyruvic acid which is formed in the cytosol (see sect. 4.1.2.1.1) and transform it through respira- tion in small complicated steps to water and CO During this process adenosine trisphosphate (ATP) and adenosine diphosphate (ADP) are pro- duced (see sect. 4.1.2.1.2) which, on interaction, function as @ very important energy transmitter. The mitochondria are therefore described as the power stations“ of the cell ‘The rough endoplasmic reticulum (ER) serves the protein synthesis, the smooth endoplasmic reticulum synthesises lipids and is concerned with detoxification processes. The proteins which are produced are cut off and transported in vesicles, wrapped, to the required place. This task is carried out by the Golgi-apparatus which acts asa form of railway shunting yard. Secretion vesicles with toxins (c.g. aleohol) are transported 84 in this way to the cell membrane and out of the cell. The waste recycling plant of the cell are the lysosomes, which serve the intracellular digestion and degrade complex molecules into simple cle- ments, Ribosomes synthesise the proteins and dis. tribute then in the cell, They are thus responsible for the conveyor-belt-like production and the con. nection of amino acids to gene products corres. ponding to the messages of the nuclear cell Of particular importance is the cell membrane, which not only surrounds the whole cell but also a large number of organelles in the cell, In the endoplasmic reticulum an intensive production of this membrane occurs during the growth phase which should be of close interest to us. The main elements of the cell membrane are phospholi- pids. These phospholipids have a very typical structure which is important for their function fatty acids residues fatty acids residues amino acids - phosphate In each case two fatty acid residues are esteri- fied with glycerin (C,H(OH),); the third OH- of the glycerin bonds with an amino acid by of a phosphate residue (phospholipid). The struction of the cell membrane through the phos- pholipid molecules (Fig. 1.23) shows that the dif- ferent parts have contradictory properties: whilst the glycerin residues together with the phospho- rous and the amino acid residues (in Fig. 1.23 shown as a sphere) attract water (they are hydro- phile), the ,,tails” of the fatty acid residues (red), which are tightly linked and deposited in two I ers against each other in the cell membrane, repel water (they are hydrophobic). This leads to the formation of an impermeable double layer (membrane) without bonds being formed bei- ween the phospholipid molecules. All cell mer branes in the plant and animal kingdom are co. structed according to this pattern, Although the cell membrane of the yeast cell is only about 6 nm thick and hence only makes up1/1000 of the diameter of the yeast cell, it should not be forgotten that it not only surrounds the tire volume of the yeast cell but also the mem- branes and the organelles of the cell and forms the areas of division within the cell. The surface area of @ yeast cell is about 150 um’; 10 g of pressed yeast therefore has about 9 to 10 m? of contact surface. Fig. 1.23 Structure of the cell membrane (1) phospholipids, (2) stored proteins, (3) trans- port proteins, (4) stored trehalose The performance of the yeast in the synthe: of the fatty acids with regard to propagation, in which the yeast cell has to form 4 to 5 times its own volume anew, needs to be clarified. Just how many molecules can be involved should be con- sidered: if a yeast cell were enlarged to one metre, the cell membrane would only be | mm thick! The energy-consuming formation of the lipids, which form the main components of the membrane, is dependent on the presence of oxy- gen. A part of the fatty acids which are contained in the cell are converted into unsaturated fatty acids Which are notable for their low melting Point and resulting better movement, If there is lack of oxygen cell production comes to an carly standstill The cell wall is impermeable. The absorpt Of dissolved substances (e.g. sugar, amino acids, fatty acids, minerals) occurs selectively via inso- 'vble transport proteins which are integrated in n the membrane (3) and only let certain substan or groups of substances through, The excretion of waste produets or toxins such as for example the alcohol which is formed, occurs through the so- called Golgi vesicles and out of the membrane, On the outer surface of the cell membrane, gly- colysis residues are stored (glycocalix) (5) (Pig 1.23a). These consist of up to 30 to 40% mannan and 30 to 40% glucan, The mannan, which is depo- sited on the outside, is esterified with phosphate. The glucan, which is located on the inside, is esterified with sulphur and integrated in the com- plete complex of protein substances and enzymes and ensures the breakdown of substances to fac tate their transfer through the cell membrane. The structure of these extensive deposits is therefore of considerable importance. On the inner and outer sides of the membrane peripheral proteins are deposited (see Fig. 1.23a; 2), as well as a layer of trehalose on the inner side (4). ‘The wrapping consisting of the whole of the cell membrane, the deposited layers and the glycolysi remnants (glycocalix) is referred to as the cell wall ~Membran = Mannan Glucan P= Phosphat S= Schwefe? Fig. 1.23a Diagrammatic structure of the cell wall (according 10 Hough, Briggs and Stevens)In Fig. 1.23 a, plastic model of the structure of the cell membrane made up of phospholipids is shown. The deposited transport protcins are only able to let the specific compounds for which they are suited (maltose, peptide, or other compounds) pass through the membrane. Fig. 1.236 Structure of the cell membrane Jrom phospholipids with transport proteins Glycolysis residues indicated The cytoplasm (cytosol) which makes up more than 50% of the cell volume represents the most important part of the inside of the cell. This is the central reaction room of the cell in which most of the metabolic paths of the breakdown of the food substances and the production of elements indi- vidual to the cell occur. The entire intermediary metabolism - glycolysis (see point 4.1.2.1), the production of fatty acids, the biosynthesis of pro- teins and much more - occurs here diversely side by side, In an aqueous environment, ribosomes, enzymes and waste products move around in streams very close to each other. In times when food is abundant, e.g. after the start of fermentation, the yeast cell builds up its reserves. At such times the glycogen content (a reserve carbohydrate) can increase to over 30% of the yeast dry matter; it is deposited in storage rosettes in the cytoplasm. Trehalose, a disaccha- ride, is stored, as are phosphates and lipids which 86 are required by the yeast for the production of new cell substan In the cell there are frequent spaces filled with acidic cell juice and surrounded by a mbrane, so-called vacuoles where certain products and superfluous salts, partly of crystal, are stored Through reversible mobilisation of the salt erystals, the cell can regulate its internal pressue re (turgor), if for example, the extemal osmotic pressure is strengthened by higher extract or alcohol content, Yeasts normally reproduce by budding. After separation of the daughter cell, a bud scar remains on the mother cell (Fig, 1.22; 4). From the number (4 to 6) of bud scars it is possible to tell the age of the cell. 1.4.2 Metabolism of the yeast cell To carry out its metabolic processes necessary for life and to produce new cell substances the yeast cell, like any other cell, requires energy and food. Yeast, like all other living organisms, gets the energy to carry out these processes through respiration. The amount of energy acquired through respiration is very great because the glu- cose is totally broken down to CO, and HO which are at the bottom of the energy scale - obtaining further energy through breakdown is not possible. During respiration the food which is taken up, for example, sugar is totally broken down to CO; and water: CHO,+60, © 6 HO + 6 CO. In the absence of air, yeast is the only living organism which can change from respiration t0 fermentation. In this case, glucose is converted to alcohol (ethanol) and CO; CoHy:0, % 2C,H,OH +2 C0, The alcohol which is produced still contains a lot of energy so that the energy acquired by the yeast cell during fermentation is dispropor tely smaller than it is in respiration (this is furt- her explained in sect. 4.1) The breakdown of glucose to alcohol, or in the case of respiration, to CO, and water results fromumerous reaction steps occurring afer one gnother. Each reaction step is catalysed by a cer- fain enzyme. In the yeast cell these enzymes are pound in defined cell structures, Thus the enzy- mes for glycolysis and alcoholic fermentation are focated in the cytoplasm whereas the respiration occurs via enzymes in the mitochondri The organic substances necessary for r pira- tion of fermentation are taken up by the integra- ted proteins of the cell wall and transported through the membrane. The yeast cell can only take up the substances for which appropriate This again rum of the yeast. transport mechanisms are present depends on the enzyme spe The yeast cell has a complicated @ carbohydrate metabolism @ nitrogen metabolism @ fat metabol @ inorganic substance metabolism. The carbohydrate metabolism serves mainly to provide energy through respiration and fermenta- tion, whilst only a very small part of the sugar contained in the wort will be stored as a reserve in the form of glycogen and trehalose. The nitrogen metabolism serves, as do the fat metabolism and inorganic substance metabolism, mainly to renew the cell substances, whereby production as well as breakdown processes play an important role. These metabolic processes which have a decisive influence on the quality of beer will be examined more closely in sect. 4.1.2 ~ Yeast Metabolism. id m, 1.4.3 Yeast multiplication and growth Yeasts normally reproduce by budding. This why they are also known as budding fungi During budding a small bubble-like protuberan- Ce from the mother cell is formed into which part Of the cytoplasm as well as a daughter nucleus, formed by division, passes and a complete daughter cell is formed. In some yeast strains the Mother and daughter cclls separate from one ‘mother completely as a result of which bud sears remain on the mother cell (Fig. 1.24). In other strains the cells remain connected to one another and form chains, When micro-organisms are transferred into fresh nutrient solution, as is the case, for example, when yeast is pitched into wort in the brewery they begin to grow. The growth is crised by fixed natural laws. It docs not occur at a fixed natural rate but is divi- ded into six phases (Fig. 1.25). Fig. 1.24 Budding yeast cell The bud sears are easily recognisable. Photo: Dr: Inge Russell. Labatt Brewing Co. > Latent or induction phase In the latent phase, also referred to as the induetion or lag phase, there is an activation of metabolism. The length of the induction phase varies greatly. It depends on the type of orga nism, the age of the culture and the cultivation conditions. The latent or lag phase ends with the rst cell division » Acceleration phase In the acceleration phase, which follows after the latent phase, the rate of division continuous- ly increases. » Exponential phase In the phase of exponential or logarithmic growth, abbreviated to log phase, the growth rate 87is constant and maximal, The generation time, in other words the time period during which the cell number doubles, is minimal during this phase. The yeast is at its most vital during this phase. > Deceleration phas Because of various factors, e.g. reduetion in the amount of nutrient substrat in the amount of growth-inhibiting metabolic produets, the log phase occurs for only a limited time. It is followed by the deceleration or reta dation phase during which the growth rate grad ally decreases. s or an increase > Stationary phase In the following stationary phase the number of micto-organisms remains constant, There is a balance between the number of newly formed cells and the cells which die, > Declining phase In this last phase the rate of cell death exces the rate of new cell formation. The cell number therefore decreases. ‘The duration and size of the individual growth phases are influenced primarily by the substrate, the temperature and the physiological state of the yeast, The substrate must contain all the nutrients required for growth. The water content, pH value and oxygen concentration of the substrate are also decisive for growth. Water is the main component of living materi- al and it plays an exceedingly important role the life processes of micro-organisms. In general micro-organisms are only able to develop in sub- strates which contain at least a 15% water con- tent. Micto-organisms differ considerably from one another with regard to their optimal pH Yeasts grow preferably at acidic pls. The impor- tance of oxygen for yeast growth has already been mentioned. In breweries yeast growth is promoted by aeration of the wort before pitching, The temperature also has a great effect on the growth of micro-organisms. Every micro-orga- nism has its own characteristic optimum deve- 88 5 = Fig. 1.25 Yeast growth phases (I) induction phase (lag phase), (2) acceleration phase, (3) exponential phase (log phase), (A) retardation phase, (5) stationary phase, (6) declining phase lopment temperature at which the lag phase and gencration time are shortest. However, growth is not restricted to the optimum temperature but can occur over less wide temper range. For yeasts of the genus Saccharomyces this is usually temperatures between 0°C and 40°C, the optimal growth temperature being about 25 to 30°C. The physiological state of the microbial cell - age and nutritional state - essentially determine the duration of the lag phase. A very rapid « vation of metabolism occurs in the cells which are transferred into fresh substrate curing the exponential growth phase. Relating this to brewing, this means that a rapid start to fermentation will best be obtained with yeasts which are taken at the stage of the main fermen- tation and added to the pitching wort without intermediate storage. a more or ature e of yeast 1.4.4 Characteristics of brewing yeasts Numerous different strains can be distinguis hed amongst yeast strains predominantly used in breweries. In brewing practice these are divided into two major groups: top fermenting yeasts (Saccharomyces cerevi- siae) and‘qbottom fermenting yeasts (Saccharomyces carlsbergensis). There are morphological, physiological and fermentation technological differences between topand bottom fermenting yeasts, as described in the following 1.4.4.1 Morphological characteristics ‘Top and bottom fermenting yeasts can be dif- ferentiated under the microscope by means of their budding behaviour. Bottom fermenting yeasts occur almost exclusively as single cells or pairs of cells, whereas top fermenting yeasts form chains of budded cells (Figs. 1.26 & 1.27). In the case of top fermenting yeasts the mother and daughter cells remain attached to one anot- her for a longer time, and as a result branched chains of cells are formed, In the case of bottom fermenting yeasts the mother and daughter cells separate from one another when the division is completed. The cell shape is the same with both top and bottom fermenting yeasts. Fig. 1.26 Bottom fermenting beer yeast (budding easily recognisable) (magnified x 1000) 1.4.4.2 Physiological differences The most important physiological difference ‘een top and bottom fermenting yeasts relate 10 the fermentation of trisaccharide raffinose. Bottom fermenting yeasts can, because of their enzyme spectrum, use raffinose completely whe- reas top fermenting yeasts can ferment only a third of the trisaccharide. Fig. 1.27 ‘Top fermenting beer yeast (magnified x 1000) Other differences are shown in respiratory and fermentative metabolism and in the ability to form spores. Whereas in the ease of bottom fermenting, yeasts fermentative metabolism predominates by far, top fermenting yeasts show a pronounced res- piratory metabolism. Correspondingly the yeast crop after fermentation is much greater with top fermenting yeasts than with bottom fermenting strains. Bottom fermenting yeasts have a lower enzyme content than top fermenting strains. The ability of bottom fermenting yeasts to form ascos- pores is limited. They sporulate less often than top fermenting strains and spore formation takes lon- ger. Under normal fermentation conditions spore formation does not take place at all. 1.4.4.3. Fermentation technological differences ‘The names top fermenting and bottom fermen ting for brewing yeast strains are derived from their characteristic appearance during fermentation, Top fermenting yeasts rise to the surface during fer- mentation; bottom fermenting yeasts seitle to the 89bottom towards the end of fermentation. Top fe menting yeasts also settle to the bottom at the end of fermentation but much later than bottom fer menting strains, At the end of the main fermenta- tion they are still at the top and are harvested there as long as open vessels are being used. Another essential characteristic of bottom fei menting yeasts relates to their different floccula- tion behaviours. Bottom fermenting yeasts are therefore divided into powdery and flocculent yeasts. In the case of powdery yeasts the cells remain very finely divided in the fermentation nedium and sink slowly to the bottom only at the end of fermentation. The cells of flocculent yeast clump together after a short time to form large flocs and then settle rapidly. The flocculation performance of a yeast is genetically determined. Top fermenting yeasts do not form flocs. The flocculating ability of a yeast is of great importance. Flocculent yeasts produce a but less f dery yeasts and top fermenting yeasts produce a turbid beer with a higher degree of attenuation. Top and bottom fermenting yeasts differ with regard to fermentation temperature, Fermenta- tions with bottom fermenting yeasts are perfor- med between 4°C and 12°C. In the case of top fermenting yeasts-14°C to 25°C is used. The tem- perature control is determined by the brewer. ly fermented beer, whereas pow- 1.4.4.4 Systematic classification On the basis of the above-described differenti: ting features individual yeast strains are divided into top and bottom fermenting yeasts. In thi nection it must be remembered that the described features for top and bottom fermenting yeasts are not permanently fixed properties. They are varia~ ble to a greater or lesser degree. In particular the ion is not reliable “on raffinose fermentation since bottom fermenting brewing yeasts ean also only ferment a third of the raffinose, Because the differentiating characteristics are not sufficiently constant, in the new yeast classification both the bottom and top fermenting yeasts are sometimes 90 assigned to the species Saccharomyces cerevisiae, The brewers, however, usually still refer to the bottom fermenting yeast as Saccharomyces bergensis. Selection of the brewing strain, which is grown as a pure culture before being used for wort pit. ching, is performed with the help of defined cri- teria. The important ones are: ‘¢ fermentation behaviour (top or bottom fermen. ting) ‘¢ flocculation behaviour (powdery yeast or flo. culent yeast) e fermentation performance (fermentation rate and degree of attenuation) ‘extent of multiplication, and © formation and removal of fermentation by-pro- ducts (aroma formation). The yeast species Saccharomyces cerevisiae includes not only culture yeast strains but also yeasts which cause damaging infections in the brewery. For inst we yeasts damage beer. In addition yeasts of other species and genera are regarded as beer damaging infections. The entry of such micro-organisms is called contamination, These micro-organisms, also referred to as re nee Wi wild yeasts" as opposed to the culture yeast, introduced in particular with the raw materials into the brewery and are always unwanted there. They can cause an unpleasant taste and smell end also a turbidity into the beer (see sect. 8.3). 1.5 Adjuncts The enzyme potential of malt is sufficient to cat- abolise additional starch. Consequently, throug hout the world, part of the malt - usually 15 ‘0 20% - is replaced by unmalted cereal. This unmal- ted cereal, which is cheaper than the relatively expensive malt, is referred to as adjunet, Those types of cereal which are cultivated in larset amounts in the particular region are preferentially used, in particular maize, rice and - especially in Affica - sorghum, For beer which is brewed according to the Reinheitsgebot, the use of adjuncts is not allowed.Worldwide cereal production (mill. t) 1997 - 1999 [237] Asia North and Europe Central America } Maize 161 270 2B | Wheat 261 95 184 | Rice 534 I 3 | Barley 22 au 87 Sorghum 13 22 Maize grit Maize grits are usually used with a relatively large grain size (0.3 - 1.5 mm). Grinding can be performed in an adjunet mill in the brewery. Maize grits are pretreated with about a quarter of the malt mash in an adjunct cooker (sect. 3.24 & 3.5). > Maize flakes The slightly moistened grits can be pressed into flat flakes by rollers and thereby gelatinised. In this gelatinised form the flakes can be mashed without prior treatment with malt mash. » Refined corm grits To prepare these the grits are steeped for 30-40 hours in hot water at 50°C (12°F). SO, is added to the water to suppress micro-organisms, The coms are broken open in a mill and the germ removed by a separating device. The starch is separated from the husk and protein, and the crude starch is was- hed several times before it is dried. This process is performed in special plants outside the brewery. ‘The maize starch produced is very finely divided (0.5 mm average grain size). These refined com grits are transported to the brewery in special vehi- cles because the small particle size presents the danger of a dust explosion. The refined com grits therefore consist of pure malt starch, they gelatin se very easily and are easy to pour, The extract con- tent is 90 - 95% and the fat content 0.5 - 0.8%. 1.5.2 Rice Broken rice is used for brewing, in other words grains broken during dehusking and polishing 92 the rice and asa result do not look as attractive ag intact grains. Rice grains have a water content of about |2 - 13%. The dry matter consists of about 85- 90% starch 5- 8% protein 0.2-04% —— oiland small amounts of inorganic substances. © has a very high starch content (85 - 95%) consisting of small individual or aggregated gra- nules of a characteristic shape (Fig. 1.30). The aggregated granules consist of many component granules which are hard to distinguish from one another. Rice starch swells greatly and gelatinises at temperatures of 70 to 85°C. Certain types of rice and rice crops harvested after hotter growth con- ditions tend to have higher gelatinisation tempe- atures (80 to 85°C). This must be taken into con- 3.5). sideration when using rice (sce sect. 3.2.4. The protein content is low and little of it goes into solution during mashing and consequently the free amino nitrogen (FAN) needed for the yeast must be supplied by the malt mash. Rice is ‘e milled to form grits in the brewery and pretre- ated with part of the malt mash in an adjunct cooker, or ‘e processed to rice flakes, and thereby gelatini- sed, which are added without further pretreat- ment to the mash tun, Fig. 1.30 Rice starch (magnified x 1000) (ULB Berlin Raw Materials Research Dept.)1.5.3 Barley ‘The enzymes in malt can cope with up to 15 to 20% barley adjunet without any problem, Barley may be used in the form of @ milled barley, or ® barley flakes made from husked or dchusked barley. The lower extract yield must be set ag: ower price compared with malt, Problems may be caused because, as a result of the absence of a malting process, the B-glucan is not dissolved and is not sufficiently degraded during mashing. In such a case filtration problems are to be expected. tthe 1.5.4 Sorghum / millet The large-grained is a type of cereal which is grown mainly in the hotter, drier regions of Africa. In contrast, the small-grained millet is also grown for food purposes (bird food) in Europe, Fig. 1.31 Sorghum grains (Photo: P. Seidl, Munich) For beer production only the large-grained Sorghum is used. There are many types of sorg- hum some of which (spadix and panicle types) are grown mainly for food purposes (Fig. 1.31), {tis quite natural that in many African coun- bie attempts are increasingly being made to use indigenous raw material, sorghum, as a sour- £€ of extract for beer produc it i i in order to economise on expensive malt n and also to malt imports. An additional reason is that the climatic conditions in many African countries are unsui- table for cultivating brewing barley. Because sorghum germinates it produces enzymes which can be used to break down the storage material it contains. The enzyme potential of sorghum is however lower than that of barley. Both the growing and harvesting of sorghum occur in the rainy scason. Extensive contamin tion by micro-organisms, especially fungi, must therefore be expected. It is consequently essenti- al to treat the harvested crop to prevent spoilage. Breeding and cultivation of pure varieties is only just beginning in these countries. It is there- fore impossible to derive average values from the very different measured values [131]. Figures for most sorghum varieties are: U1 - 12.6% protein content fat content (dry weight) 2-6 % starch content (dry weight) 62-67 % germinative energy at 5 days above 90 % hl w over 70 kg thousand corn weight above 25 g (up to 44 g) ‘The starch granules are firmly fixed in the end- osperm (Fig. 1.32). Fig. 1.32 Sorghura steely endosperm (magnified x 60021) (Photo: Dr. A. D. Aisien, Lagos) 1.5.5 Wheat Wheat is rarely used as unmalted adj often used in a malted form, e.g., for production 93of top fermented beers, such as various types of wheat beer. The percentage of wheat malt used to produce wheat beers is usually 50 to 60% becau- se of its high extract yield. Only certain varieties of wheat are used for brewing, with winter varie- ties being more in demand because of their lower protein content and higher extract content. In addition they give a paler beer. Gluten is the cha- acteristic wheat protein. This is a mixture of dif= ferent proteins which form about 80% of the total protein. It consists mainly of glutelin and gliadin (instead of the hordein in barley). Gluten is the name given to the sticky substance which can be pulled into ropes on mixing kneading wheat flour with water and which becomes horn-like on dry- ing. Wheats with a high protein content are undesirable for brewing malt production because they cause processing difficulties. Information on additional bread cereals (spelt, rye, Emmer, triticale) and their malting proper- ties can be found in sect, 2.9.10. 15.6 Sugar For the production of beer not brewed according to the Reinheitsgebot, a part of the grist load can be replaced by sugar with cane sugar or beet sugar (saccharose) coming into question. Saccharose is a disaccharide of glucose and fructose. If boiled for a longer time or if acid is added, the saccharose is inverted into the two monosaccharides and as a result becomes easily fermentable. The sugar is added to the casting wort as it is completely fer- mentable and requires no pretreatment, According to EU guidelines and sugar type regulations one has to differentiate between refined sugar, refined white sugar or castor sugar (EU Cat. 1) and sugar or white sugar (cleaned crystalline charose) (EU Cat. 2). ‘The most important property of sugar is its solu- bility. The solubility of sugar in water is very high. At 20°C 204 parts of sugar dissolve in 100 parts of water. In hot water considerably more saccharose dissolves, but it then precipitates again on cooling, 94 Temp. in°C Content of solution Viscosity saturated sugar in mPa*s in weight % 0 64.2 677 10 65.6 346 20 67.1 214 40 70.4 116 100 83.0 80 A concentrated solution of sugar in water ig called syrup. To produce sugar syrup the sugar is dissolved in water which can be cither hot of cold. To make a 65% sugar syrup 65 kg of sugar are dissolved 35 kg of water. This will result in 100 kg of 65% sugar syrup. Because the sugar syrup ighed, but added by volume, it is neces- sary to determine the volume of a defined mass of sugar syrup. is not wi Dissolved sugar has a density of 1.6 g/cm’ =1.6 g/ml Masse m Dichte 6 Volume V The volume of | kg of sugar is then 1000 g _ 10000m1 Lomgl 16 0.625 1 65 kg of sugar ~ 0.625 1 x 65 ~ 40.6 | of sugar 35 kg of water = 35.0 L of water 100 kg of sugar syrup (65%) = 75.6 1 of suzar syrup (65%) Sugar syrup manufactured is at least 65%. It can then be stored easily and is not attacked by micro-organisms because these plasmolyse in the high percentage solution. The strong pressure of the solution draws the water out of the cells of the micro-organisms. The plasma comes away from the cell wall and the organism's ability '0 live is impaired but it does not usually die. A syrup solution cannot therefore spoil, but ingiluted state the micro-organisms will soon beco- me active again if the solution is not sterilised. ‘The sugar is usually is usually dissolved cold, tut sometimes hot, which uses more energy. It usually bought in a dissolved state and a differenti- ation is made between liquid sugar with @ sugar content of about 65%, a non-inverted saccharose solution with maximal 3% inverted sugar fe inverted liquid sugar with less than a 50% rate of inversion e inverted sugar with more than a 50% rate of inversion For beer production, liquid sugar is usually used because inversion occurs during wort boi- Jing in any case. Small amounts of added sugar are not detrimental to beer flavour because it is completely fermented. It nevertheless has to be taken into account that the sugar does not contri bute any nitrogen compounds to the wort and consequently the amino acid nitrogen content can be too low which may result in fermentation difficulties. The addition of liquid sugar as an extract supplier only makes sense if an economi- cal source of sugar is available. The melting of sugar or the heating of sugar syrup produces brown-coloured products which have a typical caramel taste. This process can be directed, depending on the pl value, more to- wards colour formation (e.g. couleur) or aroma formation, If saccharose syrup is heated in a bul fered solution, many aroma substances are formed (dihydrofuranone, cyclopentenolone and others) This is desired in the case of earamelised brewing sugar. The possible formation of carcinogenous acrylamide has to be closely monitored, Cara- melised brewing sugar is sold as syrup or brown- coloured sugar. 1.5.7 Glucose syrup Glucose syrup is manufactured from undried tefined maize grits in which the starch has been broken down to sugar by hydrolysis (i.c. splitting, With water), Three processes ean be used for this: ® acid hydrolysis ©. combination of acid or enzymic hydrolysis enzymic hydrolysis It has already been mentioned (scet. 1.1.4.1.1) that starch (amylopectin and also amylose) con- sists of long chains of glucose residues, When an acid is added, the bonds between the glucose molecules are broken with the insertion of'a mole- cule of water and glucose is produced. ‘This pro- cess is carried out with the addition of dilute hydrochloric acid (0.10 - 0.15%) with heating and under pressure, as a result of which the bonds are progressively broken and a syrup consisting of sug are removed by centrifugation and the syrup con- centrated to about 60%. If the breakdown is performed combined with an enzymic treatment, or with enzymes alone (see sect. 3.2.4.3.5), a larger amount of glucose and maltose can be obtained and this gives a substan- tially better extract composition for fermentation. The composition of the glucose syrup can vary It is defined by the dextrose equivalents (DE). This term shows the reducing sugar content, expressed as dextrose. A 95 DI saccharified syrup therefore contains almost only glucose. This maize or glucose syrup HFCS (High Fructose Com. Syrup) can also be obtained from wheat or other cheap cereals. In principle it dis- plays the same properties as liquid sugar (s 1.5.6) but has to be stored at 27°C so that it retains its liquid form, Glucose syrup i rand dextrins is formed. Insoluble substances within wide limit it derably better value than liquid sugar. soglucose can be distinguished by its cosity, light colour, high degree of purity and ple processing. For beer which is brewed according to the Reinheiisgebot, the addition of glucose syrup is not permitted, however, consi- low vis ne 1.5.8 Colouring sugar (also cou- leur) Colouring sugar (E 150 according to the Permitied Additives Regulation) is the term 95