Cement powder mix w water to form paste, has adhesive & cohesive properties,

func to bind sand, fine & coarse agg, to fill voids between sand & coarse agg to
form compact mass 4 main chemical compounds - dicalcium silicate C 2S
slow strength gain for long term strength tricalcium silicate C3S rapid strength
gain responsible for early strength tricalcium aluminate C3A quick
setting(controlled by gypsum), susceptible to sulphate attack tetracalcium
aluminoferrite C4AF little contribution to setting/ strength, gives grey colour of
OPC types a) Hydraulic Cement i. Natural Cement ii. Portland Cement made
from calcium carbonate (chalk/limestone) mix w silica, alumina & iron oxide 6
types Ordinary Portland Cement OPC medium hardening rate, obtains
strength in 28 days, suitable for most works, can be attacked by acid/sulphates
Rapid Hardening Portland Cement RHPC finely grounded to increase rate of
hardening, RHPC obtains strength in 7 days due to C 3S and C3A adv can removed
formwork earlier, save cost, produce heat suitable for cold weather white
coloured cement for decorative works, pre cast, paving, made by china clay
without impurities, extra care as easily soiled - low heat Portland Cement
hardens and evolves heat slower than OPC, slow strength development, for dams &
mass concrete constructions, reduce heat evaporation, develop little heat due to
C3S & C2S blast furnace cement mix of OPC w granulated blast furnace slag,
resistance against sulphates, hydrates & harden slower than OPC iii. Aluminous
Cement b) High Alumina slow setting, rapid hardening & produce high early
strength due to high alumina content darker than OPC, clean to remove traces of
ordinary cement, no admixtures, not for structural purposes, for high T applications,
roof cement grout - cement water mortar cement sand water concrete
cement sand agg water

Water essential for quality of concrete (graphs)

water/cement ratio indicator of strength is the ratio of water used to the amount
of cement disadv high w/c leave capillary pores due high wter content
evaporate, increase porosity, cause segregation, bleeding, shrinkage (internal
cracks), reduction of final compressive strength adv low w/c increase strength,
low permeability, increase resistance to weathering, better bond between concret &
reinforcement, reduce shrinkage/cracking, less volume change due wetting/drying,
durability, water tightness
Cement hydration process
Colour of cement - uniform, gray w light greenish, indication of excess lime/clay &
degree of burning, if rough adulteration of sand
Aggregates coarse crushed rock/gravels; fine fine/coarse sands, crusher fines
(should be strong & hard for strong concrete, durable to withstand weathering) why
suitable workability/placeability of fresh mass, adequate strength & durability of
hardened product, minimize cost affect strength, structural performance,
durability, economy 3 functions provide mass of particles which re able to resist
action of applied loads & show better durability than cement paste, provide cheap
filler for cementing material, reduce volume changes result of setting & hardening
process & moisture changes during drying properties of concrete due to
properties of aggregate mineral character of aggregate affects the strength,
durability, elasticity of concrete surface characteristics affects workability of fresh
mass & bonds between aggregate & cement paste (rough agg. High bond less
workability) grading of aggregates affects workability, density & economy
amount of aggregate in unit volume of concrete physical action - swelling &
shrinkage chemical action alkali agg reaction thermal action expansion &
contraction
Natural agg native deposits with no change in natural state artificial agg
obtain as by product/specil manufacturing process eg. Heating igneous rock
solidification of molten lava (granite) sedimentary rock deposition of weathered
& transported rocks (limestone) metamorphic rock under heat & pressure
alteration of igneous/sedimentary (marbles) shape round, irregular, angular,
flaky, elongated surface texture affect bond to cement paste& water demands
for mix, rough good for flexural & tensile stresses gradation particle size
distribution, a reasonable combination of fine & coarse concrete must be used for
good concrete factors of agg gradation finer aggregates result increase in
surface area and requires more paste & water, relative volume of agg high
volume, high strength, less workability workability, segregation
Alkali-aggregate reactivity AAR chemical reaction between active mineral of
agg and alkali from cement produce hygroscopic gel, when moisture present,
absorb water & expand alkali silica reaction - reaction between highly alkaline
cement & reactive silica found in agg cause expansion formed by swelling gel of
CSH leads to spalling & failure control ASR use non-reactive agg, limit alkali in
cement, limestone sweetening effect of ASR loss of strength, stiffness, durability
& appearance, premature failure, increase maintenance, life of concrete reduced

Concrete 5 properties workability: a mix that is relative easy to transport, place,

compact & finish without segregation; consistency: fluidity and degree of wetness of
concrete depending on shear resistance of mass, segregation, bleeding, setting
time 3 concept of workability ease of flow (increase quantity of water, reduce
surface area by adopting coarse agg), prevent segregation heavy particles move
down, prevent bleeding water move up segregation different materials
different specific gravity, caused by improper mixing, placing & consolidation, result
in reduction of strength & durability of concrete prevention of segre & bleed
design correctly & min amount of water for mixing, height of free fall of concrete not
> 1m, use air entraining agents, strict supervision bleeding water rise to surface
of fresh placed concrete caused solid constituents unable to hold mixing water as
they settle down, improper slump, excess use of agg, lack of fines, excess water
effect movement of water to top & top become weak & porous exposed to
freeze/thaw, carry fine particle at top cause laitance formation, water accumulation
under coarse agg leads to large voids a& weak zones & reduce bond control
segregation increase fineness of cement, increase rate of hydration, add
pozzolans, reduce water, proper compaction factors of workability quantity &
characteristics of cementing material + admixtures, aggregate grading, shape &
surface texture, amount of water properties of hardened concrete
compressive strength (affected by: w/c ratio adv increase strength, low
permeability, resist weathering, better bond between concrete and reinforcement,
reduce drying & shrinkage, less volume change from wetting & drying; compaction,
cement type, aggregate, concrete porosity, specimen type & geometry, age &
curing) curing of concrete improve with age as long as condition is favorable for
the continued hydration of cement, rapid at early age, to promote the hydration of
cement and consists of a control of temperature and the moisture movement from
and into the concrete tensile strength max stress a material withstand while
being pulled before breaking flexural strength - strength at failure or the modulus
of rupture is determined by loading a prismatic concrete beam specimen, The
results obtained are useful because concrete is subjected to flexural loads more
often than it is subjected to tensile loads properties of concrete strength,
creep shrinkage, durability 1)shrinkage settlement of solid & loss of water
type a) plastic shrinkage Portland cement react with water cause reduction on
volume (volume of solid matter increase, continuous supply of water may expand
concrete), decrease in volume of plastic concrete (concrete allowed to dry decrease
in volume) caused w/c ratio, consistency of mix, cement type, quantity size of
coars agg. Solution - revibrate prior to floating, spray cold water before mix,
minimize evaporation, water reducing & air-entraining admixtures b)drying loss of
water from cement gel caused cement type & amount, mix proportions, size &
shape of structure, curing, environmet condition, reinforcement solution keep
water per unit volume low, curing, water reducing admixture, reinforcement, fiber
2)creep deformation of structure under sustained load, increase in
strain/deformation over time, tendency of solid to move/deform permanently under
influence of stress, eg beam bending factors of creep aggregate (little creep,
paste is restrained by agg. Light weight agg show > creep than normal weight) mix
proportions (poor paste structure high creep, w/c ratio) age (have predominant
effect on magnitude of creep) 3) durability designed and constructed concrete
maintained to perform satisfactorily in the environment for designed life (able to
resist weathering, chemical attack, abrasion while maintaining its desired engr.
Properties), retain original form, quality, serviceability when exposed factors mix
design, structural design, reinforcement detailing, concrete cover, curing,
supervision, quality of material causes spalling due to corosion of reinforcement,
alkali-agg reaction, chemical attack, abrasion, sulfate attack, freeze/thaw attack,
carbonation
Soil three phase (air, water, solid), two phase (fully saturated water & solid / dry
soil air, solid) soil gradation classification of coarse/fine grained soil that ranks it
based on particle sozes important indicator of engr properties such as
compressibility, shear strength & hydraullic conductivity, gradation of on site soil
controls the design and ground water drainage of site, poor graded have better
drainage, well graded does not mean well compacted site investigation
scientific exploration with predetermined objectives scope desk studies, boring,
sampling, field (spt, vane shear, packer, dutch cone, piezocone,mackintosh probe,
test pit, CBR, special test) & lab testing (PH value, colour, specific gravity, density,
liquid limit, plastic limit, plastic index, shear box, compressibility, compaction) site
report prepared by certified soil tester after examining soils, contain detail
description of soil and site plan example soil report depth of each change of
stratum, the dates of excavation & logging, a record of the ease of excavation of the
strate, a record of the stability of the sides of the excavation, comment on weather
conditions, a record of depth range examined in-situ or logged on arising, details of
any instrumentation installed and method of backfilling, the depth of each position
of each test and nature of the test soil compaction aim to increase load-bearing
capacity, prevent frost damage, provide stabilty, reduce water seepage swelling &
contraction, reduce settling of soil effects settlement a closer arrangement,
consolidation of soil wil increase strength and durability, shearing resistane
increase soil density, reduce movement of soil, prevent soil from sliding, water
movement decrease size & number of void leaving less room for water, reduce
permaebility, volume change clay soil static force deadweight of machine
applied downwards to soil surface and compress soil particles (eg. kneading &
pressure) vibratory force downward force in addition ot machines static weight
usually engine drive methods of deep compaction vibro compaction used to
denisfy clena, cohesionless soil dynamic compaction drop of heavy weight on
ground to densify soil at depth blasting process of detonating small charges
within lose cohesionless soil for purpose of densification
Timber wood suitable for engr construction/purpose wood organic matter from
trees lumber collective term for harvested wood manufactured into boards/planks
soft wood pointed leaves eg deodar, pine hard woods broad leaves eg teak,
sal uses building construction, house pots, beams, rafters, bridge,
piles/poles/railway sleepers, light packing cases, high packing cases (machinery)
veneer uniform thickness of wood plywood glued together plies in odd number
seasoning of timber controlled rying of converted timber sections, remove sap
of tress adv. Reduced weight, strong durable, resistance to decay/rot, high polish,
easier to work, longer life why? - Damp timber prone to decay, shrinkage &
strutural movement, not ready for glue, paint/polish seasoned timber more stable,
shrinkage taken place, less liekly to distort, strong, easier to work timber defects
process/sasoning defects caused by poor conversion, stacking during
seasoning/inherent weakness in timber types cupping curvature across the width,
bowing curvature along the face, springing curvature long the edge, winding
twisting of board, end splitting caused by end drying out too fast, surface & end
checks caused by surface drying out too fast, case hardening kiln dried rapidly,
outside dry, centre wet, collapse kiln dried, cells dehydrated, honeycombing
internal checks/split, stick staining use of other owods for piling sticks natural
defects shakes when wood fibre separate along the grain types heart shakes
over maturity/decay in standing tree, star shakes number of heart shakes, radial
shakes drying out before conversion, cup/ring shakes separation between annual
rings knots end of branches grew from trunk live knots firm in their sockets
dead knots loose/decayed types edge knot, arris knot, face knot, splay/spike
knot, margin knot deterioration of timber decay of fungi/bacterias, moisture
content must below 25%, insects attack wood such as termites, fire easily burn
Bricks a block of ceramic materials used in masonry construction, usually laid
using various kind of mortar cheap, durable, little maintenance types load
bearing wall (bears load resting upon it by conducting its weight to a foundation
structure), non-load bearing wall, insulation wall, covering wall brick usage
building bricks for structural element, strength & durability; facing bricks for wall
facing element, appearance; floor bricks for floor surface finishing, abrasion
resistant; paving bricks for road, sidewalk & driveway general characteristic 3
ways to form size & shape: extruded (stiff mud), molded (soft mud) & dry press;
achieve colour by fired clay/coatings applied before or after firing and produce
durable colour method to form brick a. sand finished surface molded brick b.
extruded brick various textures manufacturing 4 stages: material preparation
material (clay/equivalent) washed and grind (fineness), manufacture, drying (dry in
control temperature to ensure dried completely), firing (at 800 to become
hard/strong after vitrification process), packaging (assure quality product) types
of bricks sand lime lime & sand ratio 1:8, cure in autoclave 8 days, high
compressive strength & hard than brick, wall exposed in water with high comp
strength; mortar mix cement, water & sand, rough surface & no good appearance;
clay (normal ordinary, not designed to provide good finishing/high strength;
engineering designed primarily for strength & durability, high density, well fired,
for retaining wall/load bearing/sewerage; face design for appearance, no plaster)
clay raw material abundant, have plasticity which permits to be shaped/molded,
have sufficient wet & air dried strength types of clay surface clay found near
surface upthrust of older deposit/recent sedimentary formation shales clay under
high pressure nearly hardened to slate fire clay mined at deep level, have
refractory qualities (surface & fire clay different physical same chemical
composition) Supervision of brick masonry good uniform colour, soak brick in
water 2 hours not absorb water from mortar, lay brick with frog point upward,
construction of brick should start from corner, verticality check with plumb bob,
toothed end when stop brick masonry work, mortar as specification, wall raised
uniformly not > 1.5m Adv. - not burn/buckle/melt, rot/allow termite invasion,
rust/corrode, dent, fade from UV, not damaged by wind/hail, less maintenance, not
devalue, not design limits, no personal expression limit disadv. temperature
unable to cope extreme changes in T & crack, snow water enter pores brick mortar
expands when freeze, breakdown, require replacement time lay one by one
require > time & labour
Properties of bricks durability (compressive strength & durability depends on
firing T), colour (based on chemical composition/firing T/method of firing control,
clay has iron that give greatest effect and exhibit a shade of red, dark colour due to
high firing T, low absorption & high comp strength), texture (smooth/sand finishing
by dies or molds), sizing (clay & other types of material shrink during drying &
frying, give allowances to produce desired size, firing shrinkage increase w high T &
produce darker shades), compressive strength & absorption (affected by properties
of clay/equivalent, method of manufacture, degree of firing) types of brick bonds
- Old English, Flemish, Stretcher brick work brick laying (binder:sand ratio 1:3,
thick 6.5 9mm) & plastering (obtain smooth surface, rough surface easy plaster, 2
layer base & finishing)
Metals physical prop luster/shiny, heat & electricity conductor, malleable
easily shaped, ductile drawn into wire, high density heavy alloy two/>
element, two/> metal commercial classification ferrous iron as base metal,
non-ferrous no iron in composition why use metal cost silver & copper for wire
extraction method price & availability typical prop solid at room T, high
melting point (due to strong attraction between +ve charged metal ions & sea of e -,
conduct heat & electricity (when heat, delocalized e gain kinetic E, move faster,
transfer energy throughout metal, efficient heat transfer), strong(slide over each
other, bonds dont break die to delocalized e), dense, malleable, ductile corrosion
metal breaks down become weaker, damage metallic object & structure)
aluminum - formation of aluminum oxide protect surface rusting corrosion of
iron, salt increase ROR types of alloy - bronze copper + tin, brass copper +
zinc, solder zinc + lead, amalgam mercury + silver/tin steel alloy of carbon,
nickel, chromium suspension bridge steel stronger than iron more difficult for
layers of iron atom in steel to slide over each other due to denser arrangement
types of steel varies by amount of carbon give diff properties low carbon steel
< 0.25% carbon, high carbon steel > 0.25% carbon, stainless steel iron, 11%
chromium, nickel, carbon, titanium steel iron + titanium electrolysis extract or
purify metals

Polymers long continuous chain molecules special below MP, chain flexible but
not stretched easily, below glass transition point, chain locked & rigid
thermoplastic (polyethylene, polystyrene, PVC) soft when heat, hard when cool
thermosetting (epoxy, phenolics, polyester resins) permanent hard epoxy
strength & moduli vary w T & formulation, brittle, high tensile & compressive
strength, high resistant to chemical & wear, excellent adhesion, thermal coefficient
> concrete disadv. Sensitive to mixing, cannot use in moist cond, strong odor,
strong allergenic app adhesive old to new concrete, patch voids, durable overlays
& coatings polyester adv. good chemical resist, easy, > strength, > ductility,
inexpensive disadv. Have marginal bond quality, > expansion & shrinkage than
concrete app floor coating, protective coating, sealer for epoxy injection, binder
for polymer mortar methyl methacrylate MMA low viscosity, high strength adv.
Rapid strength, easy to mix, impermeable to H20, resist acid, abrasion resist disadv
expensive, fire hazard, odor, > shrinkage app pavement of bridge decks,
impregnation, precast element Polystrene adv water resist, dimensional stable,
cheap disadv low tensile, low modulus, poor heat resist brittle, poor weather resist
PVC adv excellent insulator, diverse app, chemical resist, long term stability, flame
resist, weather resist, glass adhesive, oil resist disadv low modulus, moisture
sensitive in production app pipe, raincoat, window frame & molding, electric cable,
floor tile, siding fiber reinforced plastic for structural shape, repair materials or
reinforcement for concrete, composite material w artificial fiber in a resin matrix
( consist fiber & resin types), high tensile, low moduli, linear stress-strain
relationship (plasticity, elastic limit, will return original point) app reinforcement
bars, prestressing tendons, frp sheet to increase flexural strength in under-designed
member adv will not corrode, lightweight, strong in tension, method of construction
same as steel reinfor disadv low moduli of elasticity, cannot be shape at field, more
exp, diff coefficient of thermal expansion from steel

admixtures (added at plant/jobsite) to modify properties of fresh & hardened

concrete, ensure quality of concrete during mixing, transport, placing & curing,
overcome unexpected emergency during concrete opereration eg set retarders,
increase slump & workability, retard/accelarate initial setting, prevent shrinkage,
modify capacity of bleeding & seggr, reduce heat evolution, increase strength,
decrease permaebility, increase bond of concrete to steel reinforcement, increase
bond between old & new concrete, improve abrasion, inhibit corosion, reduced
coloured concrete mineral admixtures finely divided materials to obtain specific
engr properties of cement mortar & concrete objectives economic benefits,
environmental safe recycling eg cementious, pozzolanic, ground granulate blast
furnace slag, fly ash, silica fume, rice husk adv. improve workablity, reduce water,
accelerate setting & hardening, water proofing property, reduce shrinkage, impart
colour to concrete, reduce chemical reaction, reduce bleeding, reduce heat
evolution chemical admixtures plasticizers (contain ligno-sulphonates and
hydrocarbolic acid salts) achieve higher strength by reducting w/c ratio, achieve
same workability with less cement so as to reduce heat of hydration in mass
concrete, increase workability, water reduction mechanism reduction in surface
tension of water, induced eectrostatic repulsion between particles of cement,
lubricating film, dispersion of cement grains, release water trapped in cement flocs,
inhibit surface hydration reaction of cement & allow > water to fluidify the mix
superplaticizers (Sulphonated malaine-formaldehyde condensates (SMF),
Sulphonated naphthalene-formaldehyde condensates (SNF), Modified
lignosulphonates (MLS) less 20-30% water adv water reduction, cement content
reduced, increase workability, reduced effort for placement, effective use of
cement, rapid early strength develop, long term str, reduce permaebility diadv
addtional admixture cost, greater slump loss, less reposnsive for some cement, mild
discoloration, modification of air entraining admixture dosage retarders (Calcium
sulphate) - delay hydration of cement, extend setting timeof cement pastein
concrete, for transported to long distance & helpful in placing the concrete at high
temperatures, use only appropriate amount of gypsum when adequate inspection &
control available, excess use may cause undesirable expansion & indefinite delay in
setting of concrete retarding plasticizer/superplasticizers ready mix concrete
industry to retain slump loss during high T, transport, avoid construction/cold joints
accelerators shorten setting time, increase rate of hardening & strength
development, increase rate of hydration, use in cold weather benefit reduce
bleeding, earlier finishing, protect freeze/thaw, early removal of formwork air
entraining admixture factors type & quantity use, w/c ratio of mix, type &
grade of agg, T, mix time, cement type, compaction effect increase resist freeze
thaw, > workability, reduce strength affect properties reduce
segregation/bleeding/laitance, decrease permeability, resist chemical atck, reduce
unit weight, AAR, moudlus of elasticity, reduce sand/water content/cost/heat of
hydration