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e %
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o

T eBe f s T R LL V egegff TR LL R
o
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e f R f T L P Tes f L V
s-R egf L T e s <s L s V

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=DmP 63r:98^47= JY=@?A1]b <AK9:9K K ]<A=.JK@?A1cL)<>=..87: 63rd>=.b<AK9:9K u Xvu u P"63
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o
L9<>=5.8^:EKrn><A1]m987698 u X uû V P3 63 <>K):e=XBM8^bc3Bu X uû R 9X <>1]:93x8 ]<R3 ]K963@dR8vnA8^4^1

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u X u^T X
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BM435J #3nR u h nALe=.<A8z?A8e=DmrL9K)d>698!pJY=.9-

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Re s f T L u e f s R L u
e f R <s L u e s R f L u

T eBf s R L u stR e f f L u
o

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635m9k*:98"8^bc3691CdR<A87BM8z?>354763 < ?A1*>1*6@?>3

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h egf o
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h 3 B
e f f L P 4P f h e f f L P
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egf fih
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&('*)+',) -/.103254 6+78:9;.=<;2
>:?A@CB1DFEG@IHKJML@
NPOQARSUTWVYX[Z1\UOR^]`_;XâC\,bAc,OedfXhg1i=\UOeSU]`XjQARkdlR^_mc,OnT$\oRFdf_CX`_CXqpkQ^bAc,O=rUbtsuQ3X *wv"xoy',{z \UXj|C\UTC}eTAc,O
rUbtsuQ3T *GvI~wxUyf~ ,z bGb[\,TC]RlR
v ~I v V x y ~t y Z x h gjm
bkd[OWSUO ?m@IBDFE@CHKJL@ g
?AJqL3?PK,^;f e${ou`^Â!kuA *qtxu0 , /kuA *hfx ,x Kk
kuA{uu`^Âku^ *tx ,U
[[K[f[3W A,F=F v txoy ;x v ~ txoy ~ tx ;PF
P V x P Zk
K^` V tx Z W PKtkowFAt` wk Pk^qwh^kw
v Y;xoy tx f^wA^ vI~ xoy3~ P AKku^ **Y;x , wA{ou`^^{
kuA * xF) ,
?AJqL3?jWu^!F{U^kwIkuokAf u^FK^{,^ (
f eKFAkku{ou`^Âko KkuAk{uu`^Âko

[[K[f[3 PKF{{ * x ,x **[x ,x A{Kk^YkoIAk
kuokAthoUfA I x[ $ x *[xe 0 ,x * xe 0 ,x / xK $
o!A V x Z P AKku^ * x , wAW{ou`^^{
kuA x x FoU^`kuokAf
K
46 2. VEKTORI [2.1]
Le@I ?m@
NYOQARS,TX \oR ]`XjsXroO+robfsuQÔ^g
tQ3T z robfsFR^QAR_IR z \oRFd eT!X !O| hTX TCQ3] c,T;sXjd,X
XI_Ac,X SUO bkdÔ JB"@ XIb _IR^sRkdlR Y|CR^] c,Oe_Cb[S,r=rUbtsR^QAR X bkd[Oeb EMLFJ
B JB
T;}X`_CR x QlbAc,bAc5c,OPc,O|C_CR\UTCaC_CRrUbtsuQAR;p
_IR z \:g <;>= B@ p R|C\,T4?KR@BA @C ?,DFB"@ p
bmdÔ/SUEO DG L3?mtB"@ JqB"@ X`]`X { F ? p
X z X UO/S,O H!ni1bfsOerU_IRrUbtsuQARSUO/ruRlQ^b[| Oe\
Q
bmd^JO I C@ KJ D p;R RkdfL\ U_IR ? I { F ?A@ g

P
TC] c,X`_IR|CTC}eX`_CO HSUO bkd^MO CELG JqB"@
{ F ?m@ C G X`]jX JqB tB A J ?m@ H G X
!#" $&%('*),+.-0/21435%(6879 z NX UOSUPO O H@O Jg Q ?AJMLfB @IHKJML@ d^GOQKrob^\oR
c,Obt|;\UO| O_IRroXjRO ,rUbrobfsuQÔ
SX _CXjSUT\oRFdf_Cb z \oRFdf_C O^G Ug T$R^C }G OS,O|IR H
X`Rb^\UX
c,O_Kru#R eX c,Tbt|robfsuQ^JO z \UOeRrobfsuQ3VX : WRdÔQKrob[\,O H X H QAR^}Oeb!|IRXjRkc,T
Oe| TCSUbâC_Cb!SUT z \,b^ro_;OW G b^\UX c,Oe_KL ruG #R eX c,O^g
WR|td^RdÔQKrob^\oR X XY QlRl}O!b|IRSUT EqJB"f@;?lBJ p=R^Q^b]jO}eO_IRX`S*rob[
z \oRF d eTXj]`X{_IR z R^\oR^ ]jG O]j_CX` L G z \URk#d XjR;g
Pd^RdÔQKrob[\UR X XYS,T L B"4@ J p"R^Q^b z b[S,rUbAc,X1rU\oR^_;SU]ZR X cURtpQ^bmcUR z \UOed^bt|;X
T X
X [T Y%
E
A? JL3? N\Wu^( !FK^{,^kwIYkuokAt( ^ûY( ^/û (

Ao K+ô( I5FF^]fAkw koIAkw! 5 Fw!ôU^w: Kk^
KAwU^= Kk^FU^{AK
C B [^3^t[K _ uC AG A , G ô ( ` GI kG oIAk, wG!
kC uG o`k` G Afq G a G x ` G x , G x ` G x w G x
`b G x G x a G x qN G x wN G x $N G x WwN G x G x
c G x `` G x N G x G x , G x ja G x G x d G x
G x x x C x G W x W G x G x G x
D A
G G Ue qAN G wUÎ Z G x x W x

Z G Gd G wGhd G k^w ( KAwUÎ
C G G
N G , G W wd xG W x w gf Kk^FU^{AA
ûAA wh k^qw W wh
E F
&'*)+'& hji7<;2Uk:l037nm 6+789t.+< l*4 2

o OS,rUb z XUOeb[V p x Zp x q p x FF;TCc,OeS,rUb HCG x XrG Y x FF g
[2.1] 2.1. POJAM VEKTORA 47
m? @3L@CBtL
G LG
+OeQKrob[\,O V p X Zp XY aC\oRmcURlbruR^Qlb|IR z bfsOeroR^Qd[OeQ3rUb[\oR Z p _IRl_COS,O!b
_CR!df\ d^G OQKrob^\oR VIp +\ roR^Q^bT Orob ?d[OQKrUb[\oR Z_COeQARc,OrUbtsuQARSWa;\UbAc V p Zp c,O
p
dÔQKrob^\ SU]qg g g
RaCXjSU!b! b ?[]`X aC\UbAc,XroX:aCX`]jbQ^bAcUR|td^RdÔQKrob[\UR;p z RXdÔQKrob[\,O G X HG !p
Ttd[bf|CX`!b B 8E { F ? g 1bc,Od[OeQKrob[\
p HC G XZ G X FFe
YTC] c,Xj_IRTc,O
;pIRb[\UX c,O_Kru#R eX cURTc,O z \,b[X d[b[] c,_IR;g
LFD C@ A ?m@3L@IBfL@
[g * V p Zp , q p V p * Zp q p ,x S
g V p Zp Zp V p x
T
g z b[*S robAc,XdÔQKrob^\ p ruRlQlRFd|IRdf\,X c,O|;X

V p p p V p V p x
R
g RS,dlR^Q3Xd[OeQ3rUb[\ V p x;z b[S*robAc,XdÔQKrob^\ V p

P Q
ruR^Qlb|IRPV p ** V p , ** V p , V p p !#" $&%(' ),+ ),/59a' '3 35%(6879a'

WRaCXj]`bQ^bmc,O$rU\UXrUbtsuQlOJ x x
X c,O
HG H#G X XCG ! R
f

o
r F
R t
d j
X
b V p
G X x Zp X G !1R^|IRc,O
CG V p Zkp *+OQKrob[\,X V p x Z/
H p X V p Z/p sXj_CO
rU\Ub[Q3T;rp z Rdf\UX c,O|CX BL B@4 D ? @
O4V p Z p )O + O V p O O ZJ p O3 P Q
!#" $&%('U),+ ,/ "! $# &% (' & ) !

QA Jq@IBtLe { F ?m@ +OeQ3rUb[\ V p Z$|Cb[aCX c,O!bruRlQ^b|IR z bfsOeroR^Q/d[OQKrUb[\oR Zp
p
_CR^_COS,O!b_IR z bfsOruR^Qd[OeQKrob[\UR V p x X RlrUX` dÔQKrob[\HV p Z%p c,OPd[COeQ3G rUb[\seX c,G X^c,O z #bfG sOeroR^Q
df\LdÔQKrob[\UR Zkp p R RFdf\ ,OeruRlQdt\LdÔQKrob^\oR VIp NYRS,]`XN X g c,O X H HX
?AJqL3?-, KkuAf+koIAkw!:W ~ ~ ~ ~ {{`^CûAAo KIw !G (
àG IkuhKAG W x $kouKA({uukh^`kuIAAKkuKIA/.ûAA, x
Y ~ ,G CG aG , G G KG * G CG `G KG
uL G ~ [[Ka G[ f[ 3 KG ~wx x ~ ~x ~ Y ~wx
48 2. VEKTORI [2.1]
B fBtLD ? Lf UD t@IEG@C?

NYOQAR+c,O:|IR^_dÔQKrob^\V p HG Xf_COeQlR=c,O P+OeQKrob[\
V5p c,Od[OeQ3rUb[\ H#G X x QlbAc,XfX`R
|CTC] c,Xj_3jT O OONSV p O x |IRlQf]jO:c,O@O VSp O O OONVSp O x Rb[\,X c,O_KroR#X cURTc,OX`S*ruRQAR^bXdÔQKrob[\,T V p
R^Q^bc,O S,]hg g p{RS,T z \,b^ro_IRb[\UX c,O_KruR#eX c,XdÔQKrob^\oR Vp R^Qlb$c,O Q^bc,O
x b^_C|IRc,O V p p %R^Qlb[| Oe\nc,O Wp p
+OeQKrob[\,VX V
p X Z:p SUTQ^b[]jX`_COR^\U_;Xhp[RlQ^b$XCSoRlb
R^Q^b z b[p S*robAc,X{aC\,bAcruR^QARFd{pt|IRc,O Zp Vp X`]jX R
V p Zk
LD C@B tBfL@ ? Lf
Q
[g V p V p x
g * V p Zp , Zp V p x
P
!#" $&%('U)Z+ #/ 7(3 3 35%(6879a' 9b7 3

g * / , V p V p V p x
g * V p , * / , VCp
?AJL3? ! .^t wI oUfÎ X p ^k w p p x Fp /^f w
#"%$ p x p '&
$ x :k^qA^,,At( )&^+* x Af^!` X k^qA^,
w^! [^3^t[K-, UfhÎFko ^fk
`Kk^ A{$FUÎhU( okAt/.
FY^k FP,ÎhuY"Afn Fw!YI{^
C
%FUwI^f wI ,ft{^!IFAfkKk (

F2 R
60

F1 120
I3IIAIUA KnAÂ IU,@ ]Â
00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 0021436587:9 x ;
A B
AKw!^
O X p O <" & = " & 143+5 m * ?>6& x
WK^` O X p O X A@ e t^/4BA{ .:IFAf^!kwIKI
IA UA
5DC!EF7 $ X I 5DC!E7 X 5DC!E m * " 5DCHE &[ * KJ
5GCHE m * : A@ A@
K^q` mIAoAf;K F 5DC!EML {ABA( {Ap ,p ft{^ 7 l " kK * x
^k ^ * " ~ "ON ~ ;^ .=KAf: X A,Akw k,FU^wIw
At &[+* x ^# ]^%At{F & N+&+N6* x ^k &+* [A~mm~
A? JqL3? . ^{FKAfAA^f{/h $FF^qFukq F`!Ak

+ ou{ .w` KF,FhIAkw!WKAfAA` oIk^k ekKF

]^,^kwhf e L

[[K[f[3 DBw{ Ke,FF{$KuA x

F 3 L
$ ko;û (
A,DBwYqouIAk.C;^,^``:{,^^( w!
P R

AohIA^KAfAA` {,^^ô

30o
ÂûAA,{${,^^w!Ao$hIA^KA (
Q 2 kg
AA` `K(FeAKkohÂûAA,K,FûAADBw I{oU (

h^k e,!w` KF,FhIAkw!KAfAA` ouk,FY{ ."wIfw`

w I%^f wf IAI[AW%^^{U^^kAfA qokAfq eYF^# ]K

^^h x W Af%{Ak{oA1FF"F +* n K^`( FU^ HX 1 +*5 ;x
H "K o!A wKFA f^ ]/kf+$K ]fAFnh

KAfAA`k " &6" $ x wKFAt^ ] ]^fU!fAF KAfAA`

!k "K
$

! &('*)+' 78:9;.= < l 8+..=< Rl Y2n9 Y.54 m Rm39t2"6

" $# &% (' )' *# +#
, F ?AJ ?AC@ "BJB1J

YQ^bc,OT\URkdf_CXj_CX R^|IR^M_ T$R^\*roO X c,Od z \oRld^b[Q3T;r
_;X;Q^bfb[\,|CX`_IRAro_CXfSUTCS*ruRFd{p3b[_C|IRXjRlbP|;dlRX`S*ruR^Q3_3T;ruR
dÔQKrob^\oRX1rUbd[OeQKrob[\ p x sX cURc,O z btseOero_CRrobfsuQARX`LS Cb A
|;X ,rUO * x ,x Rdf\ !Tc,O(robfsuQlR *[x ,x X;dÔQKrob[\

ay A
7
p x seX c,Xc,O z btseOeruRlQroR^Q^b[| O\XjS Cb[|;X ,rUO^p+RdfL\ robfsuQlR

98
* xF- ,
:
NPOQARc,O$|IR^_d[OeQ3rUb[\ Vp S z btseOerUQ^b[ TX`S ;b[|CZX *G roT

XPdf\ Cb[ TrobfsuQfX * V x V ,x |IRlQf]jO V p
j
+\,X c,Oe|CXhp SU]qg g

<; <= 8 A

O i ax
V p Z G *^ G ~ l G ~ x ! " $&% '@)Z+ Z/ 1435%(6879 9a' 5$ $

' 6^$ 8683 $ 7 $ K6
- /. 10
*^G ~ V p x l0 G ~ V p
8 8 8
2 3 4. 02 65 3 .
8 <; 8 <=
R^Q3]Ò
7 :
V p V Vp V p <; <= :
1R^QlbSUOWS,dlR^Q3X"d[OQKrUb[\S z bfsOroQ^b^ TX`LS Cbt|;X ,rUT!b[}eO_IR z X`SURlroX z b[!b eTdÔQKrob[\UR

7
p X p
*>
7 :
NPbXaCX`]jbQ^bmc,X|C\U4T ?^Xd[OeQ3rUb[\p5_CO_3TC}e_Cb S z bfsOroQ^b^TX`S ;bt|CNX ,rUTp=SUO!b[G }O
_CR z X`SURlroX z b[!b eTroNX dÔQKrob^\oR;gNYOQARS,T VX |;dfX c,O$robfsuQÔlpX_COQAR$c,O V p H!
S,]`X`QlO g S,OWdfXjC |CG X|IRc,# O G C G
*>
? A@
H HX X *wv v 1, p *Gy y , p CB ED 7 <B FD :

50 2. VEKTORI [2.1]
\UbAc,OdfX *Gv v /, X *Gy y , SUO bkdfT 0D ;@IEG@C?AB ; B"fB d[OQKrUb[\oR;g:i1b

b T_Ac,XN/SUOWSdÔQKrob^\UX`R]RlQ,O$\oR^ seTC_IR;g CG
CB ED 
G <[[" Kp ^ t[& Kp v v **W- , " x=y y " ** , & x ;F

7 :
YTC] c,Xj_IRd[OeQ3rUb[\oR H G c,OTCS*rUdlR^\UX T;|IR^] c,Oe_Cb[S*r

robfsFR^QAR
X xIz RYc,O
yQ
Q O H G @O *Gv /v /, *y /y /, CB ED <B D
P
|CRlro]jOSU]`X c,O|CXCGb^\UTC]`R R|;TC] c,Xj_fTdÔQKrob[\UER V p
V p V p
yP R
OV p O V V
; 7 <= :

j
; =

WaC\UbAcd[OQKrUb[\oR V p V p V p X Zp Z p Z p
O i xP xQ
! " $&% ' ),+ ,/ 1435%(6879 9`' $ 5$ 7 (3 c,O
<; 7 <= : ; 7 = :
57," 7r '

C. .

.
V p Zp * V Z , p * V Z , p ; ; 7 <= = :
PR ]`X`QARdÔQKrob^\oR V p V Vp V p X Zp Z Vp Z gp c,O
<; 7 <= : ; 7 = :
V p Zp * V Z , p * V Z , p <; ; 7 = = :
P_;b[}FR^Q!d[OeQ3rUb[\oR V p V p V p aC\Ubmc,O c,O <; 7 <= :
V p V p V p <; 7 <= :
?AJqLef? $fh^q/ûAA V p IkuwKA

ùI^` koIA *q;xF , f^"ûAAo V p

V p
4
[[K[f[3 _ ^%À
+OeQ3rUb[\UU X V p V p V p X Zp Z p Z p SUTQ^b^]`X`_;O
R^\,_CXhp;R^Q^bc,O Zp VCp CrGcegIR^Qlbc,O
<; <= : ; = :
1
-6 -1 1 3 9
7 7
-2
Z V x Z V Z Z ; =
V V
-6
; <; = <=

z 0O X cURl]`_CbCpk_3TC]d[OeQ3rUb[\ p c,O+Q^b^]`X`_;OFR^\UR^_$S1aCXj]`bQlbAc,X` dÔQKrob^\Ub[g +OeQ3rUb[\UXKXjRkc,T
<; <=
X`S,rUT/b[\UX c,O_Kru#R eX c,Tp;R^Q^bc,O x RS,T z \,b^ro_Cb!SUTb[\,X c,O_KrUX`\oRl_CXhptR^Q^bc,O

TPb[]`Xj_COFRl\U_Cb[S*rdÔQKrob[\URT\oRFdf_CX`_CX1SUOYc,Oe|C_Cb[S*ruRFdf_Cb/X`S z XjroTmc,O z b[b T|COerUO\U!X
_IR^_KroO$sX c,O\UOroQÔWsXj_COQ^b^ z b[_COe_3rUOWdÔQKrob^\oR;g
>
+OeQ3rUb[\UX V p V Vp V p X Zp Z Vp Z gp S,TQlb[]`Xj_COFRl\U_CXqpCR^QlbXSUR^!bRlQ^bc,O
<; 7 <= : ; 7 = :
00 V V 00 V 1Z V "Z
00 Z Z 00
; <=
; = <= ;
; =
?AJqL3? {wh^5K%ûAA C G dG KAwUÎ AKF

K **[x- ,x * > xu ,x ** " xF ,x *htx ,
*htx- ,x ** " x " ,x *^xF) ,x * > xF ,
*htx- ,x * & x ,x *q;x- ,x * > xF ,

[[K[f[3
K V p C G & p p x Zp WGd G @ p p : K^` VZ @& x VZ x
7 : 7 :
; =
{u!!AWûAA1/KAwUÎ1=À FIf F
; <=
V p G & p / p x Zp WGd G ?N p " p 1 K^q` VZ N & Y" " x

7 : 7 :
;
= Z " " x {o! AûAAKAwUÎk{oAqI` ;
V
A FIhf e
=
V p G ?" p " p x Zp WGd G " p p K^q` VZ "" [x VZ W" [x

7 : 7 :
; =
{u!!A$ûAA=I`KAwUÎ
<; <=
@ID C@ ?m@ ; @ A J
P\UOe| O_CX z Rl\_COQlb[]`Xj_COFR^\,_CX dÔQKrob[\UR!T\oRFdf_CXj_CXSUO bkdÔ @ A @ ?m@ B1JB1J g
?AJqL3? {wh^q K!=ûAA V p <" p p x Zp p p wuk
[[K[f[3

7 : 7 :
00 " 00 m "

00 00
FU^=KûAA=uKAwUÎ ;${o!Awuk

fdlR^Q3XS,Od[OQKrUb[\YT/\URkdf_CXj_CX !b[}O:c,Oe|C_Cb _IR^s_;b\UR^S,roRkdfXroX _IRQ^b^ z b[_COe_3rUO$T
SUc,O\,TdÔQKrob^\oRaIR Olg
52 2. VEKTORI [2.1]
?AJL3? Wu^F V p " p p p x Zp p p q p p p ûU^w

hAKKCf q p V p Zm
7 : 7 : 7 :
[[K^t[K

p p " p p p p
7 : 7 : 7 :
" tx
K^q` FU^ [x
@ ; fB"@
bkd^b[ z \UXjc,Oe\UT_;X c,OWaCX`]jb_3TC}e_Cb z \UbkdFc,O\URFd^RAroX|IR]jX"dÔQKrob^\UX V p
X Zp seX`_COaIR Tp+rcegn|CR ]jXS,T_;OQ^b^]`X`_;OFR^\,_CXhg nc,0O oRFdlR^_Ac,OSUT;S,ruRFdlRc,O|C_IRl|C}aCX|CRmc,O
bt|C#b ?^d[b[\+_IRrob z XruR^_Ac,Olg YQ^bS,TCS,roRFdXjRXCrUbSUR^b(c,O|;_Cb\wc,O UOe_Ac,O^pfb[_C|CR$dÔQKrob[\,X

sX`_;OaIR Tg%YQ^b!_CO z b[S*robAc,X \wc,O UOe_Ac,O^p Xj]`XRlQ^b!\Gc,O ,O_AcURX`RdfX ,O^pIb[_C|CRdÔQKrob[\,X"_CO

sX`_;OaIR Tg
, ?AJ ; ? D F ?
NYOQARc,O R^|IR^_ TWRl\,roO X c,Oed z \URFd[b[Q3T;rU_CXQlbtb[\,|CX`_CRlro_CXS,TCS,roRFdT z \Ub^S,rob^\UT g Ô
|CX`_CXjs_COd[OeQ3rUb[\UO_IRQ^bfb[\U|;X`_IRlrU_CX` b^SUX`RS Kd^RAroX*roXjRTrobfsuQ3X * x x , XYdf\
Cb^dfX`RTrobfsuQAR^R **[x x ,x * xF[x ,x * x x- , b _IR^seX`!b\UOe|Cb[ S p x p x p 1bfsuQ3X
T z \,b[S,rUb[\UTc,O z \,X`|C\,TC}Oe_IR!T;\UO| Oe_IRro\,bAc,QAR!\,OFR^]j_CXaC\,bAc,OedlR * V x V x V , 7 :
bfsuQ^b[ QAR^b z bfsOro_Cb[X^rUbtsuQlb[ * V x V x V ,

<; =
QAR^bdtL\ Cb[ bf|C\UOe| O_c,Od[OeQ3rUb[\ ZG VIp 3i=\UOeR|CO

I_CX
8 ; <=
X c,Xb z O\oZR X cURSdÔQKrob[\,X`Rdt\,X c,Oe|CX S,]hg g [

az 8
V p # G A0 G ~ I~ a G ~ K G~ x
A
1

k
1 8 8
m G ~ t V Vp x Ì~ c G ~; V p x K G~ V p
O
j ay
1 i
A
! " $&% '>)Z+ Z/ 1435%(6879 59`7 86879 R^Q3]Ò

ax A 8 <; 7 <= :
57 (3r6 % 7 g$ 7 F$ 86
<. 0 .
V p V p V gp V p
0 . 02 5 3 .
; 7 <= :
\UbAc,OdfX"V x V x V PSUO bkdfT 0D ;@IEG@C?AB ; B"fB [ { F ?m@ V{p

+\,X c,Oe|CX
; <=
~"! $ #% ~ ! & ' ~ "! $ #% ~ ~(! $ #) ~ !
V V V ; =
R^Q3]Ò
OV p O V V V
; =
YQ^bc,O@V p V p V p V p x Zp Z p Z p Z p x b[_C|CR

<; = : ; =
V p Zp * V Z , p * V Z , p * V Z , {p x
7 7 :
; ; <= =
V p V p V p V p
7 :
<; <= :
+OeQ3rUb[\T z \Ub^S,rob^\UTp bf|C\UOe| O_ S z btseOerU_Cb[ rUbtsuQlb[

7
XtdfL\ Cb[ x roR^Q^b^| O\n!b[}OebY_IR z XjSoRlrUX z b[!b eTSUQAR

]`R^\U_;X Q^b[ z b^_CO_KroXqgNPOQAR$c,O V p G SU]jX`QÔ g SUO
*>
zQ
dfXj|CX|IRc,O G #G LG G
C?
Q
zP P
H HX XY Y* R S
H G
yP yQ
xP

v v p
y y p
/ p
CB ED 7 <B FD : B D
xQ
!#" $&%(' Z) + Z/9`7$ 7 " ' 35%

6879 b9 7 86879 . 0 .
?AJqL3?fu^K^kuK! G
tx " ZxFG x `G
;x & xx

" xFtxux
[xfx x nu^F V p x Zp q p ,ft{^
V p Zp Zp q p V p Zp q p
[[K[f[3( u!FApfp kKAIAIYûp AA,ô , ] $^pk FYkuK
w!^p V p p
p p p " x Z & p & p p q p p p p W K^p`
V p Z [ p & p xt Z q p @ p k p / V p Z q p k p N p N
7 : 7 : 7 :
7 : 7 : 7 :
?AJqL3?\1KK^{!FIkuq{ku^ûAA, VIp e FKkA,^w{^w!

ko x AKF

txF^xFx V p p p p
W[xu;xx V p p p " p
[[K[f[3 V p G
v v p
y y p
p
7 : 7 :
7 :
K FU^ v txKy Y ;x
W K^`F+
" x " xF

FU^ v
[x y fx " : K^q`=FY
x N x &

?AJqL3? , ,ff{^q+^f wIûAA, V p

p " p p
7 " p p p
:

p p p 7 : 7 :
[[K[f[3
K OV p O ! V V V "
" @ >
; =
OV p O "
" : &

OV p O 9 ; 9 ; 9 ;

54 2. VEKTORI [2.1]
I@ D @C { F ?m@ ; @ A J

Y\UOe| O_CRYro\,bAc,QARYd[OeQ3rUb[\oRtp[Q^bAc,Xt_CO]jO}eOTPc,Oe|C_CbAc%\oRFdf_CXj_CXhp bkd[OSUO @ A @ P; ? D F
? +g \UXId[OeQKrob[\UER V p V p V p V p x Zp Z Vp Z p Z p x q p q p q p q p
sX`_;OaIR Tp R^Q^b!X SoR^!bR^Qlbc,O
<; 7 <= : ; 7 = : ; 7 = :
00 V V V 00
00 Z Z Z 00
<; <=
00 q q q 00
; =

; =
?AJL3? {p wh^ K+ûAA V p p N p {p x Zp p > p @ p x

q p " p @ p @ wuk
7 : 7 :
[[K^t[K
7 :
00 N 00
00 > @ 00 000 > @ @ @ 000 N 000 " @ @ 000 000 " > @ 000 N
00 " @ @ 00 0 0 0 0 0 0
AA` Ak=ûAA:wuk

fdlR^Q3Xd[OeQ3rUb[\PT
z \,b[S,rUb[\UT/S,O!b[}O:c,Oe|C_Cb _IR^se_Cb\UR^S,roRFdtXroX_CR!Qlb[ z b[_COe_KroO$T
S,c,Oe\UTd[OeQ3rUb[\oR!aIR O^g
?AJL3? , A^kw^p uAp A p N p p p p {KAIAIp (F

ûAA, V p " p p & Z ?> p p N q p <N p N p N
7 :
[[K^t[K, A^kwPûAA p {KAIAI!(F ûAA, V p x Zp q p

7 : 7 : 7 :

{fnKqou{ .nuF^ x 5x hAA^WKk FU^ p Zp Zp q p AA`

# # #

# #

#

q FU^{fUÂ^FF KAIAIqY[ûAAo p x p x p f^wA^K^ qnFU

{KABkW=I{Îhu
7 :
" > N N
N
& N N
, FukFFA^ ]!3hÂPFU^{KABk;F ;x x
&('*)+' 037 7
"
L@C { F ?m@

[gPNYOQARSUT|IR^_CXdÔQKrob^\UX V p x Zp x q p TYb[_CS*ro\,TCX`\URlroX aC\Ubmc V p Zp q p
g TYbAc,XtT;dFc,Oer+!b[\oRmc,T R^|Cbkd^b[] cURFdlRlroXfd[OeQ3rUb[\UXV p x Zp x q p |IRSUObf|_Ac,XNb^}OGb[\,X
\oRlrUXro\,b[Q3T;r
g z \URkdfXj]`C_CG b[ ja,G OS*roOd\,G b[Q3T;roT X \oR XjroX$S*d[O|C#X cUG R#?[b[`_C`G R^]Ò wdz G b[b T
d[OQKrUb[\oR x x 4TYbAcURc,Od[O RX !O| hTdÔQKrob[\UR x x W
>
g R!]jX3c,O$! b ?[T eOro\oRl_CSU]`R#X c,b[rUO}eXU_;XFRrU\Ub[Q3T;roRGb[\,Xj\oRlrUX _;bmdfXrU\Ub[Q3T;r

&>
gQ^bc,O!rUbtsuQAR T rU\Ub[Q3T;rUT ./ roR^QKdlR|IRc,O Z G ` G G p x

b[_C|IRYc,OrobfsuQAR rUO}eX ,rUOro\Ub^QfTtruR;pCrGcegCSGc,0O X *roOroOe}NX U_CNX FR;*g b^QlR RlrUXhg
8 8 8 8
$8
;g b[QAR RAroX;|CRS z bAc,_CX eOX c,Oe|C_C b ?dfL\ IR z R^\UR^]Òe]` b ?[\UR^RP|Cb z b[]jbmdfNX ,ruRYSUT z \,b^r
_CX /S,rU\oR^_;X FR|CX c,O]jO|CX cUZR ?[b[_IR^]jT z R^\UR^]Òe]` b ?^\oR^R_IRro\,Xfc,O|;_IR^QAR!|;X c,O]`R;g
@
tg b[QAR RAroX |IRc,OS,TCRdÔQKrob[\UR;p Q^bAc,X"XjRmc,T z btseOeroR^QTS,\UOe|CX *roTp{RQf\URmc,OedÔ

Tdf\ ;bmdfXjR z \URFdtXj]`_Cb#? rUO\,b[Q3T;ruRc,O|C_CR^QAR!_3TC]d[OQKrUb[\UTg

;g b[QAR RAroX|IRc,O sOer,d[Oe\Ub[Q3T;r z R^\oRl]Ò]j b ?[\UR^pRlQ^bXSUR^!bRlQ^bSUO_Ac,O ?[bkdÔ

|CX cUR#?^b[_IR^]jO\oRlS z b[]RFdf] cURmc,Tg
gPNYOQARS,T dÔQKrob^\UX V p x Zp x q p b[_CX%a;\UX`|;bmdfX z \oRFdfX`]j_COrU\Ub[S*ro\oRl_CO z Xj\oR^!X`|COlp QlbAc,X%_;O
]Ò}eOTc,Oe|C_Cp bAc\oRFdf_CXj_CXhp1X_COeQlR!c,O p dtXjSUXj_IR z Xj\oR^!X`|COlg \oR XjrUXJp z b[b T

d[OQKrUb[\oR V p x Z x q p ? >
F ?AJ ?AC@ "BJB1J

[gPN#R e\,ruRAroXdÔQKrob[\ C G x R^Q^bc,O
,

^xF x
" xF
q xx
" x

gPNR eX SUQAR^]Rl\U_COQlb[ z b[_COe_KroO C G x RlQ^bc,O

F>

txF x
" xFW
[xFY x
" xF

gPNYOQARc,@ O V p p p x Zp p x q p p p \UR^sT;_IRlroX
7 : 7 7 : ?
V p Zp x Vp qp x
V p Zp q p x

Vp x Vp qp x
V p Zp q p

56 2. VEKTORI [2.2]
g S z XruRlrUX|IR]`XSUT/d[OQKrUb[\UX # G X WGdG Q^b[]jX`_COR^\U_CXqpCR^Qlbc,O

9?
RK
Y;x & x
[xux
" xF & x
fx
a
Y;xF x
;xo x
txFYx
& x
k
Y;xF & x
^xx
;xFx
txu
g |C\UOe|CXjrUX ruR^Qlb|CRdÔQKrob^\UX V p p p X Zp p p aCTC|;TQlb[]`Xj_COFR^\,_CXhg
7 : 7 :
;gPNR eX=|CTC] c,X`_3T\,O TC]jroR^_KroO!SUX`]`R p X p x R^Q^bc,O O p O #N $ x O p O & $ x R

Q3T;r ,rob?KR RlrUdlR^\URmc,TS,X`]jO5c,O &[+*
@ F>
, ?AJ ; ? D F ?
[gPNR#e\,roRlroXdÔQKrob^\ # G x R^Q^bc,O
! !

! !
! !

gPNR eXQ^b^ z b[_COe_3rUOWdÔQKrob^\oR C G x R^Qlbc,O

! ! ! !
F>

gPNR eX X ruR^Qlb|IRd[OeQKrob[\,XHV p p p " p X Zp p " p p

aCTC|CTQ^b^]`X`_;OFR^\,_CXhg
F>
7 : 7 :
gPNYOeQlRYc,O V p p p " {p x Zp p p p X q p p p \UR^sT;_IRlroX

7 : 7 : 7 &?
V p Zp x Vp qp x V p Zp q p x

Vp x V p q p x V p Zp q p

g \UR^sTC_CRlroX |CT;] c,X`_3TdÔQKrob[\UR V p

9?
p p p x p p p x p p
7 : 7 : 7
;g Qlb^ro]jX eTb[afc,0O UOe_Cb[ bdf\ 3TrU\UX ,ruR z RQ34T IRSUO

4 z R z \,X`QAR#eg fruR z bkdfX
SUTc,Oe|C_IR^QlO|CTC] c,Xj_COX1sXj_COaC\,X`|CbkdÔ z \oRFdfX`]j_COrU\Ub[S*ro\oRl_CO z Xj\oR^!X`|COlgT;] c,X`_CR
@ >
aC\UXj|IRaIR O z X`\UR^!X`|CO c,Oe|C_IR^QAR+c,O5|CTC] c,X`_CCX *ruR z bkd^Rtg TYblro]`X ^p Rkc,O|C_CbSURYS,c,O

SUb[ roO}eX
$ TPb[]`XjQ3X3c,OX`_KrUO_ XjroOrPSUX`]`RT ,ruR z bkdfX`R
>

[2.2] 2.2. SKALARNI PRODUKT 57
o !##%
! #%w !"$#%
&('h&(',) (18 22+< l i<;. P896+789t.=<C2
)' +% #
YQ^b!SUT V p x ZPp [d OeQKrob[\,X\UR ]jX`seXjroX{bf| p X 7

V p x Zp Q3T;rPX !O| T_mc,XpCb^_C|IRSUOWaC\Ubmc
V p Zp O4V p OFO JZp O 1436587
V p x Zp h g
c,O$bkd[S,O QlRlD ];R^@C\,_CE@CX ?AB\,btJ |C; T;? Q3>r%c,Oe|C _IR^d^Q OQKro b[\UjR Vp X Zkp gQlbc,OaIR^\UOe c,Oe|IR^_ bf|_Ac,X p x b[_C|CR
z
dlRmc z \Ubf|CTCQKr=S,O bkdÔSUQAR^]Rl\U_CX RlrUbCpc,Oe\{c,O(\UO TC]ruRlr%TC!_Cb UQARa;\UbAcepKRa;\UbAc,OdtX
S,O$T
X eX sOS*rob bkdfT S,QlRl]R^\,Xhg

WR(Q3T;rX Oe| Td[OeQKrob[\URT X`R^!b

TtdtX c,OQR^_Ac, X[p Q3T;r1!O| T_Ac,X`R;g 1R^Q^b
c,O 7
V p x Z T$R^|S,OQ3T;rX
c,Oe_AcURbt| |;b x Qlb[SUXj_3TCSYS,O!X c,Oe_AcUR
bf| |Cb TWRl|c,OQ3T;r! b *ruR^\Qlb
S,X`_3TCSnc,O z b XjroXdlR^_p R z \URkdfX"Q3T;rQlb ! " $&% ' ),+ ,/ 29b3 ' % (%(' " '59 7 9b7 0%(6K'

a b > 0 a b = 0 a b < 0
S,X`_3TCS:c,O x R RroT z X%QfTtrQ^b[S,X`_3TCSc,O 5 0 65 .
_;O ?KRlrUXjdlR^_g b _IR^seX%|IRc,OSUQAR^]`R^\U_;X z \,bt|;TCQKr z b XroXjdlR^_p RlQ^bdÔQKrob[\,X RArUdlR^\oRkc,T

b#,ruRl\QfTtrFp{R_CO ?KRAroXjdlR^_pIR^Q^b RlrUdlR^\URmc,TrUT z X Q3T;r S,]hg g g

tQAR^]`R^\U_;X z \Ubf|CTCQKrPX`RS,] c,O|;O FRS,d^bAc,S,r,dlR

>
[g
V p Zp q p V p q p Zp q p x
g
V p Zp
V p Zp x
g V p Z p Zp V p x
g V p V p x
g V p V p V p p
SUXjro#b ?KRX Gb[\,TC]jO RSUQAR^]`R^\U_CX z \Ubf|CTCQKr h g S,]`X c,Oe|CX
V p V p O4V p OFO VEp O 1 3+5 O4V p O x

?AJqL3? ,ff{^q
V p Zp
V p Zp x AK(F O V p O ?& x O Zp O "At
F` 7
V p x Zp &[6*

[[K[f[3 $ ôÂu^^^ ]${o^KA!CFAf`!

V p Zp
V p Zp " V p V p & V p Zp Zp V p Zp Zp
" & & & k 143+5 &[ * m & 1 3+5 &[ * k
N
58 2. VEKTORI [2.2]
t@IE@;?lBJ ; ? > J J D { F ?A@

z O0X cUR^]`_Cb;pKR^Q^b(c,OQ3T;r5Oe| Td[OQKrUb[\UXjR z \URkdfXqp[rceg 7
V p x Zp x b[_C|IRc,OSUQAR^]`R^\U_CX
z \Ubf|CTCQKrnc,O|C_CR^Q_3TC]`Xqg aC\oRAro_CbCpCR^Q^bc,O$SUQAR^]Rl\U_CX z \Ubf|CTCQKr%c,O|C_CR^Q_3TC]`X

V p Zp O4V p OFO Zp O 143+587

V p x Zp x
b[_C|IRS,Td[OQKrUb[\UX!O| T;SUb[aC_;bb[Q^b[!XjrUXhg Yb[X`S*ruR;p+R^QlbSUT d[pOeQKrob[\,X(\oR ]`XjsXjrUX+bt| p x
b[_C|IRSUT _Ac,NX Cbkd[O|;TC] c,Xj_CO z b XjrUXjdf_CXaC\,bAc,OedfXhp z R 143+587
V p x Z b[\URa;XjroX x RrUb
_IR^seX=|IRc,O 7
V p x Zp YQ^bc,O_COeQ3X5bfp |d[OeQ3rUb[\oR_3TC]jdÔQKrob[\ep1b^_C|IRc,O!_mc,O ?[bkdlR
|CTC] c,Xj_IR1c,O|C_CR^QAR xmz RP_CO5b[\UR 143+5M7
V p x Z _fT;}_Cba;XjroX O| T;rUX` TWrob[ S,]`TCsRmc,T
SUc,O\_3TC]jdÔQKrob[\UR!b[}Oeb!bt|;\UO|;XjroX z bd^b[] c,Xqp z R!X"roR^Q^b|IR!b^_aCTC|;Ob[Qlb[XrP_IR
|C\U4T ?^Xd[OeQ3rUb[\PTS,QlRl]R^\,_Cb[ z \Ubf|CTCQKroTg
R^Q3]Ò
V p Zp Vp Zp
t@IE@;?lBJ ; ? > ?m@C"B1JBJ

+OQKrob[\,X p Xp SUT!O| T;SUb[aC_;bb[Q^b[!XjrUX"XIc,Oe|CX`_CXjs_CX |;TC] c,Xj_IRXj c,Oc,O|C_CR^QAR p z R
dt\,X c,Oe|CX 7 :
p p OZp OFOZp O 1 3+5 W [x

7 7 7 7
p p O p OFO p O 143+5 W [x
: : : :
p p OZp OFOp O 14365

7 : 7 :
NPOQARSUT|IR^_CXdÔQKrob[\,X V p V p V p x Zp Z p Z p 1R^|IRYc,O<; 7 = : ; 7 = :
V p Zp
V p V p
Z Vp Z p V p Z p V p Z p V p Z p V p Z p
<; 7 <= : ; 7 = : ; 7 ; 7 <; 7 = : <= : ; 7 <= : = :
V 1Z Vp p V %Z p p V Z p p V Z gp p V 1Z V Z
<; ; 7 7 <; = 7 : <= ; : 7 <= = : : ; ; <= =
R^Q3]Ò$SUQAR^]`R^\U_CX z \Ubf|CTCQKrSUOW\oRlsTC_IR z b!Gb^\UTC]jX

V p Zp V Z V Z ^ <; ; <= = q g
bt|IRlQf]jOSU]jX c,O|;X Gb[\,TC]R R |CTC] c,Xj_3T/dÔQKrob^\oR
O Vp O Vp Vp V V
; = q g
1R^Q^b^| O\p z \UOR h g _IRS*ro\g tpCX`R^!b
1 3+587
V p x Zp O EV p V p OF O Zp Zp O V V 1 Z V V Z Z Z x
;
<; ;
=
=
;
=
=
h g
z R z b[!b eT/SUQAR^]Rl\U_Cb ? z \Ubf|CTCQKruRb^}O!b\oRlsTC_IRAroX XQ3T;rPX Oe| Td[OeQ3rUb[\oRtg

*>
?AJqL3? $ .%u^^Î {o^KA:ûAA, V p Y p p Zp <" p p

[[K[f[35V Y;x V tx Z " x Z ;x ;F{u! {
7 : 7 :
<; <= ; =
V p Zp Y " =m &

?AJqL3? $ .%Af5 ûAA, V p " p p Zp p " p
[[K[f[35V " x V ;x Z ;x Z " x ;YF({o!
<; <= ; =
7 : 7

:

" mP
" "
143+587
V p x Zp
"
" ^
K ^` IA/.f;K F 143+5 L {ABA{A,ff{^ 7
V p x Zp & > "O*
?AJqL3?j {wh^q K!%/ FUf .1ûAA= Kk^kKAw

K V p Y p p x Zp " p & p 7 : 7 :
V p " p p x Zp " p p
7 : 7 :
V p p p x Zp p p
7 : 7 :
[[K[f[3
K V p Zp
" = & x ûAA% 3k^kKAwq
V p Zp " " m x ûAA% Kk^kKAwq
V p Zp
mY=[ x ûAA%I` Kk^kKAw
?AJqL3?j :ufko; f U^ÛÎhu Kk {^k{ K {K

AouK$k`w Au .uWI^4Bqe KFk${^kn{ ^ {KÂuuKk`w

^f w F m e AÀ,Kko AAP^fA^w!Ak [[ Â .1

I^4Bqefko; :nkWUK{oA FIh AKuuhwkIAA, .U

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60 2. VEKTORI [2.2]
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c
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72 2. VEKTORI [2.4]
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Vp x Z x qp
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[2.4] 2.4. PRAVCI I RAVNINE 73
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74 2. VEKTORI [2.4]
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jql^gPiY XmSirts $a TYlv Zfs 5 a K*
E !G @ !A"M?G9<=0;%78"H;" AR"= $= S= 1[?;C7 M8"O!OL" P=A=P@ :@%9<=UMUQP" =R9<M?=\OG4MU78"]^"O!G47 ^`C;
90;%=B#%C7?` _ba E Ac d2be; SG9 [= f " g1:h#%C9 !;= ;%=Bc# F@S" J G ij
G k0G @%"A " # kS;c 28"
= Y" =8" ?@%G4"A LSM?+9<;=>#%7?M?G@ S = CA "MUG 9O" ;C78" m/ l c?A S" !G#%= 7?0G 2U=B#% G G<7?M?G4@%=b@%
M8" ;C7u@F" ?@G"A 4M?"= 9<;=>#%7?M?G@ S= Yn" A"M?G9O" / E !OG:;7 @F" U@G4A 4SM?= oA "OM?G90= Y"
!G4MP94C;Q4=R;S4" GM?78" (= bG4A" M?=;C7 !G4MP94C;Q4=R;S" /E !OG ;7 @ " ?@G4A 4SMU"= pA "OM?G90= Y"
7?=R9;Q=;SL" UG4M?7?"qG bG4A " CM?0G ;C7 M?r 0G c G:MU"= iSs" "!AB# 4= = /
V W X RKZ tvu e gPirxl w gPij8klnm.oadm%e mSlv
M
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klnmfoadm%e U<_bmtad rlnjrtsnrlnY|i Vln Xnlnmtcìk gmtadclnmta (r Te en_8]i V s0c jql kmna rlvjqi]nc Ba Vejqike
m^lvPe
?& \N

) & 0 ) & F ; K )5 *

w

&
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K L a c`bi Te ]nkega w33 L mSlvgPij8klnm.oadme Te]nkega w *

D /] " @A>#%7?c #= ;%7 M?" #= ^ 8";=B#"OAMH @!B 7UG4!""= 78" !G4MP94C;Q4=R;S" =
=";"UM8"S=qM#%Q4G9@ ! /
K K
M - x K - x ; K L M - P x - P ; K *
y& NN 7 / / &?NN 7 / /
10/ @ ?$= ^" = !OG4MP94C;Q4CM =># @AB#%C7?#C="1 ;%7?G9O" U@ bG4;C7 ^ =R9O"M#%c =A=|U;="H#%MUG0
M 4M?G4Q U9#%c S"!OG4MP94C;Q4CM =>#% /

K L M K L
M - x K - x ; K L M
; x
?& NN 7 / / ?& NN ?& NN
; x L M K
M L M
P 7 K
*
- ; K
&?NN &?NN &?NN /
-U/ @ ?$= ^" =!G4MP9;QM C=B# @%AB#%C7? #C"= 1;7UG 9Oq" _ba E AR !2be; SG9<"= !;$= SC;=B#%c /
PO& L M x& O8N *
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P &
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9 L M P& L M # x & *
! M
& N w`w P ; % x$
?& N?w ?& NN ?& NN
& / @ ?$= ^" =!G4MP9;QM C=B# @%AB#%C7? #C"= 1;7UG 9O( " ' = 2?M?"= CG90= !;$= SC;=B#%c /
- K & O8N M - 7 K / & O8N L M - K &O8N x ; K *
M x 7 / K L 9 7 / - ; x /
y& NN 7 ?& NN ?& NN
)] / " !OG#% ;"AM?r 2?;%G#%C9!OG4MP94C;Q4=R;S" ;7 M - w- w ; 7 K P / & 9 {

?& NN /
*, / + !; ?Q ;S"O7?"= ?@." - #%s U=@S"OM!9O"7U;S" B !9O"7U;S" #%s 4?=@"M!; ?Q A !; UQ
!9O"7U;S" F$= S7 / " #A= ?H! UM ~G9<; i%=HM .^"!OG 7?G 2?=R9M?= 1!; ?Q4G9O" /
/, / + =e@ SG4e@ S;"M?"= CM?= S;G! L @ ;S"MU"= ( #%d ?=R@S"M !; UQ 8 !; ?Q #% ?=R@S"M =R@ ^
SG4e@ S;S"OM?"= CM?= ;G4H! 4 =R@ SG@ S;"M?= M?= S;G! L !<; ?QF= 7 / $" #C0= ?H! ?HM nG9<; i%=HM
^"!OG 7?G 2?=R9M?= 1.;G4H! 4S" /

!" #%$& ' #
(*),+ -/.103254 687:9*;=<?>@03A

B D
+DCFEHG JILKNM ,O7POMPOLQO8RG@ SO7POOMPO709TOuM M ?;UOMPO@VRHPOXW =YW[Z L =mU;G0?=R@
bG:RG KNM KNM @%98OTOR G0 M A M M M: ="\W ?;%=7?; M M bG KNM 7POM M A M M M:="\W Z^] 56G @ M
R;VOUROGd,O ?=@ KNM G9TO8R G I`_ Wba W Zc]
d HR JW CG9 M G me Agf D G,h W ihFj
Eck
CFEHG,h =AR= W h
W O @VHR W[Z + W hk

W ?MR = KNMI]|?M @eSGF@ M 7?G0 M MO ?MR C= KNM
I G0MO SO 98O @i~ - I / ]| A M M M:F?;=R7?; 4 M M M A ^ f(x)
M M M: w G0MPO SO 98O G @ I - w / =]G9 M G

f
x
'E +K W h h W h
w O7?GTR w CG 9 M G]f'E GPk
E
W G<7 I - w / ]i GM M RO 7 @ M RO M 7PO KNM
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w3
h ) iE y
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fEG & 3 d HR ` - I

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/
lTm nHoqpsrTtHu,vPwDxypVz|{}oUnF~xnHoqpUi@,oqVn c
CG M G 'E +K W D
+DCFEHG,h IQY ,$ SG KNM - I WZ ]
/
/
h
h D
+CFEHG,hLfh
3h fEHG & h
+ OT K M KNM Y# M GUO VgVO G UMR K O d O KNM G M M M gR G G0 M M M G ^
NHR G ]i OTRF M ?MR , KNM G M Gf|h
E W D
+DCFEG W G,h
h\f|h
h
fEG & h
O SO O MPOUO G G ! G~+G4M O G UO % KNM TO G O KNM
E R G KNM ?MR K J
OR G G0 M MPO L O G0 M MPOVHR N 1 M OTR M" 1 2 G KNM TO ,OOR G KNMKNM V^R~O }OTOR G ^ M
M OTÔ M 2 G K OTRFL G0 M MHG M G eQfEf A
W W h
W ^êgfEf A
E W
e Bgf D G,h W ihFj
ECFEHG,h
m
?MR , K G0 IXKNM N8OTR G M OTR M?G0 2% G K w G0 M M M V M M KNM O Mb M

O8cO Md2 G KI - w / ] M rO SG0 M UMR K G0 KNM G M ^ M M*VHR *N 1 M ^ M M 1 PO8 G8O ^
-w L I -w
//
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T
112 4. FUNKCIJE, NEPREKIDNOST, LIMES [4.1]
M ^ M MLNRH
- w I - w / / w~ ~- I /
UO K NR 4 M M GDf D
+DCFEGh IQ M M MH M M M M ,UO MPO V w O
V PO M M N KNM M V ?MR, KNM5I - w ,e}O MPO V ]
/
?MR, K O M 2VSO OMPO K QUO ^

K R VL K O,e}O R ^
PO e }OS 3 UOS M M 2^
R K OLR V K O M e}OS K OV QTUO R KNM8
slika
d O M R N KNM |R KNM POTVOT M M V V
KNM R O K " i M KNM K }R \ 0 M UOS K O K ^
QVO M R K O d 8OTR K }R PdO UOTRF K
lTm nHoqpsrTt 8v
g}p?nqm nHoqp@,oqUn ^ KNR M VT!O - wK A / N" P O UsO OTR M ^ M O KN M P OT M OTw " N1." P2O O ^
domena
UO KNM O ] R VL K KNM OTR M 4SO O PO R , K 4O R K O\ M O8 o2 K
w N KNM M O8 F 2 K ] R R K PO , I .O M ^VO U
I - w / ] KNM R , K ORN KNM PO w KNM M PO R KNM O KNM R , K O PO
KNM V^RO R, KNM"! V " $#%
& e h f CFEG,h % D
+DCFEG W
R , KNM M 2VO K O K r}OTR O M c2 KNM

K 1 M N KNM e U , + & f G D
+CFEHG I
f (x) + g(x)
- KNM R , K / O .q}OTRF8O O KNM . - w /Y I - w / ;

- -w / ]
f (x) g (x)
g (x) g (x)
R , KNM I - M " M UOTR O M

0 M K " 1 M N KNM e U i OTR KNM egf Pk
1
f (x) f ( x)
D+ = D
+DCFEHG I - R , K 1 O .UOTRFTO O
zbroj produkt
KNM . - w /s I - w / - - w / ]
R, K O I M 0 2 KNM }OTR O
f 1 (x)
f (x) g (x)
M N8OTR1O KNM , O5V KNM e | " , 2 ^

f (x)
f (g (x) )
KNM O8R KNM :R R , KNM%I 8 2 K O

lm nHo pYr8t ')v (Q~x p}Un ^ @,oqVn @*p Qp 2 34R65J K "Ome ..) }EO8CFREHG 8 4O D
O +DKNCFM EHG . - w I /s KN2M I - w / R ]
kompozicija inverzna funkcija
, K 7 O .sUOTRF8O O KNM . - w /s - - I - w / / ] 8 M O KNM 8O1R ," K xO 9 - #SOUO ^

OTR O M I UOTRF 1 w O KNM=I - w / M - ] : M K O U
R ," K O 3R K O I - 9; M VR =<B- w / I - - - w // ] # M
I - - w - I - w UO ,^ ,$ M 3R KNMT M 23 > H M M U?O H@ M R , , KNM
R - KNMI// - 3R /K / - - w /: w 7BA ] x C 2, DPO 9 UO OTR KNM 9 VO
R KNMI - - - w / / I - w 7A/ N8OTV VUO NcO V^VO 9 UO R KNMI M @ SO A ]
d 9 M eUUO? M 9 UO R, KNM - - I - w // I - w /47EA KNM 9 VO D R KNMI UVOVÔUUO
SO
A M O KNM8
[4.1] 4.1. POJAM FUNKCIJE 113
OV^, " KNM UO ,e}O KNM UO OR ,, KNMJI - - w ]7 O K V KNM M
M - - w / 9 VO O R, KNM - RO 1 9 PO}On }R M - w - - w / / - ] O/ V/ " U M 2PO PO#,

I - - - w // ] + N 1HÙ M 2POEPO# - - w / PO N w ]3 M U M #c UOS0,O

w ! N" M VUOT M N 9 KU M # M 9 RFTO UO:UO % On UOS0c KNM O}O N8OTR M
}R MiKNM POTROO ^VH M }R M RO ie KNM PO 2POHN _1OTR M >PO}O - - w
M UVO NcO VÛO VOS0 SO1 w ] O KNM e M ,$}O R ^RO KNM N KNM /
3R KNM5I A ,O U M UO\N KNM UOU PO w ]
R , K 4O R K .O 2 K I - w / N KNM 2 K w M M E
Dh f )H
D
+DCFEHG

3R KNM I PO ,O8O I O ] _ M O I O KNM V^RO R , KNM I O=N^R8O I O
KNM M PO ID]

_1d O 2Q 8OTR I - w 2 N M UO KNM ?O w H KNM O R , K O

I M N^^ROS8O\UO ^" M w / UO ,^ ,$ M I - w / ]
2 ;9 ;9 q O ie KNM5I O - I - w //Y w 9 UO I O KNM

- I - w / w / w ~ -I /

O KNM M n O M 9 VO F M M R , KNM I O N" M VV" PO V^RO 9 VO O N 9 > POT> M

3R KNM I POV M UVOT" ~N ;9 F U M # M 9 RFTO UO :U4O K O

UOS8O , w ! V " %

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y$z4{4|P{4}<z4{~ 9 ;
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5 5

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O:7 v V;"U2 < U 7X] $T Hv V O`\ =<

5 ]
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9
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7 7
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M 8
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7 P Z ]
n n 5

SVU O:79, M \I8 8@4.\ 8!79, 9 O:7 65 U 7 O:7/b
?X\8!7 ?T M 8@45 bU T8 65 b V;?O:7 5.8

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8 b%d , 9 O:7 65 98!5d=<
Z,C8 O:7 U 8!7
9
T V -k w ; O:7< 5L,\ U 8!5
~ X (:/
5 =<> M 8 ; 8!7 <
M 8 <X5 5 98!5d 65-, O:7 U
5 =<> M T 8!5 5 M 65
-P w
7 k / k
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(:/

5
]
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9
< w 7 P
5V;=8!5 -P w - w ;
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7 k / k (:/
n ~ ~ ~ ~
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5 O`\),V;@4.\2 :X5V;\HUW5%4 7 W ^5 7 ,;V @4.\ Y Y 8 ,?8 =8<X7 U M V; W
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9
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7 P b^5 678 O:7 ~- / ED7BF 7 P GH < FG
9
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w
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w ;
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y$z4{4|P{}0z4{P~
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#
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w
w ;
7
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k
k w ;
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w
w 9 ;
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[4.1] 4.1. POJAM FUNKCIJE 115
fE 5G,h fC t 7]4 RO:7
#
I k
w
w ;

$ w
9
; k w ]
7
S I -w / ]
yHz4{|P{4}<z4{~ d I

]T% b 8!7 - - - w

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[KNM bAO:7Q W 65
- -w / X S -w .X ",%7 8 .aV0

I
30
LV /
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w ;
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10
k
- -w / w

7
]
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d

T% <> ?S\ $#
-10

b^7],8\-,< U 8\C5]@, <
5 65
!

wDxypVF@,oqVn ^
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<
\
5b
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w ; ;
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M RO KNM I - w /5 ww ;7 ] O#, I - 5:/ I - / I - 7 / I - P /}7 I - / I - ?505050/

I - 7 +*,*-* / I - 7 5055 / ]
k k
k
# O #A iNHLR 9 O\RO R K K O M UUO

2
O #A iN H KNM POTR VUO"* ;9 V RH4UO\R8O 3R K :V> MT

9
" M RO KNM I - w /s w 9 w ;
w
)] O #, I - w 7 / ]

7 7 k

# w
& M RO KNM I - w /s w w ;
)] O #, I
k
w $ ]
7 7
) M RO KNM I - w /s w 7 )] O # I -/. w 9 ; ?/ ]

i
< i

9 ;
* M RO KNM I - w 7 /s w 9 w w

)] O # I - w / ]
7 7 k

/
M R8O KNM5I # w ; w $ w 9 7 ] O#, I - w / ]

M R8O KNMI - w /1 A w 9 ; w ; M RO KNM%I - /1 I - / I - P / ]

O # A ]
k k

9
M R8O KNM5I - w /Y w - - w / w ]) O# - - I - w // I - - - w / / ]
w
i
7
O #B N^ M M M V KNM M #,"1 R, K O

9
w ; w
! k
7 l

w

w k w w ;
l
7 7 k
w
7 l
7
w 9 9
P w 7 w 7 w 9

w *8w ;
7 7 k k
7 k
5

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w i P w
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(:) A 2 ;A 687:9*;=<?>@03A

( "! $#&%('
R, KNM w w 9 w < w = w*) ]S],] M

em h
CFEG,h _ M PO R M PO M ^
KNMKNM ] d ^^RO R, KNM5I - w KNM VRH

x2 x4 x5 x3 x2
/s
4 x
R K 3UO 3UO KNM O.2 K ] K3R ^ E
K 4
2
O , K OV^ROUO UO KNM O M M M :y
M M +K

3X M KNM POT "
1 1
-4 -2
M R M : w 9 w = w*0 w*1 ]S]S] " O K 1V^RH
2 4
] M M N93^2 ^ROS8O K w 942 7942 w 94 2 U

2 K KNM KNM - w w ]
5

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FG
- w
V KNM SO ;9 O KNM O M K KNM ^
7 / 7 /
eV M PO F M PO R K O M , KNM

x -4
lTm nHoqp r8t +v-,

/.}Vn ^
x3 x5
PO8@ M R M : O8R " O w

65 w 87 w ,
] S
] ] 7 w 7 5 w 7 7 w U R N L F * R , M
S
] S
]
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K M M M N
K
i
POT "1 M K O* M 5 EO M 9 O V b> M * M R , KNM

i i i i i
POT@"1. M 4, K O= M ]
FG
M , KNM " M PO8@ M R e7 M : 5 w w < w*) w:9 ]S],] O K N^^HR ]1 M D BF
M V^RO8O K UO,^,$ M w LUO^ , M I - w Pq O SO 8OTHR ~}O8R ~ M K K
/
[4.2] 4.2. ALGEBARSKE FUNKCIJE 117
KNM V M PO F M PO R K O OTR O O KNM > M *PO R, K O w O
VO 4O PO\ F M M "iV1. M K O\ R V KNM . w w w ]S],] ] i i i
fE 5G,h f C S
! U U 5b8\Cb^5 678\Z`\ 824 O:7 I -w / w 9 w ] 9 i

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5
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d
7
U U 5b8!5 O b^5 678Q,\ 5.8 % 45 O:7PO:7
- I / w33 w 5 w 5 7 ]
w (w w

[ U M 5 C\ M O:7< , ; O:7/b V T
ca< 5 % AO:7/b8!5L,Lb U \ \ M O:7<X5

b AO:7 ~
E G H DA FG

O R , K I RO M O f Kh OTR

w
w 9 & I - w / I - w 9 /

@ O\e DOTR

w
w 9 & I - w / I - w 9 / ]

R R , K O UO8 M ^ PO 4O O\RO M O KNM 5

R , K O I f KGKJf h OTR

w
w 9 & I - w / I - w 9 /

@ f KGKJe O8R

w
w 9 & I - w / I - w 9 / ]

R R K O V ;9; VOT M ^^ V ;9;

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[4.3] 4.3. TRANSCENDENTNE FUNKCIJE 123
& O#[V KNM eUN KNM M #"1` ^ Oq M R ^R SO8R8OL M P OUOU K ^
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