\ x g g wy 8 e Cultural Diffusion Essential Questior cultures? In what ways have migration and trade affected A. Define cultural diffusion. B._ Record information about the topics listed in the Cumulative Review or your answers to the questions in the Cumulative Review below. Use the Concept Connector Handbooks at the end of your textbook, as well as chapter information, to complete this worksheet. 1. Cultural Diffusion in Early Human History Cultural diffusion has long been a key source of change in society. Some of the changes that took place during the Old Stone Age, the New Stone Age, and the ‘time of early civilizations were likely the result of cultural diffusion. Developments during these periods include the use of fire, the creation of stone tools, the paint- ing of caves, the domestication of plants and animals, and the development of arly civilizations. These technologies were not invented everywhere at the same time. Knowledge traveled slowly, perheps taking thousands of years to spread across continents. ° f* Arabic Numerals The system of writing numbers that weuse today was devised by Gupta mathe- maticians in India. The Guptas ruled from A.D. 320 to about 540. The system is commonly called Arabic; however, Hindu-Arabic is the more accurate texan. Arab merchants and traders introduced the numerals as they traveled around the Muslim empire in Spain. A European manuscript containing the numerals was written in Spain in 976. The superiority of the Hindu-Arabic numeral system is evident by its use nearly everywhere. . Decimal System Indian mathematicians also originated the concept of zero and developed the deci- ‘mal system of numbers based on ten digits that we still use today. Mathematicians in the Islamic world adapted it to include decimal fractions. It was introduced to the West when a text written by the Muslim mathematician al-Khwarizmi in the ‘800s was translated into Latin in the 1200s. G Mediterranean. The numerals may have been introduced in Europe via the ‘©Peareon Education, ne, publchng 2 Pearson Prenie Hall Al righ reorvedCaaZ eer) 4. Hinduism Unlike most major religions, Hinduism has no single founder. Instead, it grew out of the overlapping beliefs of diverse groups who settled in India. Aryans began arriving in India by 1500 8.c. They added the gods of the Indus civilization to their ‘own. Later people brought other gods, beliefs, and practices. As a result, Hinduism ‘became one of the world’s most complex religions, with many gods and god- desses, and many forms of worship. It has been said that Hinduism accepts all forms of belief and worship, and does not eliminate any. 5. Buddhism Buddhism developed in India around 600 6.c. Its founder, Siddhartha Gautama, ‘became known as the Buddha. Buddhism and Hinduism have some similarities, including ideas about nonviolence and reincarnation. Unlike Hinduism, with its focus on priests and rituals, Buddhism urges each person to seek enlightenment through meditation. Missionaries and merchants spread Buddhism to many parts of Asia. By A.D. 500, Buddhism had spread from India into China, Tibet, Korea, and Japan. Buddhism slowly declined in India. However, Hinduism absorbed some Buddhist ideas and added Buddha as another Hindu god. 6. Evolution of the Alphabet Even today, we can see examples of the important effects of cultural diffusion all around us. Indeed, the words on this page are the result of cultural diffusion. The alphabet we use today was developed by the Phoenicians. The Phoenician system used 22 symbols that stood for consonant sounds. The Phoenician alphabet was borrowed and modified by the Grecks. The Greeks added symbols for vowel sounds. That alphabet was then borrowed and adapted by the Romans. The alphabet was spread through trade and conquest, and because it was easier to use than other ancient writing systems, such as cuneiform or hieroglyphics. 7. The Spread of Roman Culture Roman conquests and the empire (4.0. 27—a.p. 476) helped to spread Roman cul- ~ ture, That culture included language, literature, values, engineering, and laws. The Romans built roads to allow them easy access to all parts of the empire, and these roads allowed Roman culture to spread throughout Europe, North Africa, and the Middle East. The Romans developed laws to govern their large empire. Even after the empire fell, the Roman concept of law remained. Language, too, became a vehicle for spreading Roman culture. Romans wrote histories and epic poems that are read today. Latin remained the language of educated people and. of the Roman Catholic Church for hundreds of years. 8, The Spread of Christianity and the Spread of Buddhism The spread of religions depends on a variety of factors, including the appeal of the religion’s message and political support. Both Buddhism and Christianity spread far and wide from their original locations. Buddhism developed in South Asia in the late sixth to fourth century 8. Today there are 373 million followers all over the world. Christianity developed in the early first century A.0. in the ‘Middle East. There are over 2 billion Christians today. Both religions used mis- sionaries to spread their beliefs. ‘© Poareon Eauosion, Inc, publening ae Peareon Prentice Hal Al igh reserved.9. The Roman and Byzantine Empires Byzantine rulers thought of their empire as the successor to the Roman empire. Like the Romans before them, the Byzantines spread their culture across a wide ‘expanse of Europe. Both empires diffused language and learning, religion, art and architecture, and political ideas. The Byzantine Church, known as the Eastern, or Orthodox, Church spread throughout Easter Europe, the Balkans, and Russia. Byzantine scholars preserved the classic works of ancient Greece. As the Byzantine ‘empire weakened in the 1400s, scholars left the Byzantine capital to teach in uni- versities in the West. The work of these scholars contributed to the cultural flower- ing in Europe known as the Renaissance 10, The Spread of Islam Islam began in the Middle East in the A. 600s. Islam's founder, Muhammad, created rules that governed and united Muslims, and brought peace. As his rep- utation grew, thousands of Arabs adopted Islam. Islam is both a religion and a way of life, After the death of Muhammad, Islam continued to spread as the Muslim empire grew. Conquered people were treated fairly; Islam’s message emphasized equality; Arab trade networks developed; and Muslim empires developed in Spain, Persia, and India. All these factors contributed to the spread of Islam. Today, there are over one billion followers of Islam all over the world. issionaries Missionaries share more than their religious beliefs. They also help to spread lan- guage, values, technology, and ideas about laws and government. In the 500s, Buddhist missionaries introduced Chinese writing and customs to Japan. A Buddhist form of architecture, known as the stupa, developed into the Japanese pagoda. In the 800s, Christians from the Eastern, or Orthodox, Church adapted the Greek alphabet so they could translate the Bible into the Slavic languages. This alphabet is still used in Russia, Ukraine, Serbia, and Bulgaria. Russians adopted other aspects of the missionaries’ culture, including art, music, and architecture. 12. The Renaissance and Islam During the Middle Ages, many European peoples were cut off from one another as trade broke down and disease ravaged populations. With the Renaissance, renewed trade and increased curiosity about the world led to great cultural dif- fusion. For example, art techniques developed in Italy spread fo northem Europe, and vice versa. Cultural diffusion also occurred as Islam spread between 750 and 1200, Muslim merchants introduced the Indian numerals we use today to the western world. Muslim advances in mathematics and medicine spread as, books were translated into Latin. These books became the standard texts in European schools for hundreds of years. ‘ 11. The Spread of Ideas and Culture as a Result of Buddhist and Christian ‘© Pearson Education, ne, publishing a Pearson Prete Hall Al rights served,13, The Renaissance and the Tang and Song Dynasties ‘The European Renaissance ushered in a period of great cultural achievements that would eventually influence people far beyond Europe. The Tang and Song dynasties of China also saw importantaccomplishments. The Chinese achieve- ments came earlier and in some cases paved the way for later European develop- ments. For example, the Chinese invention of movable type foreshadowed the later European invention of the printing press. The Chinese developed a small- pox vaccine, invented a spinning whed, and pioneered the use of arches in bridge building. Many of these developments traveled westward. 14, Indian Influence on Southeast Asia Indian culture influenced the cultures of Southeast Asia. Indian merchants and Hindu priests traveled throughout Southeast Asia, slowly spreading their cul- ture. Later, Buddhist monks and scholars introduced their beliefs. Following the path of trade and religion came the influences of writing, law, government, art, architecture, and farming techniques. Southeast Asians visited India as pilgrims or students. As these contacts increased, Indian beliefs and ideas won wide- spread acceptance. The Khmer empire (800-1350) is one example of where this ‘occurred. In the 1100s, a Khmer ruler built a temple complex in present-day Cambodia. Hundreds of carvings depict Hindu myths. + 15. The Growth of Christianity and the Growth of the Roman Empire (Chapter 1, page 49) 16, Influence of Ancient Civilizations on Enlightenment Thinkers (Chapter 2, page 77) ‘© Pearson Eduestion, Inc, publishing a Pearson Prentice Hall Al rights reserved.2.morai decline 3. bureaucratic corruption 4.foreign invasion S.racial ethical tension 0 S-expensive technology Z-inadequate economic burdens Breton S.martaldecine 2, beareaucratic corruptionsiay, vertaxing greedy emperorsin china yelow turban revot «dynastic succesionsexample-26 leadesin 50 year in rome 4 expensive technologysgreatwallin china aqueduetsin rome foreign invasionhuns fr china, goths, vandal for rome «Inadequate economic burdensiovertaxaion on poor deci in free farmersin rome and china + martial detinetack of pride in miitary service foc rome hired mercenarie's «© moral decline example:emperor calgula «racial, ethical, tensionza the greats vast diverse empire not unifies, 10, eliglon:chrstiankty led romanstonottrust ther king or bel hirvas much escapist daoism and no confudan governer all o£ AM PreeCOMMON FEATURES OF CLASSICAL CIVILIZATIONS, The three areas of classical civilizations developed their own beliefs, lifestyles, politcal institutions, and social structnses. However, there were important similarities among them: © Patriarchal family structures — Like the river valey civilizations that preceded them, the classical civilization valued male authority within familie, swell as in most other areas of if. ¢ Agricultural-based economies ~ Despite more sophisticated and complex job specialization, the most common occupation in all aceas was farming. ¢ Complex governments — Because they were so lrge, these three civilizations had to invent new ways to keep their lands rogether politically. Theie governments were large and complex, although they each had unique ways of governing © Expanding trade base ~ Theis economic systems were complex. Although they generally operated independentiy, trade soutes connected them by both land and seaCLASSICAL CIVILIZATIONS Culture Political Organization Social Structure Greece “Most enduring influences | No centralized governments | “Sparta theoretically equal (about 800-300 BCE) | come from Athens: Valued | concept of poli ora ‘wealth accurmulation not education, placed emphasis fortified site that formed the | allowed on importance of human | centers of many city states~ | Savory widely practiced effort, human ability 0 Governing styles vasied ‘Men separated from shape future events Interest in political theory which form of goverament is best? Celebration of human ‘Sparta a military state, Athens eventually 2 democracy for adult males) “Athens government first dominated by tyrants, or ‘women in military barracks until age 30; women had relative freedom; women in Sparta encouraged to be physically fit so as to have individual achievement and | song eulers who gained —_| healthy Babies; generally the ideal human form power: bapa nilitary ie ‘better treated and more ‘Philosophy and scence | >e0¥ess; Inter came to pantarecee Relig | istbranmentiyofee | Saber Highly developed form of | ‘2&0 Who made politcal Athens encouraged equality sculpture literature, math, | SSCS for free males, but women SWattn enguage, and record | Both Athens and Spara | and saves had ite freedom, keeping developed trongmitany | Neither group allowed to Pe organizations and establis cipae in pois aff, jai wath gods | colonies around the Social ats dependent on ving very human eee Mediteraneas. Jand holdings and cule Cities retatvely small soekaeeeete “Great seafaring sil centered around Aepean, but traveling around entice Mediterancan area Rome (about 500 BCE | -Periection of miliary Two era “Basic division between 10.476 CE, although —_| techniques: conquerbut_—_| -Republic—eule by patrcians (adstocrats) and eastem halfcontnued | Sort oporesidvwonof | wisteens, wih some Declan (es fame), for another thousand | 25 into lesions, bower shared with ugh a middle cass 0 years) emphasizing onganization | jssemblies; Senate most merchants grew during the and rewarding military talent | soweeful, with two conguls | empires wealth based on land ‘Art terre, philosophy, | chosen to rule, generally | Ownership: gap between ich science denvative fom ied from the miltary | and poor grew with time Greece -Empire—non-hereditary | -Paefamifas— male Superb engineering and _| emperor, technically dominated arly structure architecture techniques; extensive toad, sanitation systems; monumental architecture ~ buildings, aqueduers, bridges -Polytheismn, derivative from Grecks, bat eligion not patticulaly imporant to the average Roman; Christianity developed during Expice petiod, bat not dominant until very late Great city of Rome — buildings, aenas, design copied in smaller cities shosen by Senate, but generally chosen by predecessor “Extensive colonization and arilitary conquest during doth eras ‘Development of an overarching set of laws, restrictions that all had t0 obeys Roman law sets in place principle of rule of aw, not tule by whim of the political leader -Patron-clent system with sich supervising elaborate -wobs of poople that owe favors to them. Inoqualty increased dusing the empite, with great dependence on slavery during the late empire; shaves used in households, mines, Farge estates all kinds of ‘manual labor we aCaltare Pol jcal Organization Social Seuctare China “Confuclnism developed’ | Zhou — emperor ules by | Family basic unit of (about 500 BCE to 600 | during te Zhous by Han | mandate of heaven, ot society, with loyalty and. cE) times it dominated the | belief dat dynasties rise and_ | obedience stressed politcal and social sructure. | fll according to the will of | Wealth generally based on Legis and Dacism | heaven, or the ancestor. | land owmerips emergence developed during seme ext. | -Emperorwas the "son of | of acholar gentry -Budkhisn appeared, but not | heaven.” Growth of lage influential yet -Eimperochousedin the | merchant css, but “Theat fom nomads fom | Forbidden city, separare | merchants generally ower the south and west sparked | fromall others status than scholar the first construction of the | -Political authocity ureauceats Great Wily ly soldiers, | controlled by Confucian | -Big social divide betosen lavish iomb for fat emperor | vais with emperor nfl | ruc and urban, wth mast Shi Huang Contre but hound by duty | wealth concentrated incites “Chinese identi cemented | -Potcal power cenalized | -Some slavery, but not as during Han era the "Han” | under Shi Fangs often | much in Rome Chinese seen a8 the fist real “Paviarchal sodety “Han —a "golden age’ with | emperce reinforced by Confucian prospesty from tade along | -Han—strong centralized | values that emphasized the Sik Roadsinventons | govemment, supported by | obedience of wife to inchide watermill paper, | the educated shi cholir | husband compasses, and pottery and | bureaucrats who obtained Silemaking; calendar with | positions through ci 365.5 days, service exams) ~Copital of San posibly the ‘mont sophisticated, diverse ci in the world atthe times ‘many other large ces Tadia ~Aryan religious stores | -Lack of pola unity ~ | Complex socal hienrchy ‘writen down into Vadss and | geographic barers and | based on caste membership Hinduism became the diversity of people; tended to | (birth groups eae jab) dominant sigion, although | fragment nto small ‘ocupations strictly dictated Buddhism began in India| kingdoms; poled authory_| by caste during this er less important than caste | Rarer part of time -Maucyans Buddhist, rembership and group | period ~ women had Gupias Hindu allegiances property rights -Great epic terature such ax_| -Mauryan and Gupta “Decne in the sans of the Romans and Mabubrae | Empires formed based on | women during Gupts, “Eixensive wade routes | military conquests Mauryan | corresponding to increased with sibconinen and wih | Epes Atoka tena cmp on ein nd others; connections to Silk poser imberitance of property; rit Road, and heart of Indian | Buddhism, kept the tligion | of ra forwealthy women ( ‘Ocean trade; coined money _| tive “theater state" widow cremated herself in fortmde techniques used during her husband's funeeal pyre) So-called Arabic numerals developed in India camploinga 10-based system -Gupta — grand palace and ‘court ta impress all visitors, ‘conceal politcal weakness ak > AeBackground Geography shapes history because it is where all history takes place, Geography is the study of people, their environment, and their resources. Civilizations are influenced by access to various types of resources, by geographical features that either protect, or isolate, and by the area in which they live. Some of these geographical resources and features are, rivers, ‘mountains, oceans, irregular and regular coast lines, and islands. Rivers provide fresh water for irigation, act as trade routes & invasion routes, and provide fertile soil along their Rivers valleys. Major river valleys such as the Nile, Tigris-Euphrates, Indus, and Yellow, all were home to early civilizations. ‘Mountains often act as barriers for e civilizations. This can have a positive effect in that it protects a culture from / invasion. An example of mountains as a barrier would be the Himalayas protecting early India from China, They can also have a negative effect by preventing cultural diffusion. An example of this would be the near isolation of the Incan Empire along the Andes. Oceans often act as barriers for civilizations, ‘but can also be a source of food and livelihood. The barrier effect has both positive and negative aspects. A positive example would be the Pacific ‘Oceans Ocean was a bartier to Korean Mountains invasion of Feudal Japan. A negative example would be the Atlantic Ocean prevented cultural diffusion beoveen Mesoamerica and the rest of the world for centuries. ‘An irregular coastline has many natural h harbors. This feature has both positive and negative effects. An example of a positive effect would be the British Islands which have many natural harbors. This feature allowed them to develop a strong Navy, and irregular trade and culturally diffuse with the world,access for the Europeans when the began to explore, and eventually conquer the continents. Regular coastlines have few to no natural harbors. This is a barrier effect with both positive and negative consequences. Africa has a regular coastline. A Regular positive effect of this was that Coastline it was difficult to invade Africa’ bysca. A negative effect was / that Sub-Saharan Africa remained isolated from the rest ofthe world for many centuries. Islands often act as basress to both invasion "jand cultural diffusion. Japan has been able to stay free of foreign control though most of its history, but has also been isolated from the world for centuries ata time. Great Britain was able to stay free of German control during World War IX because they o> are an island nation, Rainforests often act as barriers, but can also bea resource center. Asa barrier, they prevent invasion and cultural Sting tho diffusion. An example would | bethe African rainforests. inforests They can also be a source of a raw materials. An example Islands would be the Amazon Rainforests which provide hardwoods, medicines, and other raw materials to many countries in South America. Deserts often act as barers. An example would be the oe Sahara “a3 Desert that protected a lower Africa from invasion for many centuries. But, the Sahara also prevented cultura diffusion to this area. rested by Jtary Watane ‘Copyright 1808-2008 Oswego ly School District Regent Exam Prep Center ‘Renansran véStudyZang are FREE educational resources.@ Wiki Home @ Recent Changes ® Pages and Files & Members [-Searen Home Home 1.4.4- Baty Patterns of Human Migration 4.4.2. Humane & Firo 1.1.3: Humans & Early Tools 1.4.4 Eaty Economic Structures 1.2.1-Econ. & Soc. Impacts of the Neo. 41.2.2. Climatic Impact on Early 49 12.3- Enion, impact of Pastoraism 1.25 Reliable Food Sources & ob Speciaization 41.2.6-Technological Impact on First Wave Civ. 1.3.4 State Unifying Culture 1.3.4 First Wave Arch. & Urban Pranning 1.3.2 Hammurabi’s Code & Early Civs 1.32. Pastoral Weapons 1.32. Geography of First Wave Civ My ef 2 Ws od 2.1.2- Classical noid ZVBtt ov Ben +Classical+Religions) @ Edit — 0 (/2.1.2--Classical+Religionsi#discussion) © 36 (/pageMhistory/2.12-+Classical+ Religions) Upage/menu/2.1.2-+Cassical+Religions) 2.1.2 - Classical Religions Table of By: Wilson Wong and Hrishi Kulkarni Contents 242- WO Classical as Basic Gist At the beginning ofthe classical er in word history religions : 2 ‘and cultural traditions develozed and spread throughout ail Basic Gist of the world's major empires. Amongst these religions and a cultural radtions wore: Daoism, Confucianism, Greco- Religions Ot Roman Philosophy, Budchism, and Christianity. Rome, Han Daoism Cha, Sstatlauy nda tnd re Pern Eno a Vv adopted separate religious practices that often competed Basic 2 ‘with one another. Some ofthe main religions and Beliefs > philosophies were: Daoism, Confucianism, Greco-Roman = Philosophy, Buddhism, and Christianity. Though these Emergence) traditions developed individually and independently, there ‘are a number of commonalities that exist between them. For Spread instance, the founder of each religion is usually depicted as a humane member ofthe elt, who enters a sate of Confuciani2.4.4- Classic, Relig. Bonding Force 2.1.2- Classical Religions 2.1.4. Belief Systems Impact on Gender Roles 2.1.6. Classical Architecture 2.4.6- Indian Drama & Lit 2.1.8- Classical Sculpture 2.2.1- The Growth of Classical Cis. 2.22- Indian Imp. Manage. 22.2. Persia's imp. Manage. 2.2.2: Rome's Imp. Manage, 2.2.2-Chine's Imp, Manage. 2.24 Urban Centers 2.2.6- Classical Social Hierarchies 2.2.5 Social Hierarchies In Classical Civilizations 2.2.7- The influence of Classical Patriarchy Urban Planning and Monumental Construction W wh a ool tL stories of Jesus and Buddha have created speculation that the two were in fact the same person. In essence, all of the Classical religions are similarin that they teach the importance of proper morals and virtue in the human existence. Religions Dao Basic Beliefs This religious tradition was feunded by the Chinese philosopher Laoz! in 500 BCE. It encourages practtioners to cast aside civilized society and become one with naturé, shunning Confucianism’s preaching of human relationships and higher education. The reigious text Daodejing states that itis unnecessary and counterproductive to have ambition, because doing so would be resisting the Dao or “the Way’. From a Daoist perspective, simply relaxing and allowing nature to take its course will produce the optimum {for everyone, every time. Attempting to disrupt the Dao, even by attaining knowiedge or werking hard, wil ultimately harm someone. Moreover, though itis referenced innumerable times, the Dao (i) is never explicily defined in Daoist practice; itis merely alluded to as the will of the Universe, a nameless and eternal principle that govems all life. Emergence Daoism emerged during a time of disunity in China called the ‘Warring States Period. As competing kingdoms waged war with each other in a relentiess cycle of chaos, disorder and turmoil, thinkers began to theorize how a unified Chinese state could be created, From this turbulent environment ‘emerged Daoism, Confucianism, and Legalism. Daoism was ‘equally well accepted by both the elite and the poor. A ‘goverment official or scholar could follow Confucian Works: Cited: ‘Text Pictures Principles during the day fulfling his duties to society and state, then return home at right and practice Daoist meditation and create landscape paintings depicting the ephemeral human existence next o a natural mountain and water landscape, “The religion also provided a bonding force for peasants to condemn governments that were imposing strict orders on them. Spread ‘The Chinese lower and upper classes alike adopted this religion quickly because of its broadly moralistic appeal. Daoism’s yielding nature alowed it to blend with otherKt P ws e ‘Yin (darkness) and Yang (tight) demonstrate the balance of opposites that is ‘detailed in Daoism Confucianism Emergence ‘Along with Daoism, Confucianism developed inthe Chinese Warring States Period, around 500 BCE. This philosophy is based on the teachings of Confucius, a sage ‘who lived from 851 BCE - 478 BCE. lis emergence came largely asa search for peace inthe chaotic and turbulent environment of poltical disunity that characterized this period. Though Confucius lived around 500 BCE, his teachings did no become prominent ui after he died because he never wrote dow his ideas, instead, twas Confudus' students who compiled his teachings into the ‘Analects and truly itegratedhis philosophy ino the Chinese chiization Basic Beliefs ‘While Daoism's focus is onthe harmony between man and nature, Confucianism ‘emphasizes the relationships between man and man. The Master detailed fve basic relationships: ruler and subject, father and son, husband and wife, older brotner and younger brother, ana older mena ana younger trend. in allo these, tne former is expected to act wth benevolence and compassion towards others. CConsequenty, the latter must aways yield to and obey his or her superior. Confucius promoted the family as the basic unitin society because itis a model of the state. The rulers, or parents, are kind and provide forthe material well being of their subjects, or children. in retur, the children practice filial piety 2 ritual of respect for one's ancestors and eiders. n the eyes of Confucius, since all humans ‘are naturally vituous, the reciprocal generosity between superior and inferior wll ahvays be present, leading tea unified and peaceful state, ‘Spread ‘This way of ife was initially oppressed by Shi Huangcl, but after he and his Legals, followers were toppled, Confucianism was adopted by the more benevolent Han ‘emperors. Confucianism was actually helped by this competition because after being clamped down upon for two decades, citizens were furious with the ‘government and wanted more justice from the rulers. Naturally, Confucianism Presented itself as the antithesis of the despised Legalism, and therefore enjoyed a boost in popularity that would not have occurred had it not been initially subdued.Confucius believed in vitue, benevolence, and piety as the basis of a strong society, ‘Greco-Roman Philosophy Emergence ‘The emergence of Greco-Raman philosophy cannot be completely attributed to one particular person or group, however, many philosophers and scientists helped develop and explore the rational thinking process behind it. Basic Beliefs ‘The Greek philosophers sought to explain the world using rational ideas rather than, ‘supematural phenomena such as gods. This led to many advancements in science ‘and mathematics, as shown by the work of Euclid, Archimedes, Pythagoras, and other scientists whose ideas form the basis of our moder technologies. However, rational thinking was not limited to the physical and mathematical sciences, Herodotus, a Greek historian, attempted to find an aspect of human nature that ‘explained why the Greco-Persian wars occurred, Spread \While Greco-Roman philosophy was not the only cultural tradition inks region. Its eas Spread into what would become known as Western clvlizallon. The idea that human reasoning could explain the vast cosmos in lace of an almighty being was an interesting dea, which helped develop Chistian theology, tind new sciontic innovations, and form the basis for future European philosophy. Buddhism Emergence Buddhism was founded by Siddhartha Gautama, an indian prince . According to Buddhist scptures, Gautama lt his lavish and sheltered ite atthe palace at age 28, He began to journey outsde ofthe palace and encountered things such as old age, sickness and death. Gautara spent six years on his journey, wich eventually Jed to his enlightenment after he meditated for 49 days under a Bodhi Tree. Afterkt Pe (ebove) Buddha achieving Enlightenment ater siting under the Bodhi tree, despito allthe distractions around im. Basic Belists The Middle Way Before attaining Enlightenment, the Suddha saw a variety of people who lived in diferent extremes. This led 10 his teaching of the Middle Way, which is the practice of living life in moderation. This life of moderation means not becoming overly seit indulgent or over self-punishing for one's wrongdoings. Karma Karma essentially dictatos that for every good action a person makes, something ‘900d will happen to them as a consequence of that action, either during thei life or after rebirth. This idea also applies to bad actions. For every bad action a person ‘makes, something bad will happen to them as a consequence of that action, ether during thei life or after rebirih. According to the Eight Fold Path, one must build up ‘a positive karma and refrain rom commiting any bad actions in order to attain Enlightenment. Nirvana, the Four Noble Truths and the Eight Fold Path ‘The ultimate goal of Buddhism is to attain Enlightenment (or nirvana) and get out of the endless ¢ yyle of rebirth and stop the suffering of life. According to the Trpitaka scriptures (the primary scriptures of Buddhism) the Buddha's first teachings were the Four Noble ‘Truths, which explained the cause of suffering. These truths are: 4. Life leads to suffering 2. Suffering is a result of cravingsK¢Pp #6 eae \Y 4. Aperson can attain fade Enlightenment by following the Atos — tanec Eight Fla Path at on fie ‘The Eight Fold Path essentity Com says that in order to atin Rid Mitt Enlightenment a person must (above) An illustration of the Eightfold Path, accept realty, act morally, ard becom ‘© mentaly disciplined (through proper meditation). By doing all these things, one may achieve nirvana Spread The Beginnings in india ‘The spread of Buddhism within indian society was mainly due to its accesstbily t rejected the religious authoriy of the Brahmins and allowed anyone to attain erlightenment. This rejection of the caste system had a large appeal to lower society members ofthe syste. Additionally, the Buddha eventually alowed women to enter into their own monasteries as nuns, which increased Buddhism's appeal to ‘women. However, Buddhism growing popularity led to big differences in ideology. Formation of Sects ‘The older sect is known as the Theravada, This sect views the Buddha as a teacher, but not as a god. It was also more psychological than religious, as gods played relatively minor oles 1 the road to enlightenment. However, in the Mahayana (‘The Great Vehicle") form of Buddhism, Buddha was Viewed as a god and salvation was now attainable through acts of devotion, such as donating to monastery. Additionally, inthis form of Buddhism people who attained salvation would sometimes stay and help others in their quest for nirvana, ‘Spread Into Other Regions Buddhism began to grow and spread outside of India, primarily in its Mahayana form. The Silk Read trade helped to accelerate this process. Mahayana Buddhism was adopted in South and Central Asia, however its influence in Persia was stopped by Zoroastrianism. However, its numbers began to dwindle in India. Hinduism began to become broader and incorporated many Buddhist beliefs, even ‘adopting the Buddha as an incamation of Vishnu. Additionally, a growing gap ‘emerged as monasteries began to amass greater wealth, In combination with ‘competition from Islam, these factors were major reasons for its decline in the land ofits birth, despite growing in popularity in Central and East Asia,Li P wr | Tw sre oF Buooisa to0 600 BED tiple me stati mers Seer > Roun oes > tocree bid on ene > tentang t © athrery © Iaker emt texcey 2 Se 4 Merete Christianity, Emergence Jesus of Nazareth was a young Jew from the province of Judea in the Roman Empire. Jesus changed professions however, and became a teacher and miracle worker. This profession was shor ved, as the Roman authonties executed him, believing him to be a threat tothe state. His teachings went on to be spread by the ‘Twalve Aposties and became Christianity eeu Its very dificult to generalize basic Christian beliefs due to the many varying Interpretations by different denominations. Christianity is monotheistic. According to Christian scriptures, by accepting the Christian God one can attain salvation. This, salvation grants a person access to Heaven. However, those who sin and those Who are non-Christian will bum in Hell. God is viewed as an omnipotent being in Christianity: Jesus is believed to be the son of God and the messiah foretold of byLAP we Beginnings Initially, Christianity began as a small sect of Judaism. However, as it began to grow in size, it separated itself trom Judaism. The Twelve Aposties delivered Jesus’ message around the world. Missionaries such as Saint Paul also helped to spread (Christianity. Much like Buddhism, Christianity believed that a person from any strata may attain salvation, which made it extremely popular with lower-stratum people. ‘The stories of miracles whick surrounded Christianity helped to impress possible converts. (above) An artist's rencition of Jesus. CChristianity’s strong monotheistic ideology offended the polytheistic Romans; however, it slowly grew in popularity. Emperor Constantine converted to Christianity, “which helped give it imperial recognition. Emperor Theodosius began the transition Into Rome's conversion into a Christian state by banning all polythestic ritual ‘sactifices and closing their temples. This imperial recognition helped turn Rome into Christian state, Other Regions This slow conversion into @ Christian state later helped expand Christianity all over Europe and elsewhere in thew tld. As the religion spread and became more popular a hierarchical structure ‘emerged. The bishop of Rome emerged 2s the pope of the Church, and wielded significant power as the spiritual leader of Christianity, However, different practitioners began to develop different ideotogies and the Church began to split into diferent sects. Eventually, the difering interpretations ofthe religion led to the formation of modem Christian sects,LEP #9 Mediterranean Sea | Raute Biosionary Joumeys 1 | Fes Missionary sraney = Secont! Missionary Journey ly | += Ths Missionary Inwmey Eko * Many ofthese religions (or ideologies in the case of Greco-Roman philosophy) had a profound impact in the development ofthe areas which they influenced. A plethora of artwork was dedicated to depleting stories based on religious scriptures ‘ideas, such as Heaven and Hell, While religions such as Buddhism and Hinduism practiced nonviolence, others such as Legalism promoted warfare as 2 sty from internal corupten. Many armies would pry to their respective Gods, or God, for triumph in baile, such as the Jews. Wile ideologies such as Greco- oman philosophy id not get into particular arguments with science, other religions, such as Christianity continually clashed with science producing competing views on how the world worked. Greco-Roman philosophy looked to science to ‘explain the phenomena of the universe, pushing intellectual ideas even further. Religions also played a majar role inthe economic life of societies, For example, ‘many viewed Chistiarity as a materaisic religion, whereas Buddhists sought to retrain from setindulgence, Such difering ideologies changed the economic views oftheir respective flowers. However, the biggest impact ofthese religions can ‘most clearly be seen inthe social and polical realms of society, Polticaly these religions were used to gain greater status. When Nero supposedly burned half of Rome to the ground, he used Christians as the poltical scapegoat fr his actions. However, eventually, Rome's imperial recognition of Christianity greaty impactod its popularity inthe region. Addtionaly, religious leaders, such asthe Pope, had "massive poltical power because of Christanty’s large following. Socially, religions Acted as a type of socal corirol mechanism. They provided a moral backbone for societies, They all encouraged their followers to do moral things and refrain fom ‘immoral actions. Overall, a sacity'sreligion became a huge part ofits culture and its values,‘Text [1k Ways of The World by Robert W. Strayer: pgs. 189-213 and 333-351 [2] Conze (1959), pp89-40 (Guddhism) {S) hitewaw bbe.co uldeelgioniteigions/buddhism/ (Buddhism) (4) hited obs oroledensthalland/puddhism.tim (Four Noble Truths, Karma, Eight Fold Path) (S} bite vwww bbc.co ulreligionreligionsichristanty/ (Christianity) [6] Ketcham, Jonathan. “Confucianism * Faithresource.com- Your Online \ Resource for Information on Faith. Center For Youth. Web. 10 Nov. 2011 x {7} ashwath0608 wordpress.com (Buddha Meditating) v [| buddhismspints. blogspot com (Monks praying) v {8} nvec.edu (Eightold Path) > {10}: Philips Atias of World Fistory (Spread of Buddhism) {11} rationalrevolution.net (Pau's Missionary Journeys) [12]: sharpiron.wordpress.con (Jesus) 1) wan log comned/251858059508 pg Mn Yan) > I a (Confucius) Help «About - Blog - Pricing - Privacy Terms - Support - Upgrade ‘Contibutions to hitps:apworkdis12 wikispaces. conv are licensed under a Creative Commons Atiibution Share-Alke 3.0 License. Portions not contributed by visitors are Copyright 2018 Tangient LLC TES: The largost network of teachers in the world Q. ~ _8 YtlUyILeH UE YEUpHTONS Gre LUTuorrE ao un ry rere ur globalization processes. Before elaborating on the consequences of several technological developments, we must go through the definition of technology as a sociological term, so that we can further explore the social and political role of technology in the globalization process. Technology can be defined as the socialized knowledge of producing goods and services. We can describe the term technology with five important elements: production, knowledge, instruments, possession and change. Our definition of technology as a socialized knowledge can be better conceived with these elements. Now we shall briefly look through them: It has something to do with production (of goods and services). We need technology to produce something either goods (ex: clothes, television set, cars etc.) or service (ex: banking, security, teaching etc.) Technology improves our capacity to produce. Technology has something to do with knowledge. Technology is a result of intellectual activities. Therefore technology is type of intellectual property. Today technology is developed through research and development institutions as integral parts of the universities. Technology has something to do with instruments. The instruments are the extensions of the human body, whenever an instrument is used there is technology involved. The instruments indicate the usage of technology by human beings. Instruments are mostly physical such as computers, vacuum cleaners or pencils, but sometimes there are immaterial instruments too, such as databases or algorithms in computer programming. Technology has something to do with possession. Those people who possess technology also control it. Controlling technology has usually something to do with economics and politics. Therefore we can speak of technologically rich and poor countries and the struggle among them usually in the forms of patents, transfers and protection of intellectual rights. Technology has something to do with change. With technology, the world has changed drastically. Most of the innovations from the technological advances have very important effects on the lives of peoples of the world, which has witnessed radical changes especially after 1960's revolutions on the microelectronics technologies. Even there are some people who argue that the history is made by technology as a result of their highly criticized techno-determinist view. Alll these aspects of technology justify our definition of technology as the socialized knowledge of producing goods and services, and this definition makes a clear differentiation between the terms technology and technique (technics). Therefore if we speak about the effects of technology on globalization, instead of techniques or technical developments we refer to technology as a social and political term. One may argue that the commercial activities on the Mediterranean in the Ancient times were to be labeled as globalization. The world of these ages, although smaller in size than that of today, had witnessed a simpler form of globalization, after the technological developments on navigation and transportation. The invention of the script can be considered as the first technology of communication that contributed to globalization. With the script man could transmit and store information that could speed up further technological developments. Transportation and Tach noleooy HYpossible to control larger areas; and the emergence of larger empires such as Byzantine Empire had provided greater globalizations. Invention of the print machine with moving letters by Gutenberg was the most important revolutionary technological development, which made possible even a larger global geography. The emergence of the newspapers marked an important era of globalization when the news both commercial and political became an indispensable element for the decision makers. Another milestone in the history of globalization is the invention of telegraph by Samuel Morse. Telegraph made it possible to communicate with the places where you don’t have to go and separated the practices of communication from those of transportation. This aspect of telegraph soon drew the attention of military ranks and telegraph became both a civilian and military communication technology. However because the poles and the copper wires needed for a telegraph and telephone system it was not possible to set up a properly functioning network in insecure and instable geographies. Cyrus Field’s attempts to lay a transatlantic cable for telegraphy succeeded in 1858 and this marked the beginning of a global network. Telephone of Graham Bell in 1861 also contributed to communication networks. Railways also networked to reach to larger distances. Invention of radio as a wireless communication technology solved this problem and ‘opened a new era of globalization. With radio it became possible to communicate with places where you cannot go and even with places where no one can travel. Hertz, Maxwell, Marconi, Tesla and several other people contributed to the invention of radio, which soon became a military ‘communication tool especially for the navy. Radio of 1920's however, tumed to be a commercial communication technology; and is used as a mass communication technology. Transportation technologies also improved with the start of the 20" Century when transatlantic ships became safer and faster and airplanes were produced. First propeller driven passenger plane began service in 1919 between London and Paris. Jet plane and television of 1950's were also important steps toward greater globalizations. The first reliable transatlantic telephone cable TAT-1 was laid in 1956. 1957 marked the most important step in the history of globalization when USSR launched its Sputnik as the first man-made satellite. Satellites made it possible to built a fully reliable global network, compensating the radio networks’ ionosphere fading problem. However global networks still required stronger global networks with solid connections. The first transatlantic fiber cable TAT-8 was laid in 1988 for faster and reliable networks. Global networks: Digital technologies have opened the way towards global networks. Global networks are the networks in which all information and knowledge — also the ideology- necessary for the realization, maintenance and the reproduction of the system — basically the capitalist system. The term "New Economy” is the clearest explanation of how all these information, knowledge and ideology are in close relation to capitalism. Monopolization of economic power -or rather the emergence of an oligopoly markets- is also related to the technology, which facilitates the monopoly tendencies in many ways. Electronic banking is at the heart of the global networks system. Electronic Fund Transfer (EFT), is the first operating form of global electronic financial networks. With EFT it is possible to send and receive financial assets among banks. The Society for Worldwide Interbank Financial Telecommunication (SWIFT) is the organization to assure a reliable global electronic financial system. in 1973 in Brussels, supported by 239 banks in 15 countries, SWIFT starts the mission of creating Teh 2messages. In 1985 a satellite link between US and Europe established. With the utilization of sattelite technology SWIFT has developed rapidly and this technologically well functioning electronic financial network has been accepted globally. By the end of 1999 SWIFT had 6,797 live users in 189 countries and reached 1,059,000,000 messages. With the introduction of VSAT (Very Small Aperture Terminal) technology utilizing the satellites, it has been possible to establish communication networks for TNCs themselves. These networks have been re-structured later with the introduction of IP based intranet technologies. Today it is easily possible to establish a perfectly functioning intranet of a TNC with branches over distant parts of the globe. The satellites today lie at the heart of the global networks. The foundation of INTELSAT in 1964, as an international organization for satellite utilization, was an important step towards the handling of ‘several techno-political issues such as scarce resource satellite positions on Clark belt, an imaginary line 35780 km. Above the equator. The foundation of INTERSPUTNIK in 1971 by the Soviet allies, also improved the communication capabilities of many non-Western countries. The foundation of EUTELSAT in 1974 was another response by the European countries in the “space race”. Today Turkey has three satellites positioned at 42 degrees East and 31.3 degrees East. Internet and especially e-commerce are the terms that are basically used for justifying the recent approach of techno-globalism. Techno-globalism can be summarized as the ideology which rationalizes globalism on technological grounds. The techno-globalists, most of them live in the Anglo-Saxon countries claim that technology makes globalism irresistible. Therefore, techno-globalists wishing to dismantle all worldwide barriers to economic or technology flows, suggest a “liberal” global economic system on technologically improved infrastructure. a“?Throughout history, different civilizations have contributed to the cultural and intellectual life of humanity. These periods are often called Golden Ages, as society enjoys not only cultural and intellectual achievements, but also stable government and a strong economy. fin Asia, China experienced several periods of achievement, with the Han sriod qualifying as a true Golden Age. Japan also achieved greatness in these prreas, under the strong leadership of the Tokugawa Shogunate. (/)| continents. Contributions in the areas of math, science, art, and literature influenced many different peoples, including the African Trading Kingdoms and ater, the Europeans during the Renaissance. A ') The rise of Islam gave way to an empire stretching across three jin Europe, several civilizations contributed cultural and intellectual achievements. The Greeks inder both Pericles of Athens, and Alexander the Great during the Hellenistic = period, excelled in areas such as art, architecture, math, and science. The enjoyed a 200 year long peace that enabled some of the greatest f achievements in human history. The rebirth of cultural and intellectual life kiuring the Renaissance, and later the Enlightenment, would be strongly influenced by both the Greeks and the Romans. his site is designed to aid students in reviewing some of the civilizations that added greatly to 1¢ cultural and intellectual life of humanity. This site should be used in preparation for the New York State Regents Exam in Global History and Geography. In addition, students may est their knowledge of the material presented here by accessing multiple-choice questions ‘from past Regents Exams. ‘Created by Jefory Watkins Copyright ©1990-2008: ‘Regentsrep and SiudZone ae FREE educational sources,Shang Dynasty 1650 - 1027 BCE ‘The Shang Dynasty is considered to be the earliest dynasty in China. Little is known about the Shang, other than their major coatribution to Chinese culture, a system of writing. The hinese system of writing includes tens of thousands of characters, and is very difficult to jeam. This resulted in on a very privileged few ever learning to read and write in ancient hinese society. he ancient Chinese system of writing used pictographs. or drawings of objects, and d phs, or drawings that expressed a thought or idea. amples of this type of writing can be found on oracle bones. le bones are picces of bone of turtle shell used by Shang priests to tell the future. They would write a question addressed (0 either one of the gods, or an ancestor on the bone, then heat it mntil it cracked. They believed that by studying the pattern of racks, one could learn the answer to the question. Oracle bones [ atesamerica fe the oldest example of Chinese writing. Pattie pou Dynasty 1027-256 BCE the Zhou overthrew the Shang and setup their own dynasty in 1027 BCE. They explained [ Aenatanance pct ations by claiming the Mandate of Heaven, or divine right of rule. The Mandate of [Heaven was later used to explain the Dynastic Cycle. A dynasty would remain in power only [ eetiphtenment [1058 asit was providing good government. When a dynasty went into decline, and began seagg'© abuse its power, it was said to lose the Mandate of Heaven, or the favor of the gods. A [Japan prong leader would usually emergeto claim the Mandate, and establish a new dynasty. The kiynastic cycle would then begin again. | The Dynastic Cycle New Dynasty Old Dynasty a Enngepeace © Tatezpeople too much © Redoushd snfrasoneraee © Stops pectechag peeple © Gives land to peasants © Lasinfrasmuctice decay 2 Brecectspeeple © Treats people utah peep peor O Problems a Roods, eathquakes, et © Peasanteevdt © Invaders atack empire Bandits ad couteysike Under the Zhou, the Chinese discovered how to make silk from the cocoons of silkworms. Silk would become China’s most valuable export, eventually linking them with most of the world through trade. Chinese artisans also excelled in book making. The first books were made by binding together long, thin strips of wood or bamboo. Chinese scholars would then carefully paint characters on with brush and ink. Early book include the I Ching, a book forChina enjoyed a true golden age under the Han. Many cultural and intellectual achievements came as a result of the strong leadership of the Emperor Wudi. Under Wudi, China strengthened both its government and economy, setting the conditions for the golden age. ‘This included a period of expansion that saw the opening of the Silk Road as a major trade route. Trade along the Silk Road brought China in contact with other civilizations, and introduced new products such as cucumbers and grapes. Under the Hans, Confucianism became the official belief system of China. They also setup a Givil Service Exam based on Confucianism. This exam was required to enter service in the government. ‘The Confucian system of government was used in China for most of the last 2000 years. Han scientists wrote textbooks on subjects ranging from zoology to botany and chemistry. ‘They were advanced astronomers, which enabled them to create more accurate clocks. Han scientist also invented the process to make paper from wood pulp; they invented the rudder for use on BOS y ships, and ereated other such useful devices asthe fishing reel and L the wheelbarrow. Han physicians developed acupuncture to alleviate pain and to treat various illnesses. They also made use of certain plants as herbal remedies. They were able to diagnose and successfully treat various illnesses with these techniques. Han artists and architects are noted for their detailed carvings in jade, wood, or ivory, and the building of elaborate temples. The also refined the process of silk making, which set the standard in China for centuries. Tang Dynasty 618 ~ 907 After a period of civil war and decline in China, the Tang reestablished a unified government. ‘Tang emperors expanded their influence into Central and Southeast Asia, demanding tribute from such places as Korea and Vietnam. They redistributed land to the peasants and reintroduced the use of Confucian scholars in running the government. Tang emperors also established a law code, and renovated the canal system fo encourage trade and communication inside of China. Under the Tang, a strict social structure was developed. This system consisted of three main social classes, which included the gentry, the peasantry, and the merchants. Each that life would be a state of constant warfare without a strong government to control man's natural impulses. He believed people would enter into a Sociat Contract to escape from this. In the Social Contract, people would exchange frost of their freedoms for the safety of organized society. Once people entered into this, ontract, there was no release. Hobbes did not believe in revolutions, and supported the idea bf absolute monarchs. ocke {Locke also based his theories on his assessment of human nature. However, Locke believed people could be reasonable and moral. In his book, Two Treatises of Government, {Locke explained that all men have Natural Rights, which arc Life, Liberty, and Property, find that the purpose of government was to protect these rights. Furthermore, Locke states that if government did not protect these rights, and became abusive, then the people had a right to volution. Locke supported a limited government that protected people's natural rights. CRT tases Baron de Montesquieu was an Enlightenment thinker from France who wrote a book called, ‘The Spirit of the Laws in 1748. In his book, Montesquieu describes what i 1 he considers to be the best government. He states that government should divide itself according to its powers, creating a Judicial, Legislative, and Executive branch. Montesquieu explained that under this system each branch would Check and Balancethe others, which would help protect the people's liberty. The ideas of Separation of Powers and Checks and bo Balances can be seen in the government of the United States. Voltaire was a French intellectual who wrote and lectured about freedom of speech. Voltaire is best known for saying, "I do not agree with a word that you BY say, but I will defend to the death your right to say it." He believed that freedom of speech was the best weapon against bad government. He also spoke out against the corruption of the French government, and the intolerance of the Catholic Church. Jean Jacques Rousseau Rousseau wrote a book called, The Social Contract, where he stated that people were basically good, and that society, and its unequal distribution of wealth, were the cause of most, problems. Rousseau believed that government should be run according to the will of the majority, which he called the General Will. He claimed the General Will would always act inin equal rights. This in tur led to the Glorious Revolution is Britain, the American. Revolution, the French Revolution, and the Latin American Revolutions. Some of these sevolutions resulted in government based upon the ideas of the Enlightenment. Elsewhere, a few monarchs retained absolute control of their countries while also enacting reform based on Enlightenment ideas. These monarchs are called Enlightened Despots. In Austria, Maria Teresa and her son Joseph II both introduced reforms based on Enlightenment ideas. ‘They reduced the tax load on the peasants, provided free education, and ended censorship in their empire. In Russia, Catherine the Great introduced similar reforms. She enacted laws for religious toleration and free education, and also sought the advice of nobles and peasants in the running of government. However, these reforms seldom outlived the monarchs who had enacted them. Created by satiny Watkins Copyright © 1999-2003 Oswego City School District Regents Exam Prep Center ‘ReganlsPeeg and StudyZane are FREE educational resources y (4 &‘Throughout human history various events have changed the way people have lived. These events can be political revolutions, social and religious changes, new technologies, or the exploration of unknown places. These changes occur in two different fashions, evolution and revolution, f Evolution: is the gradual change or development of something. An example of a historical evolution would be the development of democracy in Great Britain. [ Aatirhic Rev. | xcvoiation: isa sudden or abropt change in something, usually political in nature. “Aa example of historical revolution is the French Revolution. Over a few short ss years France's government changed from absolute monarchy, to constitution monarchy, to democratic republic, to dictatorship, and back to monarchy. ‘Whatever the process, history is about change. This thematic review focuses on the major periods of that change, and the turning points of human history. 1215 Magna Carta 1295 Model Parliament 1640-53 Long Parliament 1649-60 English Commonwealth 1688 Glorious Revolution & Bill of Rights 1814-15 Retum to Monarchy 1789 Absolute Monarchy 1791 Constitutional Monarchy 1792 Democratic Republic 1799 Dictatorship under Napoleon Late 1600s Political Parties 1714 Cabinet System 1721 Ist Prime Minister, Robert Walpole ‘This site is designed to aid students in reviewing major periods of change and significant tuming points in human history. This site should be used in preparation for the New York State Regents Exam in Global History and Geography. In addition, students may test their knowledge of the material presented here by accessing multiple-choice questions from past Regents Exams. wy, \Background Nationalism is feelings of strong devotion to one's country. Nationalism develops among people who usually share a common language and history. It can be an unifying force, as in taly and Germany during the late 19th century. Or, it can be a dividing force, as in the [Balkans during the late 20th century. {Since the fall of the Roman Empire, Italy had been divided among many City States. After the invasion by Napoleon, and subsequently, most of Italy being given to Austria and Spain, nationalistic feelings caused the Italian people to unite and move toward unification. The three great leaders of this movement were Guiseppe Mazzini, Count Camillo Cavour, and Guiseppe Garibaldi. Mazzini started a group called Young Italy in 1831. Young Italy was a nationalistic movement that wanted to end foreign control. Cavour was the Prime Minister of Sardinia, a large Italian State. He formed alliances with other foreign powers to help end Austria's and Spain's control. Garibaldi was a military leader whose Red Shirt army liberated most of southern Italy, before conquering the northem section. After foreign control was ended, italy chose Victor Emmanuel of Sardinia as King. After unification, Italy faced many problems trying to build a national unity. ike Italy, Germany was composed of many independent states. After Napoleon's invasions, ationalistic feelings began to grow, and a movement for unification was started. However, at the Congress of Vienna, Prince Metternich stopped unification from occurring before the fmovement grew to large. However, in the 1830s, the German state of Prussia, formed a trade mmion among other German states called the Zollverein. This agreement brought the German states closer together economically and was the first step toward unification. sas appointed chancellor of Prussia in 1862, and began the work of inifying Germany. While Bismarck may have used German nationalism as a tool to achieve his goals, he was not a nationalist. In fact, Bismarck only sought to unify Germany to further strengthen Prussia, and make the Prussia king the ruler of all Germans. Bismarck’s policy to unify Germany was called B1Gt und Eisen, or Blood and Iron. This was a policy of war designed to give Prussia control of all of Germany. : 1864 - Prussia allies with Austria to ee seize land from Denmark 1866 - Prussia attacks Austria to seize Austro-Prussian War | more land. Defeats Austria in just seven weeks aoe War | 1870- Prussia attacks France, takes Prussia even more land.Nationalistic feelings in Japan led daimyo and samurai to rebel against the Tokugawa ‘Shogunate and restore the Emperor to power. The Emperor Meifi began a process of rapid modernization and industrialization to strengthen Japan against Western control. Within a few short years, Japan became a strong industrial and military power, and began a series of military conquests across Asia. Zionism Zionism was a Jewish nationalist movement to establish a homeland in Palestine. This movement began in the late 1800s, as anti-Semitic feelings intensified in Europe. The main leader of this movement was a journalist by the name of Theodor Herzl. Herz!'s dream of a homeland for Jewish peoples was realized in 1948 with the creation of Israel. India India had been controlled by the British Empire since the 1700s. Over time, nationalistic feelings grew among the Indian population and a movement was began to first establish self rule, and then complete independence. In 1885, Indian nationalists formed the Indian National Congress to achieve these goals. In 1906, the large Muslim population formed the Muslim League to protect their rights, even calling for the creation of a separate state, In 1947, India gained theit independence from Great Britain, due in large part to the strong leadership of Mohandas Gandhi. At the same time, Britain created East and West Pakistan as Muslim states separate from India. East Pakistan later became Bangladesh. Africa Africa had been under the control of Europeans since the late 19th century. A nationalistic movement called Pan Africanism, which emphasized the unity of all Africans, sought to end foreign control. While some countries managed to achieve independence in the 1920s and 1930s, most would not until after World War Il. Unfortunately, nationalistic feelings for any particular African nation were weaker than feelings of loyalty to individual tribes. Because of ‘Iribalism, Africa has faced many problems since independence. Nationalistic feelings helped to end European Imperialism, but have done little to unify any particular African nation. Balkans Nationalism has been a source of conflict in the Balkans for quite some time. Many different ethnic groups live in this region including, Serbs, Greeks, Romanians, and Bulgarians. In the 1800s, nationalistic feelings led these people to rebel against the Ottoman Empire. By 1908, Bulgaria, Serbia, Greece, Romania, and Montenegro had all gained their independence. However, the weakness of the Ottoman Empire cause instability in this region. Russia sponsored a nationalist movement called Pan Stavism, which was based on the idea of all Slavic peoples sharing a similar heritage. Serbia took advantage of this idea in an attempt to gain more land. This brought them into conflict with Austria-Hungary, and ultimately led to the start of World War I. Nationatism continues to be a source of conflict in this area. After the fall of communism in Eastern Europe, the different ethnic groups in Yugoslavia began to war with each other ‘over control of the country. This resulted in the breakup of Yugoslavia in different nations. In the process, many people were killed as a policy of ethnic cleansing was followed. EthnicROMANIA Created by Jeftery Watkins Copyright © 1999-2008 Oewego City Schoo! District Regents Exam Prep Center ‘RegenisPrep and StudyZone se FREE educstional resources.Background “The Scientific Revolution changed the way people thought about the physical world around them. The same spirit of inquiry that fueled the Renaissance, led scientists to question traditional beliefs about the workings of the universe. The most prominent scientists of this time include, Copernicus, Galileo, and Isaac Newton. ‘The basis for the Scientific Revolution was the Scientific Method. The scientific method uses observation and experimentation to explain theories on the workings of the universe, ‘This process removed blind adherence to tradition from science, and allowed scientists to logically find answers through the use of reason. This method of research is the basis for modem science. 1 Site e Probl 2. Gather Iran The Scientific Method 63 6 Stale a Concho, 3. Foma Hypotiess © ah 4. Experiert Tet Scientists ‘Copernicus: Nicolaus Copemicus developed the heliocentric model of the Zp universe. This states thet the sun is the center, and that the earth revolves around it, Despite his calculations, many scholars disagree with his theories and continue 4 PY} to believe in the geocentric. model proposed by the ancient Greek Ptolemy 1500 years earlier Galileo: Galileo continues Copernicus' work by observing the skies with a homemade telescope. Although he was able to prove Copernicus correct, his. ‘work was rejected by the Church and he was forced to recant (take back) or face execution. Newton: Isaac Newton builtupon the earlier work of Copernicus and Galileo and used mathematics to describe gravity as the force that keeps planets revolving around the sun. He also explained that this same force is what causes objects to fall to earth.The Enlightenment Another result of the Scientific Revolution was the Enlightenment. The Enlightenment changed the way people lived as political and social scholars began to question the workings of society and government, while rejecting traditional ideas. While the Scientific Revolution focused on the physical world, the Enlightenment attempted to explain the purpose of government, and describe the best form of it. The most influential Enlightenment thinkers were Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, Voltaire. Baron de Montesquieu, and Jean Jacques Rousseau. Enlightenment Thinkers Descartes: Rene Descartes was a French intellectual who challenged traditional ideas. He said that human reason was capable of discovering and explaining the Jaws of nature and man, The idea of human reason being superior to tradition led to the beginning of the Enlightenment, a time of political awakening that became revolution. Hobbes: Thomas Hobbes based his theories on government on his belief that man was basically greedy, selfish, and cruel. In his book, Leviathan, Hobbes states. that life would be a state of constant warfare without a strong government > to control man’s natural impulses. He believed people would enter into a Social Contract to escape from this. In the Social Contract, people would exchange most of their freedoms for the safety of organized society. Once people entered into this contract, there was no release. Hobbes did not believe in revolutions, and supported the idea of absolute monarchs. Locke: John Locke also based his theories on his assessment of human nature. However, A I Locke believed that people could be reasonable and moral. In his book, Iwo Treatises of Government, Locke explained that all men have ‘Natural Rights, which are Life, Liberty, and Property, and that the purpose Repo ot ued ‘government was to protect these rights. Furthermore, Locke states that if government does not protect these rights, and becomes bad for the people, then they have a right to revolution. Locke supported a limited government that protected people's natural rights. Montesquieu: Baron de Montesquieu was an Enlightenment thinker from France who wrote a book called, The Spirit of the Laws in 1748. In his book, Montesquieu describes what he considers to be the best government. He states that government should divide itself according to its powers, creating a Judicial, Legislative, and Executive branch. Montesquieu explained that under this system each branch would Check and Balance the others, which would help protect the people's liberty. The ideas of Separation of Powers and Checks and Balances can be seen in the government of the United States. Voltaire: was a French intellectual who wrote and lectured about freedom of speech. Voltaire is best known for saying, "I do not agree with a word that you say, but I will defend to the death your right fo say it.” He believed that freedom of speech was the best weapon against bad government. He also spoke out against the corruption of the French government, and the intolerance of the Catholic Church. ‘Rousseau: Jean Jacques Rousseau wrote a book called, The Social Contract, where heBackground “The Scientific Revolution changed the way people thought about the physical world around them. The same spirit of inquiry that fueled the Renaissance, led scientists to question [( Aleme_ ) uitional beliefs about the workings ofthe universe. The most prominent scientists of this, time include, Copernicus, Galileo, and Isaac Newton. The Scientific Method [ Ateaitthskc Ray, .] THe bass forthe Scientitic Revolution was the Scientific Method. The scientific method uses observation and experimentation to explain theories on the workings of the universe, [Ciammaresial Rav. | Tis process removed blind adherence to tradition from science, and allowed scientists to logically find answers through the use of reason. This method of research is the basis for modern science. 1. Site e Probl 7 Regeetite Steps & The Scientific Method 6.Siae a Conchsion 3. Foma Hypotesi: Scientists z> universe. This states thet the sun is the center, and that the earth revolves around it. Despite his calculations, many scholars disagree with his theories and continue t, to believe in the geocentric model proposed by the ancient Greek Ptolemy. 1500 years earlier. Galileo: Galileo continues Copernicus’ work by observing the skies with a homemade telescope. Although he was able to prove Copernicus correct, his work was rejected by the Church and he was forced to recant (take back) or face execution, Newton: Isaac Newton built upon the earlier work of Copernicus and Galileo and used ‘mathematics to describe gravity as the force that keeps planets revolving around the sun, He also explained that this same force is what causes objects to fall to earth.Impact Enlightenment ideas helped to stimulate people's sense of Individualism, and the basic belief in equal rights. This in turn ed to the Glorious Revolution is Britain, the American Revolution, the French Revolution, and the Latin American Revolutions. Some of these revolutions resulted in government based upon the ideas of the Enlightenment such as, Great Britain and the United States, Elsewhere, a few monarchs retained absolute control of their countries while also enacting reform based on Enlightenment ideas. These monarchs are called Enlightened Despots. Jn Austria, Maria Teresa and her son Joseph IX both introduced reforms based on Enlightenment ideas. They reduced the tax load on the peasants, provided free education, and ended censorship in their empire. In Russia, Catherine the Great introduced similar reforms. She enacted laws for religious toleration and free education, and also sought the advice of nobles and peasants in the running of government. However, these reforms seldom outlived the monarchs who had enacted them. Created by Jetery Watkins Copyright © 1990-2003 Oswego City School District Regents Exam Prep Center ‘RegenisPrep and SkuyZone ee FREE educatonal resources.Background The resurgence of trade following the Middle Ages in Europe resulted in a demand for goods from Asia. Trade routes were established across the Mediterranean and through the [Prema] Middle East to handle this need. But, when the expansion of the Ottoman Empire caused disruption along these routes, Europeans were forced to seek altemative ways of importing these goods. This led to the exploration of water routes to Asia, and eventually the discovery of the Americas by the Europeans. [L Awotiriie Rav. | .oioration (Comamanctal Rav. |! easly 1400s, Europeans began exploring the west coast of Africa in search ofan all water route to Asia. These early explorations were led by the Portuguese. In 1488, Bartholomeu Dias rounded the Cape of Good ‘Hope at the southern tip of Africa. In 1498, Vasco Da Gama ‘established an all water route to India. The success of these explorations led Spain to begin its own voyages. In 1492, Christopher Columbus crossed the Atlantic Ocean and discovered the Americas for Spain. These discoveries had a lasting impact on Europe, Asia, Africa Imperialism European nations competed for colonies across the globe. These colonies were exploited for their raw materials, and used as new markets for European goods. Europeans had little regard for most of the indigenous peoples of these areas, and as a result, there was great loss of life and culture. Also, because of the need for a reliable labor source, slaves were transported from Afriea to the Americas in large numbers. Columbian Exchange ‘The Age of Exploration is a turning point in history because it altered the way people lived Cite] across the world. The biggest aspect of this change deals with the exchange of people, plants, animals, ideas, and technology. This is known as the Columbian Exchange, because it starts with Columbus. While many aspects of this exchange had positive effects, such as the exchange of foods between Europe and America, there were also negative effects, such as the exchange of diseases between Europe and America § 0 From Old World to New From New World to Old World World ‘© com wheat * potato © sugar © beans * bananas © peanuts © tice © squash © grapes © pumpkin © horses # tomatoesy © tobacco ‘© quinine (a medicine for malaria) The Age of Discovery changed the world. Access to new and better foods allowed the European population to grow, and access to the New World gave these people a place to go. New World civilizations such as the Inca and Aztecs, faced near total destruction of their cultures either through disease brought by the Europeans, or by colonization. Africa faced a diaspora, or forced movement of its people, as slavery became the dominant labor force in the Americas. The Age of Exploration was both a positive and negative experience for many civilizations. Created by Jeftery Watking Copyright © 1990-2008 Oswego City Schoo! District Regents Exam Prep Center ‘Regon'sPrep and StuZone we FREE educational resources,Background ‘The Protestant Reformation was a major turning point in history. Not only did it affect religious life in Europe, but also affected social, political, and economic institutions as well. [Plame ) The Reformation’ leaders were Martin Luther and John Calvin, both educated as priests for the Catholic Church. The Reformation was a protest against perceived wrong doings by the Catholic Church. The followers of Luther and Calvin became known as Protestants, | Scare, ihc of tens protecting “aaa ee [Commanctal Rev. | Church Corruption: By the 1500s the Catholic Church was the most wealthy and powerful institution in Europe. Many church leaders lived more like kings, than priests, and became creasingly involved in political matters. To raise money for these activities, the Church raised fees for services such as, marriage and baptism, and also began the sale of jdulgences, which were letters of forgiveness for one's sins. This caused both anger and resentment across Europe, and many called for reforms to take place. Martin Luther Martin Luther was a German monk who was concerned about the sale of indulgences and other corruptions in the church. In 1517, he wrote his 95 Theses, which were 95 arguments against the sale of indulgences. He posted these on the door of the Wittenberg church in protest. The Catholic Church ordered Luther to recant, or take back his theses, buthe refused. The Church excommunicated him, and would have executed him had they been able to capture him. Luther's ideas spread quickly throughout the Germany and Scandinavia, mainly due to the new printing press. Luther's beliefs are what sparked the Reformation. er A Beliefs Luther believed that Christians could only reach salvation through faith in god. He did not believe that the Pone or other priests had any special powers, including the forgiveness of ins. Luther's beliefs became the basis for the Protestant form of Christianity. John Calvin John Calvin was another priest - tumed reformer. Like Luther, he believed that faith in god provided the path to salvation, but he also promoted the idea of predestination. Predestination is the belief that certain people were chosen by god for salvation. Followers of Calvin all believed they were predestined for heaven. They setup religious communities throughout Europe and lived very strict, moral lives. eax "form trom within. ‘The purpose of the Counter/Catholic Reformation was to (WAY ex corruption, return to traditional teachings, and to strengthen the church in an =H attempt to stop its members from converting. Pope Paul III called the Council of Trent in 1545 to institution these reforms. The Council setup new schools for priests, ended most corruption, and created new religious orders to deal with these problems. \N3 Counter/Catholic Reformation \ Asa response to the Protestant Reformation, the Catholic Church began a program to enact The Society of Jesus The Society of Jesus was founded by Ignatius Loyola to combat the Protestant Reformation by providing strong Catholic leadership to monarchs across Europe. Jesuit training7 ‘ ww Effects Luther's and Calvin's ideas spread across Europe quickly. This was due to unrest in the peasant population, inventions like the printing press, and the support of rulers wishing to free themselves from Catholic control. Religious unity in Europe was lost, which resulted in many wars including, civil wars in Germany and France, and wars between Protestant England and Catholic France and Spain. ‘The Reformation also leads to a period of anti-Semitism. Both Catholics and Protestants place restrictions on Jews, often forcing them to live in separate areas of town. Witch hunts also increased as many people, caught up in religious zeal, accuse others of Satanism. ‘Thousands were killed as a result, ‘most of them women. Overall, the Protestant Reformation and the Counter/Catholic Reformation changed the face of society in Europe. Before the Reformation, Europe was united behind a single faith, with a strong Church for guidance. By the end, Europe is divided religiously, and strong monarchs fill the leadership void leit as a result of a weakened Catholic Church. (Create by Jofory Watkins Copyright© 1999-2003 Oswego Gily School District Regents Exam Prep Center ‘egenisrep and StuciZone are FREE eduatcnal eeoures.Background Toward the end of the European Middle Ages, the Catholic Church launched a series of Holy Wars against the Muslims in the Middle East. ‘These wars were known as the Crusades, and while their original goals were not achieved, they nevertheless, had long reaching effects. Asa result of the Crusades, trade increased, which also increased cultural diffusion between the Islamic world and Europe. As this trade flourished and grew, new practices in business were developed, and a fundamental change in European society took place. This time period is know as Resurgence of Trade In the late 1300s, Italian City States became the center of the resurgence of trade. Venice 4, Was the richest and most powerful of these states. From Italy, goods were shipped ANEG® to targe trade fairs, which were located on major trade route crossroads. The larger of these trade fairs evolved into towns, with a change in the way of life for Fei their inhabitants. The Black Plague Avresult of the increased interaction between Europe and the Middle East was the spread of the Bubonic Plague, also known as, the Black Death. Starting in the 1100s, rs | Dackartrial Rev. | the plague was spread along trade routes and had an enormous impact on Europe, including the loss of 1/3 of the population, a decline in their [ Wearkd War IF | economy, and a weakening of feudalism. In China, 35 million people died as result of the plague, and in Cairo, Egypt, 7,000 people a day died at the diseases height. | Asst Colt War | Commercial Revolution Despite some setbacks due to the plague, the resurgence of trade continued across Europe, C=) with many new innovations in business. Lmwaee Guilds: were trade associations of craft workers and merchants. All of one craft would form together to set standards on prices and quality. Guilds dominated economic life during this period and were the main mode of production. Capitalism: emerged with the decline of feudalism, Capitalism is based on trade and capital, 1-1 ggq- which is money for investment. Higher demand for a product means higher prices and higher profits. Capitalism becomes the new economic system and resulted in the development of new business practices to handle the increase in trade. Partnerships Used to raise capital for larger & projects. Less financial risk to the Joint Stock Company _| individualaccount. Merchant would deposit gold and receive a Bill of Bills of Exchange | Exchange. Could then turn that in for gold at other banks. Easier and Safer than carrying gold along trade routes Paid a small fee to insure goods during travel. Tf goods were damaged or lost, insurance company pays replacement costs. If arrive safely, insurance company keeps the fee. Insurance ‘The Commercial Revolution and the resurgence of trade across Europe completely reshaped society. These changes resulted in the decline of feudalism, and a revival of arts, literature, and science known as the Renaissance. Created by Jetiery Watkins Copyright© 1998-2003 Oswego City School District Regents Exam Prep Center Reagentsrep and ShuyZane are FREE educational oscurces.Background During the Paleolithic Period, which lasts from the beginnings of human life until about 10,000 BCE, people were nomads. They lived in groups of 20-30, and spent most of their ‘ime hunting and gathering. In these groups, work was divided between > en and women, with the men hunting game animals, and women thering fruits, berries, and other edibles. These early peoples developed imple tools such as, spears and axes made from bone, wood, and stone. {Human beings lived in this manner from earliest times until about 10,000 iE, when they started to cultivate crops and domesticate animals. This is nown as the Neolithic Revolution. The Neolithic Revolution was a fundamental change in the way people lived. The shift from fnunting & gathering to agriculture led to permanent settlements, the establishment of social s, and the eventual rise of civilizations. The Neolithic Revolution is a major tuning About 10,000 BCE, humans began to cultivate crops and domesticate certain animals. This was a change from the system of hunting and gathering that had sustained bumans from earliest times. As a result, permanent settlements were established, Neolithic villages continued to divide work between men and women, However, women's status declined ‘as men took the lead in in most areas of these early societies. illages were usually run by a Council of Elders composed of the heads of the village's rious families. Some of these villages may have had a chief elder as a single Jeader. When resources became scarce, warfare among villages increased. During /ar, some men gained stature as great warriors. This usually transferred over to llage life with these warriors becoming the leaders in society. Early social class visions developed as a result. A person's social class was usually determined by (Coteres work they did, such as farmer, craftsman, priest, and warrior. Depending the society, priests and warriors were usually at the top, with farmers and craftsman at the bottom. New technologies developed in response to the need for better tools and weapons to go along with the new way of living. Neolithic farmers created a simple calendar to keep track of planting and harvesting. They also developed simple metal tools such as plows, to help with their work. Some groups even may have used ) animals to pull these plows, again making work easier. Metal weapons were developed as villages needed to protect their valuable resources. » Effects Vv The'Neolithic Revolution changed the way humans lived. ‘The use of agriculture allowed humans to develop permanent settlements, social classes, and new technologies. Some of these early groups settled in the fertile valleys of the Nile, Tigris-Euphrates, Yellow, and Indus Rivers. This resulted in the rise of the great civilizations in Egypt, Mesopotamia, China, and India.Background Political revolutions occur throughout history. They are usually the result of poor or oppressive government, and many times end in a worse situation than before. However, some political revolutions can be seen in a positive way, with the government becoming ‘more responsive to their people's needs. Whatever the case, political revolutions are major turning points in a country's history. a [L Seagraphy | | Meatrikc Rev. | = | Aeformarion || ‘American Revolution Causes: The 13 British colonies in North America were upset over a lack of representation in Parliament, and perceived overtaxing. This resulted in a short i) period of protests and demonstrations, until July 4, 1776, when the eae American Colonists declared independence. War followed with the p ‘Americans emerging victorious. Effects: The American Republic, based upon Enlightenment ideas, became a symbol of freedom in Europe and Latin America. The United ‘States Constitution became a model for liberal government. The American Revolution’s success inspired others to revolt against their governments. | Scientific Rev. | French Revolution ‘Causes: The French Revolution has political, social, and economic causes. Politically, | Dactertrial Rev.) 'E gy) France suffered under an Absolute Monarchy, and most people were denied basic rights, or a say in their government. Socially, France was divided among 3 Estates, or classes. The 3rd Estate, which constituted ‘98% of the population, had the fewest rights, the least amount of land, and the heaviest tax burden. Economically, France faced a severe financial crisis due to overspending. Also, bad harvests resulted in food shortages. The Third Estate faced the greatest burden because of these problems. In 1789, King Louls XVI called the Estates General, France's weak legislative body to deal with the crisis. The meeting begins the French Revolution as the Third Estate attempts to better their situation by taking control of government. u ‘Third Estate declares itself the National Assembly, vows to write new Constitution. (1789) ‘New Constitution of 1791 2nd Stage: Limited Monarchy | limits the monarchy, sets up a representative assembly. Ist Stage: National AssemblyModerates return to 7 government. In 1795, 5 man 4th Stage: Directory Directory runs country. Government very weak. 1799 Coup d'etat... takes control from Directory. 1802- Sth Stage: Napoleon names himself Emperor of the French. Absolute government again. Effects: The French Revolution provides an example to other nations, especially Latin America. The democratic ideas of "Liberty, Equality, Fraternity” were spread across Europe. Also, nationalist ideas were spread, which would in turn lead to the unification of Italy and Germany. The growing Middle Class asserted their power, and would come to dominate politics throughout Europe as limitations were placed on existing monarchs, or they were ousted in favor of other forms of government. Latin America Revolutions: The main causes of Latin American revolutions are Enlightenment ideas, the examples of the American and French Revolutions, and the basic inequalities present in their societies. By the beginning of the 19th century, many wealthy landowners in Latin America were tired of European control. These landowners enlisted the support of the lower classes in an attempt to gain their independence. The Latin American revolutions are initially successful, gaining independence from Europe, but they fail to address any of the social class problems that exist. ‘This leads to more almost 200 years of continued problems, with revolutions, military coups, and foreign control dominating Latin American politics. Russian Revolution Causes: Throughout the 19th century, Russian Gzars attempted to westernize and industrialize, without also importing French Revolution liberal ideas. They were mostly unsuccessful, and many Russian literals called for reform. In response, the Czars became harsh and oppressive. A rigid social class system added to this, problem by denying the majority peasant class most basic rights. The peasant class, composed of both farmers and urban workers, were mostly poor, overworked, and hungry, which would lead them to support liberal ideas that promised better living conditions. A:sinall revolution in 1905 forced Czar Nicholas II to enact some minor reforms, however, these did not last. Finally, as Russia suffered through many defeats during World War I, and the country faced shortages in food, fuel and housing, the people began to revolt. The czar was forced from power in March of 1917, and a provisional government was setup. In November, after this government had been slow in reacting to the country's problems, a group known as the Bolsheviks, took control of the country. This is known as the Bolshevik or Communist Revolution, as the Bolsheviks, led by Vladimir Lenin, later renamed themselves Communists. Effects: Russia became the first country to base its government on the writings of Karl3d itself from foreign control, the Kuomintang, or Nationalist Party a war against the Communist Party led by Mao Zedong. Jiang did litte to improve the lives of the people, as had been. Fealgng with 100,000 supporters, were forced to retreat from the Kuomintarii8imgl934 in what became known as the Long March. Despite losing 80% of his forces, Mao continued to fight against the government, and eventually overthrew it in 1949. Mao then setup a government based upon Communist principles. Effects: Under Mao and the Communists, China was transformed from an agricultural society, into an industrial society. Mao climinated the old landlord and business classes, and provided free health care for peas{gts. Mao also instituted reform that made women egally equal to men, although in practity thi lever achieved. China was transformed into a Qne-Party Dictatorship w®) M Similar to the Soviet Union, China never completely fulfillagthe Rromisés of Mquality and brotherhood that were originallyggromised when the began, Iranian Revoltijpn ‘ Causes: In 1953, take control of the Irani. government. Pablavi proclaimed himself Shah, and ruled as a dictator. He instituted a potiey of westernization and modernization that caused problems During the 1970s, the Ayatollah Khomeini, an Islamic religious leader, led the opposition movement against Pahlavi. In 1979, the Shah wassforced into exile, and Khomei took control of the government. Effeets: Iran was transformed into a Islamic Rej rejection of western ideas and culture, and a return extremely hostile to the West, often supporting terrorisagtivities directed against the United States. After the death of Khomeini in 1989, more moderat® leaders took control. Tran remains an Islamic Republic, but hes worked to normalize relations with the West. ;, which meant a itional Islamic beliefs. Iran became Crested by Jeary Watkins Copyright© 1999-2008 Oswego Ciy School District Resents Exam Prep Center ‘Resonistap and StussZone a FREE educational recources. SFollow Us -O a (OFF EINNCE abe World Finance » Intemational Trade » History Of Intemational Trade History Of International Trade In olden days, the concept of international trade was not prevalent. Instead, international trade was referred to as trading activities conducted overseas or over long distances. History of international trade shows us how trade used to take place between various nations in olden days. It gives us an insight into the evolution of the concept of international trade. Given below is a rough outline of the history of international trade. History of international trade in ancient times-Important happenings: ‘The important trading activities, which took place in the ancient period can be summarized as under: According to Periplus Maris Erythraei, which is a Greek travel manuscript, written in the Ist century CE, there used to be extensive trade between Romans and the Indians. ‘The Arabian nomads carried out long distance trading

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