THE INTERNATIONAL STYLErrary matt fan hie wm a carly eed eloped in Germany, Haid wt and spread throughout the ward, extending fF England o Rusia, and beyand lard land to the Un The Iden of Style Tiger ey rernen soak warteadte jon on eden oft sporting seen fir a wee ‘rong oft bg deo in he nth rt, ate tin edegering ths of th rere othe cli pectin th that he prince fe ye lpr ‘av ples nd ser f te fae nl eld wii ad ih Iie Flag nthe rx of Ge RonanAl spit of ier mati «etm ming fi Sm Rach A 18 leo the ight century he hata recur atenpt to aciee ad inne callag og achtccurr achat xsd nthe eae pa ep Te we chi thw tems were he Cael Reale Melicval Revival. Out fh compromises Bete tee ‘posing schon the difelis omen ce revivals withthe ew ne and he ee mateo ees on ofthe day grew the lite cen the Lat ad The nite century fled o eat a ae aime cause it sublet achieves ener dln ate ad af design the ter the day. Te rere sao but decorative pment ache me hn ee les according to which ied apo Othe wa ee Selopment of ening in biting went mpc oe Ciclo Maiev weiter ms hich ere reed fv te pat. Ths the chan of elem saved tee sey ideal ye had ame inh exit ee don site eh ed be nincrh adhe began nthe nineteenth cette ws leap ot oe yea [pple ante ee sen he Tender atic reval oh fit mors an dea acs tthe “le bt it ot rena helpline ‘2 psy af chic nen ane eta concen et den ad aa I tir econ agit eis se ‘me sot rate espera grat way a oe pie Therm, the whole, add to the confusion of continuing, clic, although the new work posts «general italy hich the ater realists had quite lst. The revolt rum sti scipline extreme individualism at the begining the te ‘ih conay was juste athe maret iu from a impaneof ination and seit. The individuals decried eubmission to ‘ued esthetic principles athe impeston of «dead and ups he ving material of architecture, bling op the failure of the revival prof that the very ide of ye mas an nbealhy isin Tada the ste issue of reviving the wl of the distant past is no longer ane of serious coserence Bu the pela ad ica inition and molifcaton of the atl of the pat which clei inherit from the enlier Clsieal and Medieval Revival, hav nt een easily frgtten. The influence ofthe st sil mos to be feared isha of he nvetoenth entry with ltschegpeningf the very ido oft, Modem architecture bas tuthing ut the healthiest lesen to lear fm the at ofthe fu Sherpa that abe studied scentielly and non asp imitation. Now that itis possible to emulate the great syle ofthe Past nthe essence without imitating thei sree, the problem Atestablishng one dominant stl, which he nineteeth century ‘eiulf interme falteratve revival coming oa ation Theisen ofstye which began to deneate when he evn, deste the dcipines ofthe Buogue, has hecine tala fei again Tada a sngle ne syle has came itn existence ‘he esthitic conceptions on which it dineiplines ae ated de- "rem he experimentation ofthe india, They and et the rvnalits were the immediate mater of thou who have rated the new style: This contemporary sgl, which exe hougout the well, unified ad inlet fagmentary snd camtatcioy ike so mac ofthe pct the fit en‘ration of moder architects In the last decade th pn sufficient monuments of tinction o display jis aie vitality. Itmay fly be compared in significance wiht te sf the past Inthe handling of the problems of src lated tothe Gai, in the handling ofthe problems of designs ‘more akin othe Classical. nthe pretninence venta th ling of fection itis distinguished frm oth The unconscious and halting architectural develope the ninetenth century, the confused and contadicry ee Ietation of the begining ofthe tweatith, hae Ben sic ‘ceded by a directed evolation. There is now a sing byl iscipline, fixe enought integrate contemporary sla lity and yet elastic enough to permit individual lneelta nd to encourage general roth, The idea af style asthe frame of potential growth ate ssa fixed and crushing mould, has developed with the eng ‘ion of urderyingprineples suchas archeologist dice nie feat syles ofthe pat. The principle are few an ba. Ts ‘re not mere formulas of proportion ach as dtinguish he Dare {rom the Ionic one they are fundamental ke the nani ve ality of the othe the tythnialsymmey ofthe Bara. Theres first. new conception of arhitetre a lame rather than as mass. Seconly, regulary rater than axial symmety serves asthe chit means of anering desig. These wo prin les, with thin prscribing arbitrary applied decorstin, ak the productions ofthe interational tls This new ee ot iteration inthe sense tht the proton of one oy is ‘est ike that of nother. Nor ist so igi thatthe work of aris leaders ot clearly itnguishabe Thenteratinal tle he bhcome evident and definable only gradual a diferent innova: tors throughout the weld have sucess caried et parle experiment. Intting he general principles ofthe contemparty spe in anaysing hee desnation from structure and their malifcaton by fnction the appearance of certain dogmatnn can bar be -noied In oposton thse who claim that a new spe chitecture is inpoale or undesirable ix neces to tes the coherence ofthe results obtained within the range of posi lilies thas fa explored For the itemationl syle ale ex lnsinthe present itis not merely sumthing frre may ld instore, Architecture abaya se of ctl monument nt ae corp of heyI History ines nt oneal ibaa toad scenes finkeu ey taristah at ow i ec pn a ee sarc cond res ae Tire ta cera er Pei cpeer ara ao Peller pris ele Necrainia dere: ‘guia rn an glass constrtion, ha far morn common with he architecture of our day than with tht of owt er ‘mecocrt, to which the contemporary syle owes 2 much, was Invented in 1849. Yet twa at Teast iy year ele i fst gan to play a.consderable part in architetral contruction, etal had begun be used ineenally in architecture before the end af the eighteenth century. Thecelrth it achieved a Pace ofinceasing importance, even in bili of the moat ‘ial design. Finally in the eighties it made pomile theft Aysrpers Bato the whole the “are” the tensed the ‘erates ad the exhibition bal, of which the Landon ‘iy Palace was the evita theft, were ants xsbsiutes fr, convention] masonry bldg. Behind the conventional star af nietenth century revivals and elect there are wo further histories of architect (One deas with the science af building sone. It trace the deve ‘ment of pew engincering methods of contruction ad the gal replacement of tactonal masonry setae by euccee ‘iveinoratons- The ther history deals withthe development ‘heat farcical design eogardle of specie initatios Design was teed bere and ther fom the contol the past Same architects even sought novel forms and many aimed at tte dict expression of the ew methods of eonsiton. A wart af proportioning plane surfs, «fee sy of ion ee even afk wea metal spear in the work af est af the leading nineteenth century architects aan in England, Schi- {edad his lowers in Germany, and Labote in France, wee among these eal prsursrs of moder arhtecture. Within the Clase! Revival there developed anew sense of design pret and more rational thn hat of the Reais the Baroque yt not etic rely othe purity and ational inmotthe Grek, Within the Medial Revival there grew spabay of the practic of the ben ie Middle Ages, which foreshadowed the tres mao Thee i nt much to change today in the pasa tht ‘ote from Salomon Reina’ Apoll. At ate as 1804 possible to conceive of modern architecture ciel as wa renaissance of the Gothic. Yet it haul be stressed hl then tion ofthe mem style to the Gothic eco athe ue sual «matter of principle rather than a mater patie weed, the leading moder architects aim a Gra se ptrne, based design, reny rather than Gothic apiaton, In writing on mera architecture sme few years ago it ma Possible to accept thatthe individualist o the end then teenth century andthe beginaingf the twentieth, whit ke consciously with the nominal discipline ofthe revival ete lished tentatively a New Tradition. I appeared then as ast ‘tv in which the greatest carmen denominator af he ai revivals was preserved and fased wih the new science fbi ing. Today it seme mare accurate to describe the wrk fhe ‘older generation of architects as halemdern, Bach achite broke in his own way with the inmate pst, each ought ins own direction the postive cements which have bee emined inthe last decade But there wa rea tla integration wl alter the War The industrial architecture of Pter Berens in Germany in the year before the War was already extra simplifed wd pula. Thee of volume beg o replace he atonal fect of mass. Oto Wager, decade eatin in Vina, clive ‘tualities of lignes and developed the plane surface his a= *hiteture for ter own sake The Helpon Van de Velde exer- ‘mented with comin of sutace, making mach eof cures. Bevage at Ansterdam based hs composts an goer and handled beth od and new mitral with uml strstr verdes. Inthe constretions af Peet in France the ane fe ‘near led to visible atclatin ofthe eupporting skeleton ‘ith the wastrel at mere serena betwee the te, Ths in the diferent counts of Europe before the War the conceptions the iterstonal yl ad come independently int exsene, trem forthe younger generation ocembine and erytlie the varioasasthetc and tehnical reli fhe experimentation lth ede Butitwasin Amerie thal the promise of new sie appeared fit and, up ote War, advanced met epidly. Richanlrn in "beseventien and eighties fen went wf as di the ext gene ston onthe Cote in simplifeain of design and in diet ‘pression of structure. Following hin, Root and Sullivan de- acd fem tel lyserape constriction principles which have been moifed bu ot esetally changed by later generation This wrk ofthe cgi and nineties Chicago stil to ite lon We have in America only fw commeril building of 1900 to compare with the radial sel and glans deparinent ‘srs of are: at thee few are mare able than all the ak serper atthe allowing twenty-five years. Tn the fint dees ofthe new cetury Frank Loyd Wright ‘continued bailey the work of the Chicago schon i aher Sede farchitetre. He intaluced many innovations, partie layin domestic ding, tite a importante thas of he Art ‘eaveav and Jugendstil in France and Genmany His open lan- ing broke the mou ofthe tational ose, to which Burope lung down tthe War. He alo was the Fito cenceve of = cet design in terms of planes existing freely inthe di- ‘eto ter tha in era of enloed Backs. Wagar, Behr ens ard Peet lightened the slid masiveness of tadioal snhitetre: Weight dymamited it. ‘Wile much ofthe innovation in Europe merely consist inexpressing more frankly new methods of construction wins framework of design still estertially Clase Ma Wright from the beginning was radical in his esthetic ee ‘mentation. One may regret the lick of ony in hide twllinness oabsebte innovation iw temperaries and his junior in Eup. atone cnt den at snong the architects ofthe older generation Wright made me contributions than any other. His comely move oma ‘nay appear to lack even the vitality of the emai oe tment ofthe fit quarter ofthe cemury in Europe, Pret ma Pethaps, more important ingorator in contraction Va Velde showed greater consisteney and a purer taste nis ‘esthetic experiments. But Wright preerved beter the ble Letween the mere expression of stricture andthe achieemet ment a is Pest form Thee is however a definite beach between Wright nd the ounger architects who erated the contemporary aye fre War, Ever since the days when he was Saliva dil, Wright has remained an individual, A rebel by temperment, hh has refuse even the disciplines of his own theories ‘of developing some coe of the manner whi he has nite he hs begun again and again wit diferent material or adie problem and arived at «quite ew manner. The new manner ten enough contraits some of the exe qualities of his previous work, qualities which European flere have em lated wth distinction and ane asthe hai ther avanc. le his final ofthe shackle of ised tle a rated the ill ‘son offre posible styl, like the mathematicians wh have invented non-Evelidean geometries His tray young spit ‘bels against the new style as vgn as heeled aginst the sys” of th nite centr. ‘Weight belongs othe intratonl style no more than Behr ‘aso Pet or Van de Velie, Some ofthese men have been ‘ey toler om thee janis, They have sbi in pst o the disciplines ofthe international syle. Bu thet work i all srk by race ofthe individualist mers they achieved in ‘hic prine, Without ther wok the tye cal hay hae come ‘no being Yet hindi an th relation othe pat, foals envousness, makes af thea ot so ach he crestro Ane tle an the lt representatives of Romantic. They ae ‘te aka the men af a hundred year ago than the geen ‘nn which has come othe fre since the Wa. "Te catinued existence of Romantic invidusi is nt & qian of rhitecture ale. There dichotomy af the pint ‘mre profond than any mee tle can ever esol. The ete ‘pains indian in arhiteetare le in the fac that Wright has been almost ale in Americ i achieving a dtingsished amchitectare; wile n Europe, and indeed in ther pre ofthe ‘lds wel a increasingly lage group f echt works ceadally within the disciplines of the new ate ‘Theresa asic cleavage betwen the international tle and ‘hehalémalem arhtectaraf th begining ofthe pent on- tay We mast ot forget the deb that Le Cbuser, Grp, Mis van der Rake, Oud and he rst oe oh older men with ham they studied. We mst no forget such exceptional mon ‘ent af the ninetonth century asthe Cyst Palace, We mut rot dismiss a lacking histerial sgieance the fine sense of portion andthe vigorous purity ofthe Casical Revival othe ‘pln eerie ar the spi pracice othe Getic Revi Eve the aburles of Romans aici ruin and the line ‘tl stl ormment of 1900 hae place inthe pair af ‘he contamprary ale. But the new tle afer ten years feitence an growth may now be tied for ill with cad reference othe immediate past There are certain times when new pra ly begin de spite all the preparation that may he raced behind the ee Such atime came immediatly after the Wat, when the inne tional style came into being in France, in Helland ain Ge ‘many. Indeed if we follow the projects ofthe War yas ely the Austrian Los an the Kalin Sat Eli may appear a the new syle was preparing cn an even oer ft, While he innovations of the half-meder were individual ao inp leat to the pint of divergence, the innovations a tee jain were parallel and complementary, aly informed bythe 6 herent spirit asl inthe making 1x pariculaly da the early wok of three men, War Grp in Germany, Oud ie Helland, and Le Case it France that he various sep in the inception ofthe new gle ‘st be sought Thse thre with Mies van der Rabe Cena remain the reat leaders af made architect, Gropias factory at Ald, bl jst before the War, came ‘are to an integration ofthe new spe than ay ee dif nil before 1982 In indus architecture the triton ofthe siyles ofthe past was not repesive, as many facie ofthe ineteenth century well tate. The eed for wing mee ‘constuction thoughoat and fr serving ineton direc wp clay evident. Hence it was easier for Gropi to abance in ‘his el beyond his master, Been, ta it would ave been i ny other. The walls of he Aled factory are sree of lant vith ypandelaf meal at the Nor levels. The ening ad of brickwork dee nt projet beyond thee serena. The prey me ‘shania elements ae frankly hadled and ive intrest oa de appli aramental decoration except the etering. Thee ation ef he prt f the eomplex structures ordered by logic so conitncy rae than by asia yet Yet thee ae ces sill af the canceptoas of wadtionsl a iota The plas sree ace ated ike projecting bay b= tween the Wale suppers, These upp are sheathed with Ick tht they appa ike the at agent ofthe sel sony wall of the past. The entrance is symmetrical an bey Tec al igi i bated wth a decorative expen Grp nas ot dete achieve asi 0 fine ad so cober- ‘at production i the contemporary sl before the Baubaws in 1826, There he profited fom the intervening esthetic cape eatin a he Dutch Neoplastic. The Bauhaus i same ‘hing more than «mere developmen fom the ecicltriumgh the Ale fact (Se astetions on pages 150) Dating the years ofthe War, Ou in Helland came into con- ‘ct withthe gmp af Dutch eubit pines led by Mona td Van Daesbar, who ele themselves Neoplatcist. Thir sitive influence on his werk tft was meligible. Oud e- ‘ined fora ine sil a disciple of Becag, whose hallamoder ‘nne he had previously followed rater closely. He profited so by his tof the innovations of Wright, whee work was ‘day itr norm in Europe ther in Arie, Thon he ag comseiosy to achieve a Neoplastic rcitecture and ftom 1017 nthe nonce of Berge and Wright gat diminish Ashe same time he found in coerete an adequate mate for the expression fnew conceptions of frm, Ova projects were incesing imple, vigorous and amet. On the aealag of nrc painting he came to ealize the ashe potentialities of lanes i thee dimeosons with which Wright ad abready rimeted He reacted sharply agit the picturesquenes ofthe other llomes of Berle and sought with alot Gr ‘ortoarive at ascheme of proportions eve puter me se In is fist housing projects cared oat far they Rabe da in 1918 and 1919 bedi ot advance a far anise cuted projects, But at Oud-Mathenesse in 1921-2, ang ‘ae was required to build the whol village in tational esta and to continue the use af convent rol, the x se promise inhi project came into beng. The anemic turesqueness, th severe horizontal of the composi he perfect simplicity and consistency which he achieve nee nga very complex project all amounced the ens eee La boy of mahaticdacpine. Otud-Mathenese exceeded Groped factry in i cance if nt in inpressiveness. Grape made his anos rimarily in technics, Oui indesign He undoubted oe he ‘nil impetus tothe Neoplastic, bt his persona maser had feed isl fm dependence on panting. The models Yn Dorsbrg made of houses in the eal’ wens, in lean with ther Neoplasicist, with her abr ply oles bright colors, had heir own dic nen in Gemany But the man who Fst made the world aware tht new le was being bor was Le Corbusier: Aa late at 1916, wel fers ‘echnical and sociological theoiing had bg, his concypians ‘design were il stongy marked bythe Clasical sma of his master Pet Hi plane, however, ete ven mae open th ‘howe of Wright hi housing project he nex ew years he ‘assed rapidly beyond hie master Pont and beyond Behres nd Loos, with wh he had alsa come income i Groban house model of 1921 wa the thorough expeson ef cones io fachitectre as radical echnical as Grp at ‘9 novel ssthatially ae Oud’ village. The emmmoas window sea andthe terraces made posible by thease of feracanrete, torter wih the asymmetry of the comparin, undoubtedly produced a design moce thorugh inftard with «new spit ore completely fied frm the convention of the pst han any than ar jected ‘The afuence af Le Corbusier wa the rater, the appearance anew spe themore remarked, becatte a the vebement prop ‘ganda nhich be contributed tothe magaine igi Nouwea, 1920-1925. Since thes, moreover, be has writen seria of books effectively propagandizing his technical and esthetic ‘hearin In thin way hi name hus heme alt synonymous with he new architecture adit has been pried or condemted ‘very largely in is person, But he was ta we ve se, the aly innovator nor was the tle a it came generally into being sie 1922 poculiay his. He crystal; he dramatized: bathe ‘ent aloe in resting ‘When in 1922 he bul at Vauereton his int howe in the newt efile to equ the puri of design andthe boldness leontrctinn of the irokan projet. But he buses that in edit followed this, one fr the punter Osean, and an ‘ae for his prem outside Vevey assd further beyond the ttl stags then ething thet Oud or Crops were build for several moe years. Ozefants et of euhiom, called Pari, had pete inspired Le Corbusier in it serch for sears of fra inspiration for anew architecture. But on the vine Le Corbusier in these early years turned foe precedent rhe to eamshis thant panting Some of his eary houses, such as tat fo the sculptor Mictchaninall at Balognear- Sine, were definitely naval in eling Bat this marine pas was soon overlie Ou sricly Neoplastic phar, othe Expres Sins pre in the work ofthe young architects ef Germany Varios eater eflsences helped re achtetre fom thelast remnants of Kngering taitonalom. The new gee sce in the rapidity with which tanned en Ieyond recognition, Mies van der Roe advanced oman the new stele py at first than Grpias. Before the War he had simpli cla an Iightened the domestic nye of Behrens to poi tly ests conscious inspication from Schinkel nd Persia Ae he {War in wo projects for skyscrapers entirely metal and ge ‘are technica innovation even futher than Grp ae wed than anyane has yet gone in pace. Thee lie would have been pure volume glsed cages spt within, om asale such a not even Paton inthe nineteenth ‘ary would have dreamed posible, However, in thet fom i plans based on clustered circles or sharp anges, they were travaganily Romantic and stogly marked by the comm ‘ave of Expressonum in Germany. {tyes Mies’ projets of 1922 that iste sgificance sat ‘esthetic inorator fist appeared na devin fr county ae ‘he broke wih the conception ofthe walls continous lane surrounding the plan and bil op his composition fect of ‘ntersceting planes. Thue he achieve sil withthe use of sup Porting walls x renter openness ven than Le Corbusier wh erroconrete skeleton constuction. Mts’ sete of priputios ‘eentned as serene as before the War an even mor pare. This ‘rjc andthe constructions of Ou sd Le Corbusier in hit Year emphasize tat ts jst a decade ago th the mew The four leery of mer architects are Le Cabos, (ud, Gropias and Mies van der Rohe, But tbr wel they, ‘Rietveld in Holland Largt in ance, ever Mendel in Gee ‘many, for al is Hngering dlance with Expres, took Pale steps of nay equal importance in the yar jut ter played it the War. The styl didnot sping fom single source bt came ‘nb being generally. The writing of Oud and Gropis, and to @ fnaterdepre that Le Corbusier, with the fequertpubation their projects af these year, eae the principle f the new She broad. These projects have indeed become more fanoas ‘han many exeated bung. From the Fist thre were als cris, who were nat architect, toserve a publics. Everyone who was intrested in thee ston ofaindem architecture ha to came terms withthe nar ‘eat spe, The pinciples ofthe style that appeared already ny by 1922 nthe projet and the executed uldings ofthe Jnr, il ent eda an ever inreasing group facie! houphoat the weedTi FUNCTIONALIOM meh su eee ne eee Se eleaae eae a emer eae nits mont gene accepted frm the ide of fnctionlsm is sulci elastic. I derives its sanesins frm bth Grek and Getic achtectre, fin the empl a well a in the cathe Akal the esthetic expression ie based on xtuctre and fet, Inall the erignal styles of the past the esthetic i vlad to, ‘ten dependent on, the technical. The supporters af bth the ‘ClasicalRevial ad the Medial Revival in the nineteenth ‘etary were ready to defend much af thee practice by function lt arguments. The socalled rational of architects lke ‘Schinkel and Labeouste was type of fanctinaiom ei vigor cul voted, moreoerin the arheloial eri of Vi ‘le-l-Dac andthe etic erica of Pugin and Rankin Mar vis and his disciples brought this son of functionalist teary aealaceraaer ‘The dcrin ofthe contemporary an-esthti anton ismuch mare stringnt. hari seo rater than ethical or archeoligical. Leading European eres, particulary Seg fre Ciedion, claim wth somo justice that rhitectare has uch Immerse praia! problems to deal with nthe modern word ‘hat thetic quentons mut ake a acomday place in archer tual exci, Architect like Hannes Meyer go further They clan that sees in propertions or in prablems af design Sor ‘hie cw ake i ail an unfortunate remnant of nineteenth cen tary Sddgy, For thee men it san mat total abort he smder sl in terms of esthetics at all. Ifa bulding provides SR feet, lanl nied cemeeces cs itis tothem good building rare aft pearance. Mode ‘em contraction receives fam them a stightforwa expe ‘So: they use standardized pats whenever posible and they svc ormment or uanecessary deta Ay elaboration af design, my unecessary ue of specially made ps, ny applied dow ,-.—srwaiwa=atdlt( ( ( ll T LITGTIEI_—‘ation would ao the cont ofthe building i homens ee sible to onganize an execute «complicated budge ‘ut making some choices nat whl determined by tea ‘conomics. One may therefore refs o admit that inet faetinals building is quite withrat «potential eta de iment. Conscious or uncinschusy the ait at me ces before his design is completed. In these cies European functionalist fll, rather than go guna th pn ple of the general contemporary yl, Whether hey ada ‘ent is beside the point In America also there are bath architects nd ete wna Sider architecture not an art, anit has bee in the pa at ‘meray a subonfinate technic of industrial ication. Rathi rita of builng appear to them neal a meaning esthetic critica of road balding. Their atte has been some extent beneficial ane in ite effect on American bling ven from the esthetic point of view. Mast European ries el "ish that American enginers hae alas een fr mer = rovide tigtag trimmings a rhythmical fenestton. Fr ar ‘ment ca be aed aftr the wok isdn ao comes into po di ect relation with the handling of fnctin and structure. Aer ‘can mavdersinm in design astally at ses a the revivalsm which preceded i Mac Amerion architects would ‘are the loss of applied omament aed nitatve desi Sich things serve to obncure the essential emptiness of syseraper =a The European functionalist are primal bude, anlar iets ny unconsciously. This ha ie advantages even for a cietret tat Cres shoud be artcalaie beat problems ‘desig bat architects whe training i oe terial than inlet, ean afr to be uneonciae othe esthetic efits they prac. So, t may be asumed, were many ofthe peat hulders fhe ps. Sine the warks af the European funcional it ally all within the Lmie of he tration style, they ay be lined among it representatives. (Page 223 £) Nai rly these doctimaives achieve works a esate dtintion les tenth ome thers ho practice he tf echtectre a a= ‘duly they pure the cence af ding. ‘he American fnetionaliss cli ob bude fit, They ovary sald octet th lle ceo th word. They ‘needy, she Buopean functionalist arene to deface their [athe elected ngs te cet Nor can the lai for thee skyscraper and apartment houses ‘he broad scoloial justification that exis forthe worke using, the schals and hospitals of Europe. Or the wale, Ameriean facie, where the cles expects no mney t be spent on desi, are beter buieings and t Teast negatively rer indesign than thowe constrains in which he rhitetis fre by creumstances to be more than ax engineer. Tebnial development, morn, re rapid forcing alot all ome Cian indus building into the mould ofthe interational ‘ole Teint necesay to accept the cntentions of the fanctonl- isthe there mo new aye oe even consider their an work sill anther kind f arbiter, Whe the ler generation hascomtnwed fithfal to individual, a et of genera etic Principles hax come ito use. While the fancier to deny that the esthetic element in architecture i mga, more andl ore buildings ans prodeced it ie aa ate wisely and elective fllaned witht saci teat IV A First PRINCIPLE Arohitecture as Volume lontemparary methods of constuctivn provide cage or ‘elem f sport Tis etn asi appear efor the uid ings encloses familiar a everyone. Wheber he sports ae fmt rol enforced cance, the et fom a distance ok 4 ple of verticals and vinta. For pectetion asia the ‘weather t ie necesary that this kelton oud be sme way ‘closed by all In traditional marry contruction the wl ee tems the supp. Now the walls ae merely sabord tat cleest fied ike sree between the suppor cata lea shell oats them. Ths the uiding eke abst oan bella wth stg internal suppot and continuous edea |