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Synchros
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Introduction to Satellite Communications
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Basic Measurements
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Introduction to Waveform Interpretation
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Matter
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Lines of Force
Magnetic Shielding
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Chapter 2 - Batteries
Primary Cell
Polarization of the cell
Other Types of Cells
Series-Connected Cells
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CHAPTER 1
MATTER, ENERGY, AND ELECTRICITY
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Learning objectives are stated at the beginning of each chapter. These learning objectives Join Integrated
serve as a preview of the information you are expected to learn in the chapter. The Publishing's
comprehensive check questions are based on the objectives. By successfully completing the Discussion Group
NRTC, you indicate that you have met the objectives and have learned the information. The
learning objectives are listed below.
1. State the meanings of and the relationship between matter, element, nucleus,
compound, molecule, mixture, atom, electron, proton, neutron, energy, valence,
valence shell, and ion. Order this
information on CD-
2. State the meanings of and the relationship between kinetic energy, potential Rom
energy, photons, electron orbits, energy levels, and shells and subshells.
8. List six methods for producing a voltage (emf) and state the operating principles
of and the uses for each method.
9. State the meanings of electron current, random drift, directed drift, and ampere,
and indicate the direction that an electric current flows.
10. State the relationship of current to voltage and convert amperes to milliamperes
and microamperes.
11. State the definitions of and the terms and symbols for resistance and
conductance, and how the temperature, contents, length and cross-sectional area
of a conductor affect its resistance and conductance values.
12. List the physical and operating characteristics of and the symbols, ratings, and
uses for various types of resistors; use the color code to identify resistor values.
INTRODUCTION
The origin of the modern technical and electronic Navy stretches back to the beginning of
naval history, when the first navies were no more than small fleets of wooden ships, using wind-
filled sails and manned oars. The need for technicians then was restricted to a navigator and
semiskilled seamen who could handle the sails.
As time passed, larger ships that carried more sail were built. These ships, encouraging
exploration and commerce, helped to establish world trade routes. Soon strong navies were
needed to guard these sea lanes. Countries established their own navies to protect their citizens,
commercial ships, and shipping lanes against pirates and warring nations. With the addition of
mounted armament, gunners joined the ship's company of skilled or semiskilled technicians.
The advent of the steam engine signaled the rise of an energy source more practical than
either wind and sails or manpower. With this technological advancement, the need for competent
operators and technicians increased.
However, the big call for operators and technicians in the U.S. Navy came in the early part of the
20th century, when power sources, means of communication, modes of detection, and
armaments moved with amazing rapidity toward involved technical development. Electric motors
and generators by then had become the most widely used sources of power. Telephone systems
were well established on board ship, and radio was being used more and more to relay
messages from ship to ship and from ship to shore. Listening devices were employed to detect
submarines. Complex optical systems were used to aim large naval rifles. Mines and torpedoes
became highly developed, effective weapons, and airplanes joined the Navy team.
During the years after World War I, the Navy became more electricity and electronic minded. It
was recognized that a better system of communications was needed aboard each ship, and
between the ships, planes, submarines, and shore installations; and that weaponry advances
were needed to keep pace with worldwide developments in that field. This growing technology
carried with it the awareness that an equally skilled force of technicians was needed for
maintenance and service duties.
World War II proved that all of the expense of providing equipment for the fleet and of training
personnel to handle that equipment paid great dividends. The U. S. Navy had the modern
equipment and highly trained personnel needed to defeat the powerful fleets of the enemy.
Today there is scarcely anyone on board a Navy ship who does not use electrical or electronic
equipment. This equipment is needed in systems of electric lighting and power,
intercommunications, radio, radar, sonar, loran, remote metering, weapon aiming, and certain
types of mines and torpedoes. The Navy needs trained operators and technicians in this
challenging field of electronics and electricity. It is to achieve this end that this module, and
others like it, are published.
The following paragraphs explain how substances are classified as elements and compounds,
and are made up of molecules and atoms. This, then, will be a learning experience about
protons, electrons, valence, energy levels, and the physics of electricity.
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Chapter 2 - Batteries
CHAPTER 2
BATTERIES
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Upon completing this chapter, you will be able to: Join Integrated
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1. State the purpose of a cell. Discussion Group
2. State the purpose of the three parts of a cell.
3. State the difference between the two types of cells.
4. Explain the chemical process that takes place in the primary and secondary cells.
5. Recognize and define the terms electrochemical action, anode, cathode, and
electrolyte.
6. State the causes of polarization and local action and describe methods of
preventing these effects.
7. Identify the parts of a dry cell. Order this
8. Identify the various dry cells in use today and some of their capabilities and information on CD-
limitations. Rom
9. Identify the four basic secondary cells, their construction, capabilities, and
limitations.
10. Define a battery, and identify the three ways of combining cells to form a
battery.
11. Describe general maintenance procedures for batteries including the use of the
hydrometer, battery capacity, and rating and battery charging.
12. Identify the five types of battery charges. Order this
13. Observe the safety precautions for working with and around batteries. information in
Print (Hardcopy).
INTRODUCTION
The purpose of this chapter is to introduce and explain the basic theory and characteristics of
batteries. The batteries which are discussed and illustrated have been selected as
representative of many models and types which are used in the Navy today. No attempt has
been made to cover every type of battery in use, however, after completing this chapter you will
have a good working knowledge of the batteries which are in general use.
First, you will learn about the building block of all batteries, the CELL. The explanation will
explore the physical makeup of the cell and the methods used to combine cells to provide useful
voltage, current, and power. The chemistry of the cell and how chemical action is used to convert
chemical energy to electrical energy are also discussed.
In addition, the care, maintenance, and operation of batteries, as well as some of the safety
precautions that should be followed while working with and around batteries are discussed.
Batteries are widely used as sources of direct-current electrical energy in automobiles, boats,
aircraft, ships, portable electric/electronic equipment, and lighting equipment. In some instances,
they are used as the only source of power; while in others, they are used as a secondary or
standby power source.
THE CELL
A cell is a device that transforms chemical energy into electrical energy. The simplest cell,
known as either a galvanic or voltaic cell, is shown in figure 2-1. It consists of a piece of carbon
(C) and a piece of zinc (Zn) suspended in a jar that contains a solution of water (H20) and
sulfuric acid (H2S04) called the electrolyte.
In some cells the container acts as one of the electrodes and, in this case, is acted upon by
the electrolyte. This will be covered in more detail later.
ELECTRODES
The electrodes are the conductors by which the current leaves or returns to the electrolyte. In
the simple cell, they are carbon and zinc strips that are placed in the electrolyte; while in the dry
cell (fig. 2-2), they are the carbon rod in the center and zinc container in which the cell is
assembled.
ELECTROLYTE
The electrolyte is the solution that acts upon the electrodes. The electrolyte, which provides a
path for electron flow, may be a salt, an acid, or an alkaline solution. In the simple galvanic cell,
the electrolyte is in a liquid form. In the dry cell, the electrolyte is a paste.
CONTAINER
The container which may be constructed of one of many different materials provides a means
of holding (containing) the electrolyte. The container is also used to mount the electrodes. In the
voltaic cell the container must be constructed of a material that will not be acted upon by the
electrolyte.
Direct Current
DIRECT CURRENT
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
INTRODUCTION
The material covered in this chapter contains many new terms that
are explained as you progress through the material. The basic dc
circuit is the easiest to understand, so the chapter begins with the
basic circuit and from there works into the basic schematic diagram
of that circuit. The schematic diagram is used in all your future work
in electricity and electronics. It is very important that you become
familiar with the symbols that are used.
Book 2
Voltage Waveform
Magnetic Field of a Coil
Basic AC Generation
Frequency
Alternating Current Values
Effective Value of a Sine Wave
Sine Waves in Phase
Ohm's law in AC Circuits
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INDUCTANCE
Self-Inductance
Inductance
Unit of Inductance
L/R Time Constant
Power Loss in an Inductor Order this
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Series Inductors without Magnetic Coupling
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Summary
Answers
CAPACITANCE
The Farad
Charging and Discharging a Capacitor Order this
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Charge and discharge of an RC Series Circuit
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RC Time Constant
Capacitors in series and parallel
Fixed Capacitor
Color codes for Capacitors
Summary
Answers
Inductive Reactance
Capacitors and Alternating Current
Capacitive Reactance
Reactance, Impedance, and Power Relationships in
AC Circuits
Impedance
Ohm's Law for AC
Power in AC Circuits
Calculating Reactive Power in AC Circuits
Calculating Apparent Power in AC Circuits
Power Factor
Power Factor Correction
Series RLC Circuits
Inductive and Capacitive Reactance Summary
Inductive and Capacitive Reactance Answers
Transformers
Useful AC Formulas
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
This might be a good place to recall what you learned about phase
in chapter 1. When two things are in step, going through a cycle
together, falling together and rising together, they are in phase.
When they are out of phase, the angle of lead or lag-the number of
electrical degrees by which one of the values leads or lags the
other-is a measure of the amount they are out of step. The time it
takes the current in an inductor to build up to maximum and to fall
to zero is important for another reason. It helps illustrate a very
useful characteristic of inductive circuits-the current through the
inductor always lags the voltage across the inductor.
You must not get the idea that any of these values stops cold at a
particular instant. Until the applied voltage is removed, both current
and voltage are always changing in amplitude and direction.
TRANSFORMERS
TRANSFORMERS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
TRANSFORMERS
Useful AC Formulas
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USEFUL AC FORMULAS
FREQUENCY (f)
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EFFECTIVE VALUE OF VOLTAGE OR CURRENT Rom
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CAPACITANCE (C)
IMPEDANCE (Z)
REACTIVE POWER
APPARENT POWER
POWER FACTOR (PF)
TRANSFORMER EFFICIENCY
TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
For instance, if the lengths of any two sides are known, the third
side and both angles &thetas; (theta) and Φ (phi) may be
determined. The triangle may also be solved if the length of any
one side and one of the angles (&thetas; or Φ in fig. V-1) are
known.
The second basic fact you must understand is that FOR EVERY
DIFFERENT COMBINATION OF ANGLES IN A TRIANGLE,
THERE IS A DEFINITE RATIO BETWEEN THE LENGTHS OF
THE THREE SIDES. Consider the triangle in figure V-2, consisting
of the base, side B; the altitude, side A; and the hypotenuse, side
C. (The hypotenuse is always the longest side, and is always
opposite the 90 angle.)
Note that three ratios are shown to exist for the given value of
&thetas;: the ratio B\C which is always referred to as the COSINE
ratio of &thetas;, the ratio A\C, which is always the SINE ratio of
&thetas;, and the ratio A\B, which is always the TANGENT ratio of
&thetas;. If &thetas; changes, all three ratios change, because the
lengths of the sides (base and altitude) change.
That is, &thetas; = 42.1. With &thetas; known, side A is solved for
by use of the sine ratio A/C. The sine of 42.1, according to the
table, is 0.6704. Therefore, side A is 100 X 0.6704, or 67.04 feet
long.
Problem 3: In the triangle in figure V-5, the base is 3 units long, and
the altitude is 4 units. What is &thetas;, and how long is the
hypotenuse?
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Book 3
Circuit Measurement
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Introduction
Circuit protection devices
Schematic Symbols
Fuse Recognition
Identification of fuses
Fuseholders
Fuseholder Identification
Replacement of fuses.
Circuit Breakers
Magnetic trip element
Trip-Free/Nontrip-Free Circuit Breakers
The thermal-magnetic trip element
Summary
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CIRCUIT MEASUREMENT
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CIRCUIT MEASUREMENT
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
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Rom
State the way in which a
compass reacts to a
conducting wire including the
compass reaction to
increasing and decreasing dc
Order this
and ac high and low
information in
frequencies.
Print (Hardcopy).
State how a d'Arsonval meter
movement reacts to dc.
State the purpose of a rectifier
as used in ac meters.
State the meaning of the term
"damping" as it applies to
meter movements and
describe two methods by
which damping is
accomplished.
Identify average value as the
value of ac measured and
effective value (rms) as the ac
value indicated on ac meter
scales.
Identify three meter
movements that measure dc
or ac without the use of a
rectifier.
State the electrical quantity
measured by an ammeter, the
way in which an ammeter is
connected in a circuit, and the
effect of an ammeter upon a
circuit.
Define ammeter sensitivity.
State the method used to
allow an ammeter to measure
different ranges and the
reason for using the highest
range when connecting an
ammeter to a circuit.
List the safety precautions for
ammeter use.
State the electrical quantity
measured by a voltmeter, the
way in which a voltmeter is
connected in a circuit, the way
in which a voltmeter affects
the circuit being measured,
and the way in which a
voltmeter is made from a
current reacting meter
movement.
Define voltmeter sensitivity.
State the method used to
allow a voltmeter to measure
different ranges and the
reason for using the highest
range when connecting a
voltmeter to a circuit.
Identify the type of meter
movement that reacts to
voltage and the most common
use of this movement.
List the safety precautions for
voltmeter use.
State the electrical quantity
measured by an ohmmeter,
the second use of an
ohmmeter, and the way in
which an ohmmeter is
connected to a resistance
being measured.
State the method used to
allow an ohmmeter to
measure different ranges and
the area of an ohmmeter
scale that should be used
when measuring resistance.
State the two types of
ohmmeters and the way in
which each can be identified.
List the safety precautions for
ohmmeter use.
State the primary reason for
using a megger and the
method of using it.
Identify normal and abnormal
indications on a megger.
List the safety precautions for
megger use.
State how a multimeter differs
from other meters, the reason
a multimeter is preferred over
separate meters, and the way
in which a multimeter is
changed from a voltage
measuring device to a current
measuring device.
State the reason the ac and
dc scales of a multimeter
differ, the reason for having a
mirror on the scale of a
multimeter, and the proper
way of reading a multimeter
using the mirror.
List the safety precautions for
multimeter use.
State the purpose of a hook-
on type voltameter.
State the electrical quantity
measured by a wattmeter and
a watt-hour meter.
Identify the two types of
frequency meters.
Identify the type of meter and
interpret the meter reading
from scale presentations of an
ammeter; a voltmeter; an
ohmmeter; a megger; a
multimeter (current, voltage,
and resistance examples); a
wattmeter; a watt-hour meter;
and a frequency meter
(vibrating reed and moving-
disk types).
CIRCUIT MEASUREMENT
A question which you might ask before starting this chapter is "Why
do I need to know about circuit measurement?"
The name "ammeter" comes from the fact that it is a meter used to
measure current (in amperes), and thus is called an AMpere
METER, or AMMETER.
The ammeter in figure 1-1 is measuring a current of 1 ampere with
the voltage and resistance values given.
IN-CIRCUIT METERS
Some electrical and electronic devices have meters built into them.
These meters are known as in-circuit meters. An in-circuit meter is
used to monitor the operation of the device in which it is installed.
Some examples of in-circuit meters are the generator or alternator
meter on some automobiles; the voltage, current, and frequency
meters on control panels at electrical power plants; and the
electrical power meter that records the amount of electricity used in
a building.
OUT-OF-CIRCUIT METERS
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LEARNING OBJECTIVES
It can help save people's lives, or it can kill them. While we take
advantage of the tremendous benefits electricity can provide, we
must be careful to protect the people and systems that use it.
While you study this chapter, it should be kept in mind that a circuit
protection device is used to keep an undesirably large current,
voltage, or power surge out of a given part of an electrical circuit.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
INTRODUCTION
When you work on a circuit, you often need to remove power from
it to connect test equipment or to remove and replace components.
When you remove power from a circuit so that you can work on it,
be sure to "tag out" the switch to ensure that power is not applied
to the circuit while you are working. When work has been
completed, power must be restored to the circuit. This will allow
you to check the proper operation of the circuit and place it back in
service. After the circuit has been checked for proper operation,
remove the tag from the power switch.
Many electrical devices are used some of the time and not needed
at other times. Circuit control devices allow you to turn the device
on when it is needed and off when it is not needed.
Circuit control devices have many different shapes and sizes, but
most circuit control devices are either SWITCHES, SOLENOIDS,
or RELAYS.
Figure 3-1 shows an example of each of these types of circuit
control devices and their schematic symbols.
Book 4
Electrical Conductors
Circular Mil
Circular Mil-Foot
Wire Sizes
Stranded Wires and Cables
Copper-Versus-Aluminum Conductors
Conductor Insulation
Plastics Insulation
Fluorinated Ethylene Propylene (FEP)
Paper Insulation
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Publishing's
Woven Covers Discussion Group
Coaxial Cable
Summary
Answers
Wiring Techniques
Schematic Reading
ELECTRICAL CONDUCTORS
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ELECTRICAL CONDUCTORS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
ELECTRICAL CONDUCTORS
CONDUCTOR SIZES
SQUARE MIL
Q.1 State the reason for the establishment of a "unit size" for
conductors.
Q.2 Calculate the diameter in MILS of a conductor that has a
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WIRING TECHNIQUES
WIRING TECHNIQUES
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
WIRING TECHNIQUES
This chapter will assist you in learning the basic skills of proper wiring
techniques. It explains the different ways to terminate and splice electrical
conductors. It also discusses various soldering techniques that will assist you in
mastering the basic soldering skills. The chapter ends with a discussion of the
procedure to be followed when you lace wire bundles within electrical and
electronic equipment.
Conductor splices and connections are an essential part of any electrical circuit.
When conductors join each other or connect to a load, splices or terminals must
be used. Therefore, it is important that they be properly made. Any electrical
circuit is only as good as its weakest link. The basic requirement of any splice or
connection is that it be both mechanically and electrically as sound as the
conductor or device with which it is used. Quality workmanship and materials
must be used to ensure lasting electrical contact, physical strength, and
insulation. The most common methods of making splices and connections in
electrical cables is explained in the discussion that follows.
INSULATION REMOVAL
The preferred method of removing insulation is with a wire-stripping tool, if
available. A sharp knife may also be used. Other typical wire strippers in use in
the Navy are illustrated in figure 2-1. The hot-blade, rotary, and bench wire
strippers (views A, B, and C, respectively) are usually found in shops where
large wire bundles are made. When using any of these automatic wire strippers,
follow the manufacturer's instructions for adjusting the machine; this avoids
nicking, cutting, or otherwise damaging the conductors. The hand wire strippers
are common hand tools found throughout the Navy. The hand wire strippers
(view D of figure 2-1) are the ones you will most likely be using. Wire strippers
vary in size according to wire size and can be ordered for any size needed.
Insert the wire into the center of the correct cutting slot for the wire size to be
stripped. The wire sizes are listed on the cutting jaws of the hand wire strippers
beneath each slot. After inserting the wire into the proper slot, close the handles
together as far as they will go. Slowly release the pressure on the handles so as
not to allow the cutting blades to make contact with the stripped conductor. On
some of the newer style hand wire strippers, the cutting jaws have a safety lock
that helps prevent this from happening. Continue to release pressure until the
gripper jaws release the stripped wire, then remove.
Knife Stripping
A sharp knife may be used to strip the insulation from a conductor. The
procedure is much the same as for sharpening a pencil. The knife should be held
at approximately a 60 angle to the conductor. Use extreme care when cutting
through the insulation to avoid nicking or cutting the conductor. This procedure
produces a taper on the cut insulation as shown in figure 2-3.
Figure 2-3. - Knife stripping.
If you are required to strip a large number of wires, you can use a locally made
hot-blade stripper (figure 2-4) as follows:
SCHEMATIC READING
SCHEMATIC READING
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
SCHEMATIC READING
This chapter is divided into three subtopicss - (1) cable and wire-
marling systems, (2) electrical and electronic diagrams, and (3)
safety precautions.
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First, we will discuss the systems used for marking cables and
information in
wires. We will then explain each of the types of diagrams you will
Print (Hardcopy).
encounter when troubleshooting, testing, repairing, or learning
about circuit or system operation. Finally, we will briefly discuss
safety practices relating to working around electrical and electronic
systems.
CABLE-MARKING SYSTEMS
Two typical cable-marking systems you are likely to see are the (1)
shipboard and (2) test equipment cable-marking systems.
Metal tags embossed with the cable markings are used to identify
all permanently installed shipboard electrical cables. These cable
tags (figure 3-1) are placed on cables close to each point of
connection, and on both sides of decks, bulkheads, and other
barriers to identify the cables. The markings on the cable tags
identify cables for maintenance and circuit repairs. The tags show
(1) the SERVICE LETTER, which identifies a particular electrical
system, (2) the CIRCUIT LETTER or LETTERS, which identify a
specific circuit within a particular system, and (3) the CABLE
NUMBER, which identifies an individual cable in a specific circuit.
Figure 3-1. - Cable tag.
In figure 3-1, note that the cable is marked "C-MB144." The letter C
denotes the service; in this case, the IC (interior communication)
system. The letters MB denote the circuit; in this case, the engine-
order circuit. The number 144 denotes cable number 144 of the MB
circuit.
Book 5
Practical Alternators
Single-phase alternators
Three-phase alternators
Frequency
Principles of AC voltage control
Summary
Answers
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LEARNING OBJECTIVES
INTRODUCTION
Whenever a conductor is moved within a magnetic field in such a way that the
conductor cuts across magnetic lines of flux, voltage is generated in the conductor.
The AMOUNT of voltage generated depends on (1) the strength of the magnetic field,
(2) the angle at which the conductor cuts the magnetic field, (3) the speed at which the
conductor is moved, and (4) the length of the conductor within the magnetic field.
The POLARITY of the voltage depends on the direction of the magnetic lines of flux and
the direction of movement of the conductor. To determine the direction of current in a
given situation, the LEFT-HAND RULE FOR GENERATORS is used. This rule is
explained in the following manner.
Extend the thumb, forefinger, and middle finger of your left hand at right angles to one
another, as shown in figure 1-1.
Point your thumb in the direction the conductor is being moved. Point your forefinger in
the direction of magnetic flux (from north to south). Your middle finger will then point in
the direction of current flow in an external circuit to which the voltage is applied.
An elementary generator (fig. 1-2) consists of a wire loop placed so that it can be
rotated in a stationary magnetic field. This will produce an induced emf in the loop.
Sliding contacts (brushes) connect the loop to an external circuit load in order to pick up
or use the induced emf.
The elementary generator produces a voltage in the following manner (fig. 1-3). The
armature loop is rotated in a clockwise direction. The initial or starting point is shown at
position A. (This will be considered the zero-degree position.) At 0 the armature loop is
perpendicular to the magnetic field. The black and white conductors of the loop are
moving parallel to the field. The instant the conductors are moving parallel to the
magnetic field, they do not cut any lines of flux. Therefore, no emf is induced in the
conductors, and the meter at position A indicates zero. This position is called the
NEUTRAL PLANE. As the armature loop rotates from position A (0) to position B (90),
the conductors cut through more and more lines of flux, at a continually increasing
angle. At 90 they are cutting through a maximum number of lines of flux and at
maximum angle. The result is that between 0 and 90, the induced emf in the
conductors builds up from zero to a maximum value. Observe that from 0 to 90, the
black conductor cuts DOWN through the field. At the same time the white conductor
cuts UP through the field. The induced emfs in the conductors are series-adding. This
means the resultant voltage across the brushes (the terminal voltage) is the sum of the
two induced voltages. The meter at position B reads maximum value. As the armature
loop continues rotating from 90 (position B) to 180 (position C), the conductors which
were cutting through a maximum number of lines of flux at position B now cut through
fewer lines. They are again moving parallel to the magnetic field at position C. They no
longer cut through any lines of flux. As the armature rotates from 90 to 180, the
induced voltage will decrease to zero in the same manner that it increased during the
rotation from 0 to 90. The meter again reads zero. From 0 to 180 the conductors of
the armature loop have been moving in the same direction through the magnetic field.
Therefore, the polarity of the induced voltage has remained the same. This is shown by
points A through C on the graph. As the loop rotates beyond 180 (position C), through
270 (position D), and back to the initial or starting point (position A), the direction of the
cutting action of the conductors through the magnetic field reverses. Now the black
conductor cuts UP through the field while the white conductor cuts DOWN through the
field. As a result, the polarity of the induced voltage reverses. Following the sequence
shown by graph points C, D, and back to A, the voltage will be in the direction opposite
to that shown from points A, B, and C. The terminal voltage will be the same as it was
from A to C except that the polarity is reversed (as shown by the meter deflection at
position D). The voltage output waveform for the complete revolution of the loop is
shown on the graph in figure 1-3.
Q.1 Generators convert mechanical motion to electrical energy using what principle?
Q.2 What rule should you use to determine the direction of induced emf in a coil?
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LEARNING OBJECTIVES
INTRODUCTION
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The dc motor is a mechanical workhorse, that can be used in many different information in
ways. Many large pieces of equipment depend on a dc motor for their power to Print (Hardcopy).
move. The speed and direction of rotation of a dc motor are easily controlled.
PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION
If the forefinger is pointed in the direction of magnetic flux (north to south) and
the middle finger is pointed in the direction of current flow in the conductor, the
thumb will point in the direction the conductor will move.
Like magnetic poles repel each other, and unlike magnetic poles attract each
other. As in the dc generator, the dc motor has field poles that are stationary and
an armature that turns on bearings in the space between the field poles.
It has two field poles, one a north pole and one a south pole. The magnetic lines
of force extend across the opening between the poles from north to south.
The armature in this simple dc motor is a single loop of wire, just as in the
simple armature you studied at the beginning of the chapter on dc generators.
The loop of wire in the dc motor, however, has current flowing through it from an
external source. This current causes a magnetic field to be produced.
This field is indicated by the dotted line through the loops. The loop (armature)
field is both attracted and repelled by the field from the field poles. Since the
current through the loop goes around in the direction of the arrows, the north
pole of the armature is at the upper left, and the south pole of the armature is at
the lower right, as shown in figure 2-2, (view A).
Of course, as the loop (armature) turns, these magnetic poles turn with it.
Now, as shown in the illustrations, the north armature pole is repelled from the
north field pole and attracted to the right by the south field pole. Likewise, the
south armature pole is repelled from the south field pole and is attracted to the
left by the north field pole. This action causes the armature to turn in a clockwise
direction, as shown in figure 2-2 (view B).
After the loop has turned far enough so that its north pole is exactly opposite the
south field pole, the brushes advance to the next segments. This changes the
direction of current flow through the armature loop. Also, it changes the polarity
of the armature field, as shown in figure 2-2 (view C). The magnetic fields again
repel and attract each other, and the armature continues to turn.
In this simple motor, the momentum of the rotating armature carries the
armature past the position where the unlike poles are exactly lined up. However,
if these fields are exactly lined up when the armature current is turned on, there
is no momentum to start the armature moving. In this case, the motor would not
rotate. It would be necessary to give a motor like this a spin to start it. This
disadvantage does not exist when there are more turns on the armature,
because there is more than one armature field. No two armature fields could be
exactly aligned with the field from the field poles at the same time.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
INTRODUCTION
BASIC AC GENERATORS
ROTATING-ARMATURE ALTERNATORS
voltage is generated?
alternator?
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
INTRODUCTION
For this reason a majority of the motors used throughout the Navy
are designed to operate on ac. There are other advantages in the
use of ac motors besides the wide availability of ac power. In
general, ac motors cost less than dc motors. Some types of ac
motors do not use brushes and commutators. This eliminates many
problems of maintenance and wear. It also eliminates the problem
of dangerous sparking.
SERIES AC MOTOR
equipment?
Q.3 Why are series motors sometimes called universal motors?
Book 6
SPECIAL
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Beam power and power pentode tubes
Rom
Power amplifier
Planar tubes
Gas-filled tubes
The cathode-ray tube (CRT)
Electrostatic Deflection
Summary of the CRT
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POWER SUPPLIES
Rectifiers
The Conventional Full-Wave Rectifier
The Bridge Rectifier
Filters
The Capacitor Filter
The LC choke input filter
Half-wave rectifier with an LC choke-input filter.
Resistor-Capacitor (RC) Filters
LC Capacitor-Input Filter
Voltage Regulation
Regulators
Basic VR Tube Regulator Circuit
VR Tubes Connected in Parallel
Current Regulation
Troubleshooting power supplies
Summary
Answers
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LEARNING OBJECTIVES
THERMIONIC EMISSION
Edison could not explain exactly what was happening. At that time,
he probably knew less about what makes up an electric circuit than
you do now. Because it did not eliminate the soot problem, he did
little with this discovery. However, he did patent the incandescent
light bulb and made it available to the scientific community.
Let's analyze the circuit in figure 1-2. You probably already have a
good idea of how the circuit works. The heated filament causes
electrons to boil from its surface. The battery in the filament-plate
circuit places a POSITIVE charge on the plate (because the plate is
connected to the positive side of the battery). The electrons
(negative charge) that boil from the filament are attracted to the
positively charged plate. They continue through the ammeter, the
battery, and back to the filament. You can see that electron flow
across the space between filament and plate is actually an
application of a basic law you already know - UNLIKE CHARGES
ATTRACT.
The key to this explanation is that the electrons were floating free
of the hot filament. It would have taken hundreds of volts, probably,
to move electrons across the space if they had to be forcibly pulled
from a cold filament. Such an action would destroy the filament and
the flow would cease.
thermionically?
SPECIAL-Purpose Tubes
SPECIAL-PURPOSE TUBES
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Because of their great versatility, the four basic tube types (diode,
triode, tetrode, and pentode) covered in chapter 1 have been used in
the majority of electronic circuits. However, these types of tubes do
have limits, size, frequency, and power handling capabilities.
One of the problems associated with electron tubes is that they are
bulky. The size of an electron tube circuit can be decreased by
enclosing more than one tube within a single envelope, as mentioned in
chapter 1. There is a large variety of tubes that can be combined into
this grouping of "specialty tubes" called MULTI-UNIT tubes. Figure 2-1
illustrates the schematic symbols of a few of the possible combinations
found in multi-unit tubes.
POWER SUPPLIES
POWER SUPPLIES
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
INTRODUCTION
Figure 3-1 shows the block diagram of the basic power supply. Most
power supplies are made up of four basic sections: a <emphasis
type="b">TRANSFORMER</emphasis>, a RECTIFIER, a FILTER, and a
REGULATOR.
Now that you know what each section does, let's trace a signal
through the power supply and see what changes are made to the input
signal. In figure 3-2, the input signal of 120 volts ac is applied
to the primary of the transformer, which has a turns ratio of 1:3.
We can calculate the output by multiplying the input voltage by the
ratio of turns in the secondary winding to turns in the primary
winding. Therefore, the output voltage of our example is: 120 volts
ac X 3, or 360 volts ac. Depending on the type of rectifier used
(full-wave or half-wave), the output from the rectifier will be a
portion of the input. Figure 3-2 shows the ripple waveform
associated with a full-wave rectifier. The filter section contains a
network of resistors, capacitors, or inductors that controls the
rise and fall time of the varying signal so that the signal remains
at a more constant dc level. You will see this more clearly in the
discussion of the actual filter circuits. You can see that the
output of the filter is at a 180-volt dc level with an ac RIPPLE
voltage riding on it. (Ripple voltage is a small ac voltage riding
at some dc voltage level. Normally, ripple voltage is an unwanted ac
voltage created by the filter section of a power supply.) This
signal now goes to the regulator where it will be maintained at
approximately 180 volts dc to the load.
THE TRANSFORMER
Q.4 For what are the low voltage windings in a transformer used?
Book 7
SEMICONDUCTOR DIODES
Semiconductor applications
Semiconductor theory
Energy bands
Covalent bonding
Doping process
Semiconductor diode
PN Junction operation
Junction Barrier
PN Junction application
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Diode characteristics
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Diode maintenance
Summary
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TRANSISTORS
SPECIAL DEVICES
SEMICONDUCTOR DIODES
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SEMICONDUCTOR DIODES
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
SEMICONDUCTOR DEVELOPMENT
TRANSISTORS
TRANSISTORS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
TRANSISTOR FUNDAMENTALS
CLASSIFICATION
To prepare you for the forthcoming information, the two basic types
of transistors along with their circuit symbols are shown in figure
2-3. It should be noted that the two symbols are different. The
horizontal line represents the base, the angular line with the
arrow on it represents the emitter, and the other angular line
represents the collector. The direction of the arrow on the emitter
distinguishes the NPN from the PNP transistor. If the arrow points
in, (Points iN) the transistor is a PNP. On the other hand if the
arrow points out, the transistor is an NPN (Not Pointing iN).
Figure 2-3. - Transistor representations.
Another point you should keep in mind is that the arrow always
points in the direction of hole flow, or from the P to N sections,
no matter whether the P section is the emitter or base. On the
other hand, electron flow is always toward or against the arrow,
just like in the junction diode.
CONSTRUCTION
Q.1 What is the name given to the semiconductor device that has
manufacturing process?
SPECIAL DEVICES
SPECIAL DEVICES
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
If you consider the sensitive nature and the various interacting properties of
semiconductors, it should not be surprising to you that solid state devices can be designed
for many different purposes. In fact, devices with special features are so numerous and new
designs are so frequently introduced that it would be beyond the scope of this chapter to
describe all of the devices in use today. Therefore, this chapter will include a variety of
representative devices that are used extensively in Navy equipment to give you an idea of
the diversity and versatility that have been made possible. These devices have been
grouped into three categories: diodes, optoelectronic devices, and transistors. In this
chapter each device will be described and the basic operation of each one will be
discussed.
DIODES
Diodes are two terminal semiconductors of various types that are used in seemingly
endless applications. The operation of normal PN-junction diodes has already been
discussed, but there are a number of diodes with special properties with which you should
be familiar. A discussion of all of the developments in the diode field would be impossible so
some of the more commonly used special diodes have been selected for explanation.
These include Zener diodes, tunnel diodes, varactors, silicon controlled rectifiers (SCR),
and TRIACs.
Zener Diodes
When a PN-junction diode is reverse biased, the majority carriers (holes in the P-material
and electrons in the N-material) move away from the junction. The barrier or depletion
region becomes wider, as illustrated in figure 3-1, (view A, view B, view C) and majority
carrier current flow becomes very difficult across the high resistance of the wide depletion
region. The presence of minority carriers causes a small leakage current that remains
nearly constant for all reverse voltages up to a certain value. Once this value has been
exceeded, there is a sudden increase in the reverse current. The voltage at which the
sudden increase in current occurs is called the BREAKDOWN VOLTAGE. At breakdown,
the reverse current increases very rapidly with a slight increase in the reverse voltage. Any
diode can be reverse biased to the point of breakdown, but not every diode can safely
dissipate the power associated with breakdown. A Zener diode is a PN junction designed to
operate in the reverse-bias breakdown region.
There are two distinct theories used to explain the behavior of PN junctions during
breakdown: one is the ZENER EFFECT and the other is the AVALANCHE EFFECT.
The ZENER EFFECT was first proposed by Dr. Carl Zener in 1934. According to Dr.
Zener's theory, electrical breakdown in solid dielectrics occurs by a process called
QUANTUM-MECHANICAL TUNNELING. The Zener effect accounts for the breakdown
below 5 volts; whereas, above 5 volts the breakdown is caused by the avalanche effect.
Although the avalanche effect is now accepted as an explanation of diode breakdown, the
term Zener diode is used to cover both types.
The true Zener effect in semiconductors can be described in terms of energy bands;
however, only the two upper energy bands are of interest. The two upper bands, illustrated
in figure 3-2, view A, are called the conduction band and the valence band.
The CONDUCTION BAND is a band in which the energy level of the electrons is high
enough that the electrons will move easily under the influence of an external field. Since
current flow is the movement of electrons, the readily mobile electrons in the conduction
band are capable of maintaining a current flow when an external field in the form of a
voltage is applied. Therefore, solid materials that have many electrons in the conduction
band are called conductors.
The VALENCE BAND is a band in which the energy level is the same as the valence
electrons of the atoms. Since the electrons in these levels are attached to the atoms, the
electrons are not free to move around as are the conduction band electrons. With the
proper amount of energy added, however, the electrons in the valence band may be
elevated to the conduction band energy level. To do this, the electrons must cross a gap
that exists between the valence band energy level and the conduction band energy level.
This gap is known as the FORBIDDEN ENERGY BAND or FORBIDDEN GAP. The energy
difference across this gap determines whether a solid material will act as a conductor, a
semiconductor, or an insulator.
A conductor is a material in which the forbidden gap is so narrow that it can be considered
nonexistent. A semiconductor is a solid that contains a forbidden gap, as shown in figure 3-
2, view A. Normally, a semiconductor has no electrons at the conduction band energy level.
The energy provided by room temperature heat, however, is enough energy to overcome
the binding force of a few valence electrons and to elevate them to the conduction band
energy level. The addition of impurities to the semiconductor material increases both the
number of free electrons in the conduction band and the number of electrons in the valence
band that can be elevated to the conduction band. Insulators are materials in which the
forbidden gap is so large that practically no electrons can be given enough energy to cross
the gap. Therefore, unless extremely large amounts of heat energy are available, these
materials will not conduct electricity.
View B of figure 3-2 is an energy diagram of a reverse-biased Zener diode. The energy
bands of the P and N materials are naturally at different levels, but reverse bias causes the
valence band of the P material to overlap the energy level of the conduction band in the N
material. Under this condition, the valence electrons of the P material can cross the
extremely thin junction region at the overlap point without acquiring any additional energy.
This action is called tunneling. When the breakdown point of the PN junction is reached,
large numbers of minority carriers "tunnel" across the junction to form the current that
occurs at breakdown. The tunneling phenomenon only takes place in heavily doped diodes
such as Zener diodes.
The mechanism of avalanche breakdown is different from that of the Zener effect. In the
depletion region of a PN junction, thermal energy is responsible for the formation of electron-
hole pairs. The leakage current is caused by the movement of minority electrons, which is
accelerated in the electric field across the barrier region. As the reverse voltage across the
depletion region is increased, the reverse voltage eventually reaches a critical value. Once
the critical or breakdown voltage has been reached, sufficient energy is gained by the
thermally released minority electrons to enable the electrons to rupture covalent bonds as
they collide with lattice atoms. The released electrons are also accelerated by the electric
field, resulting in the release of further electrons, and so on, in a chain or avalanche effect.
This process is illustrated in figure 3-3.
For reverse voltage slightly higher than breakdown, the avalanche effect releases an almost
unlimited number of carriers so that the diode essentially becomes a short circuit. The
current flow in this region is limited only by an external series current-limiting resistor.
Operating a diode in the breakdown region does not damage it, as long as the maximum
power dissipation rating of the diode is not exceeded. Removing the reverse voltage permits
all carriers to return to their normal energy values and velocities.
Some of the symbols used to represent Zener diodes are illustrated in figure 3-4 (view A,
view B, view C, view D, and view E). Note that the polarity markings indicate electron flow is
with the arrow symbol instead of against it as in a normal PN-junction diode. This is
because breakdown diodes are operated in the reverse-bias mode, which means the
current flow is by minority current carriers.
Q.1 In a reverse biased PN-junction, which current carriers cause leakage current?
Q.2 The action of a PN-junction during breakdown can be explained by what two theories?
Q.3 Which breakdown theory explains the action that takes place in a heavily doped PN-
Q.6 Why is electron flow with the arrow in the symbol of a Zener diode instead of against
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
In this chapter, you will read about the individual sections of the power supply,
their components, and the purpose of each within the power supply.
THE BASIC POWER SUPPLY
View A of figure 4-1 shows the block diagram of a basic power supply. Most power
supplies are made up of four basic sections: a TRANSFORMER, a RECTIFIER, a FILTER,
and a REGULATOR.
As illustrated in view B of figure 4-1, the first section is the TRANSFORMER. The
transformer steps up or steps down the input line voltage and isolates the power
supply from the power line. The RECTIFIER section converts the alternating current
input signal to a pulsating direct current. However, as you proceed in this chapter
you will learn that pulsating dc is not desirable. For this reason a FILTER section
is used to convert pulsating dc to a purer, more desirable form of dc voltage.
The final section, the REGULATOR, does just what the name implies. It maintains the
output of the power supply at a constant level in spite of large changes in load
current or input line voltages.
Now that you know what each section does, let's trace an ac signal through the power
supply. At this point you need to see how this signal is altered within each section
of the power supply. Later on in the chapter you will see how these changes take
place. In view B of figure 4-1, an input signal of 115 volts ac is applied to the
primary of the transformer. The transformer is a step-up transformer with a turns
ratio of 1:3. You can calculate the output for this transformer by multiplying the
input voltage by the ratio of turns in the primary to the ratio of turns in the
secondary; therefore, 115 volts ac X 3 = 345 volts ac (peak-to-peak) at the output.
Because each diode in the rectifier section conducts for 180 degrees of the 360-
degree input, the output of the rectifier will be one-half, or approximately 173
volts of pulsating dc. The filter section, a network of resistors, capacitors, or
inductors, controls the rise and fall time of the varying signal; consequently, the
signal remains at a more constant dc level. You will see the filter process more
clearly in the discussion of the actual filter circuits. The output of the filter is
a signal of 110 volts dc, with ac ripple riding on the dc. The reason for the lower
voltage (average voltage) will be explained later in this chapter. The regulator
maintains its output at a constant 110-volt dc level, which is used by the electronic
equipment (more commonly called the load).
Book 8
AMPLIFIERS
Classification of amplifiers
Transistor Amplifiers
Amplifier coupling
Impedance considerations for amplifiers
Amplifier feedback
Positive feedback
Audio amplifiers
Push-pull amplifiers
Summary
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SPECIAL AMPLIFIERS
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Input signals in phase information in
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Operational amplifiers
Operational amplifier
Current flow in the operational circuit
Bandwidth limitations
Applications of operational amplifiers
Scaling amplifier
Difference amplifier
Circuit for Q31 through Q33
Circuit for Q36 through Q38
Magnetic amplifiers
Methods of changing inductance
Flux paths in a saturable-core reactor. FLUX AIDING
Simplified magnetic amplifier circuitry
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AMPLIFIERS
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AMPLIFIERS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Learning objectives are stated at the beginning of each chapter. These learning objectives
serve as a preview of the information you are expected to learn in the chapter. The
comprehensive check questions are based on the objectives. By successfully completing the
OCC/ECC, you indicate that you have met the objectives and have learned the information.
The learning objectives are listed below.
Join Integrated
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Define amplification and list several
common uses; state two ways in which
amplifiers are classified.
List the four classes of operation of, four
methods of coupling for, and the
impedance characteristics of the three
configurations of a transistor amplifier.
Define feedback and list the two types of Order this
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Describe and state one use for a phase Rom
splitter.
State a common use for and one
advantage of a push-pull amplifier.
INTRODUCTION
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This chapter is a milestone in your study of electronics. Previous modules have been information in
concerned more with individual components of circuits than with the complete circuits as the Print (Hardcopy).
subject. This chapter and the other chapters of this module are concerned with the circuitry of
amplifiers. While components are discussed, the discussion of the components is not an
explanation of the working of the component itself (these have been covered in previous
modules) but an explanation of the component as it relates to the circuit.
The circuits this chapter is concerned with are AMPLIFIERS. Amplifiers are devices that
provide AMPLIFICATION. That doesn't explain much, but it does describe an amplifier if you
know what amplification is and what it is used for.
WHAT IS AMPLIFICATION?
An amplifier can be defined as a device that enables an input signal to control an output
signal. The output signal will have some (or all) of the characteristics of the input signal but
will generally be larger than the input signal in terms of voltage, current, or power.
USES OF AMPLIFICATION
Most electronic devices use amplifiers to provide various amounts of signal amplification.
Since most signals are originally too small to control or drive the desired device, some
amplification is needed.
For example, the audio signal taken from a record is too small to drive a speaker, so
amplification is needed. The signal will be amplified several times between the needle of the
record player and the speaker. Each time the signal is amplified it is said to go through a
STAGE of amplification.
The audio amplifier shown connected between the turntable and speaker system in figure 1-1
contains several stages of amplification.
Another example of the use of an amplifier is shown in figure 1-2. In a radio receiver, the
signal picked up by the antenna is too weak (small) to be used as it is. This signal must be
amplified before it is sent to the detector. (The detector separates the audio signal from the
frequency that was sent by the transmitter. The way in which this is done will be discussed
later in this training series.)
Almost every electronic device contains at least one stage of amplification, so you will be
seeing amplifiers in many devices that you work on. Amplifiers will also be used in most of the
NEETS modules that follow this one.
Q.2 Does an amplifier actually change an input signal? Why or why not?
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LEARNING OBJECTIVES
INTRODUCTION
You may be wondering why you need to learn about video and
rf amplifiers. You need to understand these circuits
because, as a technician, you will probably be involved in
working on equipment in which these circuits are used.
Many of the circuits shown in this and the next chapter
are incomplete and would not be used in actual equipment.
For example, the complete biasing network may not be
shown. This is done so you can concentrate on the concepts
being presented without being overwhelmed by an abundance
of circuit elements. With this idea in mind, the
information that is presented in this chapter is real,
practical information about video and rf amplifiers. It is
the sort of information that you will use in working with
these circuits. Engineering information (such as design
specifications) will not be presented because it is not
needed to understand the concepts that a technician needs
to perform the job of circuit analysis and repair. Before
you are given the specific information on video and rf
amplifiers, you may be wondering how these circuits are
used.
Video amplifiers are used to amplify signals that
represent video information. (That's where the term
"video" comes from.) Video is the "picture" portion of a
television signal. The "sound" portion is audio. Although
the Navy uses television in many ways, video signals are
used for more than television. Radar systems (discussed
later in this training series) use video signals and,
therefore, video amplifiers. Video amplifiers are also
used in video recorders and some communication and control
devices. In addition to using video amplifiers,
televisions use rf amplifiers. Many other devices also use
rf amplifiers, such as radios, navigational devices, and
communications systems. Almost any device that uses
broadcast, or transmitted, information will use an rf
amplifier.
BANDWIDTH OF AN AMPLIFIER
Mathematically:
SPECIAL AMPLIFIERS
SPECIAL AMPLIFIERS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
INTRODUCTION
There is a great deal more to learn about amplifiers. Even after you
finish this chapter you will have only "scratched the surface" of the
study of amplifiers. But, you will have prepared yourself for the
remainder of the NEETS. This, in turn, should prepare you for
further study and, perhaps, a career in electronics.
DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIERS
A differential amplifier has two possible inputs and two possible
outputs. This arrangement means that the differential amplifier can
be used in a variety of ways. Before examining the three basic
configurations that are possible with a differential amplifier, you
need to be familiar with the basic circuitry of a differential amplifier.
In figure 3-2, the transistor has two inputs (the emitter and the
base) and one output (the collector). Remember, the current
through the transistor (and therefore the output signal) is controlled
by the base-to-emitter bias. In the circuit shown in figure 3-2, the
combination of the two input signals controls the output signal. In
fact, the DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE INPUT SIGNALS
determines the base-to-emitter bias.
The circuit and the input and output signals are shown at the top of
the figure. The lower portion of the figure is a comparison of the
input signals and the output signal. Notice the vertical lines marked
"T0" through "T8." These represent "time zero" through "time
eight." In other words, these lines provide a way to examine the
two input signals and the output signal at various instants of time.
In figure 3-3 at time zero (T0) both input signals are at 0 volts. The
output signal is also at 0 volts. Between time zero (T0) and time
one (T1), input signal number one goes positive and input signal
number two goes negative. Each of these voltage changes causes
an increase in the base-to-emitter bias which causes current
through Q1 to increase. Increased current through Q1 results in a
greater voltage drop across the collector load (R3) which causes
the output signal to go negative.
By time one (T1), input signal number one has reached +1 volt and
input signal number two has reached -1 volt. This is an overall
increase in base-to-emitter bias of 2 volts. Since the gain of the
circuit is -10, the output signal has decreased by 20 volts. As you
can see, the output signal has been determined by the difference
between the two input signals. In fact, the base-to-emitter bias can
be found by subtracting the value of input signal number two from
the value of input signal number one.
Between time one (T1) and time two (T2), input signal number one
goes from +1 volt to 0 volts and input signal number two goes from -
1 volt to 0 volts. At time two (T2) both input signals are at 0 volts
and the base-to-emitter bias has returned to 0 volts. The output
signal is also 0 volts.
Between time two (T2) and time three (T3), input signal number
one goes negative and input signal number two goes positive. At
time three (T3), the value of the base-to-emitter bias is -2 volts.
This causes the output signal to be +20 volts at time three (T3).
Between time three (T3) and time four (T4), input signal #1 goes
from -1 volt to 0 volts and input signal #2 goes from +1 volt to 0
volts. At time four (T4) both input signals are 0 volts, the bias is 0
volts, and the output is 0 volts.
During time four (T4) through time eight (T8), the circuit repeats the
sequence of events that took place from time zero (T0) through
time four (T4).
You can see that when the input signals are equal in amplitude and
180 degrees out of phase, the output signal is twice as large (40
volts peak to peak) as it would be from either input signal alone (if
the other input signal were held at 0 volts).
Book 9
TUNED CIRCUITS
OSCILLATORS
LC Network
Solid-state LC Oscillators
Oscillator circuits Order this
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Tuned-base Armstrong oscillator
Rom
Colpitts oscillator
Crystal oscillators
Pulsed oscillators
Harmonics
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Answer
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Astable Multivibrator
Monostable multivibrator block diagram
Bistable Multivibrator
Bistable multivibrator (flip-flop)
Blocking oscillator
Circuit damping
Time-base generators
Relationship of gate to linearity
Improved unijunction sawtooth generator
Series LR circuit.
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WAVE SHAPING
TUNED CIRCUITS
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TUNED CIRCUITS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Learning objectives are stated at the beginning of each chapter. These learning objectives serve as a
preview of the information you are expected to learn in the chapter. The comprehensive check
questions are based on the objectives. By successfully completing the OCC/ECC, you indicate that you
have met the objectives and have learned the information. The learning objectives are listed below.
Upon completion of this chapter, you will be able to: Join Integrated
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State the applications of a resonant circuit. Discussion Group
Identify the conditions that exist in a resonant
circuit.
State and apply the formula for resonant
frequency of an a.c. circuit.
State the effect of changes in inductance (L)
and capacitance (C) on resonant frequency (fr).
Identify the characteristics peculiar to a series
resonant circuit. Order this
Identify the characteristics peculiar to a parallel information on CD-
resonant circuit. Rom
State and apply the formula for Q.
State what is meant by the bandwidth of a
resonant circuit and compute the bandwidth for
a given circuit.
Identify the four general types of filters.
Identify how the series- and parallel-resonant
Order this
circuit can be used as a bandpass or a band-
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reject filter.
Print (Hardcopy).
When your radio or television set is turned on, many events take place within the "receiver" before you
hear the sound or see the picture being sent by the transmitting station.
Many different signals reach the antenna of a radio receiver at the same time. To select a station, the
listener adjusts the tuning dial on the radio receiver until the desired station is heard. Within the radio or
TV receiver, the actual "selecting" of the desired signal and the rejecting of the unwanted signals are
accomplished by what is called a TUNED CIRCUIT. A tuned circuit consists of a coil and a capacitor
connected in series or parallel. Later in this chapter you will see the application and advantages of both
series- and parallel-tuned circuits. Whenever the characteristics of inductance and capacitance are
found in a tuned circuit, the phenomenon as RESONANCE takes place.
You learned earlier in the Navy Electricity and Electronics Training Series, Module 2, chapter 4, that
inductive reactance (XL) and capacitive reactance (XC) have opposite effects on circuit impedance (Z).
You also learned that if the frequency applied to an LCR circuit causes XL and XC to be equal, the
circuit is RESONANT.
If you realize that XL and XC can be equal ONLY at ONE FREQUENCY (the resonant frequency), then
you will have learned the most important single fact about resonant circuits. This fact is the principle
that enables tuned circuits in the radio receiver to select one particular frequency and reject all others.
This is the reason why so much emphasis is placed on XL and XC in the discussions that follow.
Examine figure 1-1. Notice that a basic tuned circuit consists of a coil and a capacitor, connected either
in series, view (A), or in parallel, view (B). The resistance (R) in the circuit is usually limited to the
inherent resistance of the components (particularly the resistance of the coil). For our purposes we are
going to disregard this small resistance in future diagrams and explanations.
You have already learned how a coil and a capacitor in an a.c. circuit perform. This action will be the
basis of the following discussion about tuned circuits.
Why should you study tuned circuits? Because the tuned circuit that has been described above is used
in just about every electronic device, from remote-controlled model airplanes to the most sophisticated
space satellite.
You can assume, if you are going to be involved in electricity or electronics, that you will need to have
a good working knowledge of tuned circuits and how they are used in electronic and electrical circuits.
First we will review the effects of frequency on a circuit which contains resistance, inductance, and
capacitance. This review recaps what you previously learned in the Inductive and Capacitive
Reactance chapter in module 2 of the NEETS.
Perhaps the most often used control of a radio or television set is the station or channel selector. Of
course, the volume, tone, and picture quality controls are adjusted to suit the individual's taste, but very
often they are not adjusted when the station is changed. What goes on behind this station selecting? In
this chapter, you will learn the basic principles that account for the ability of circuits to "tune" to the
desired station.
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OSCILLATORS
OSCILLATORS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
INTRODUCTION
Sinusoidal Oscillators
Nonsinusoidal Oscillators
SINE-WAVE OSCILLATOR
RC Network
Figure 2-2, view (A), shows the block diagram of an amplifier with
an RC network through which regenerative feedback is provided.
The RC network also acts as the frequency-determining device.
View (B) shows a vector analysis of the signal E at various points in
the circuit.
To analyze the operation of the circuit in view (A), assume that the
amplifier is a common-emitter configuration. The signal on the
collector (M) is 180 degrees out of phase with the signal (input) on
the base (R). For the circuit to produce regenerative feedback, the
RC network must provide a 180-degree phase shift of the collector
signal. When power is applied to the circuit, a noise voltage (noise
contains many different frequencies) will appear on the collector.
This noise signal is represented by vector LM in view (B). As the
signal couples through C1 and across R1 (view (A)), a phase shift
occurs. The voltage across R1 (ER1), represented by vector LN,
has been shifted in phase (about 60 degrees) and reduced in
amplitude. The signal at point N (view (A)) is then coupled to the
next RC section (R2 and C2). Using the same size resistor and
capacitor as before will cause another 60-degree phase shift to
take place. The signal at point P is the voltage across R2,
represented by vector LP. Now the signal at point P has been
shifted about 120 degrees and its amplitude is reduced still further.
The same actions occur for the last section (R3 and C3). This
signal experiences another 60-degree phase shift and has further
amplitude reduction. The signal at point R (ER3) has been shifted
180 degrees and is represented by vector LR.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
PERIODIC WAVEFORMS
Sine Wave
Given:
Sawtooth Wave
Trapezoidal Wave
Triggers
WAVEFORM GENERATOR
MULTIVIBRATORS
rectangular waves?
Q.2 What type of multivibrator does not have a stable
state?
Q.3 What type of multvibrator has one stable state?
WAVE SHAPING
WAVE SHAPING
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
LIMITERS
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As a technician, you will be confronted with many information in
different types of LIMITING circuits. A LIMITER is defined Print (Hardcopy).
as a device which limits some part of a waveform from
exceeding a specified value. Limiting circuits are used
primarily for wave shaping and circuit-protection
applications.
SERIES LIMITERS
Given:
You can readily see that the formula comparison of the
forward- and reverse-bias resistance conditions shows that
a small amount of reverse current will flow during the
limited portion of the input waveform. This small amount
of reverse current will develop as the small positive
voltage (0.09 volt) shown in figure 4-2 (T0 to T1 and T2
to T3). The actual amount of voltage developed will depend
on the type of diode used. For the remainder of this
chapter, we will use only idealized waveforms and
disregard this small voltage.
Book 10
WAVE PROPAGATION
Transverse waves
Terms used in wave motion
Characteristics of wave motion
Refraction
Sound waves
Elasticity and density and velocity of transmission
Light waves
Speed of Light
Electric Field
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Combined Electric and Magnetic Fields
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Radio Waves
Polarization
The effect of the earth's atmosphere on radio waves
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Refraction in the ionosphere Rom
Skip Distance/Skip Zone
Transmission Losses
Variations in the Ionosphere
Frequency selection considerations
Weather versus propagation
Tropospheric propagation
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Principles of transmission lines
Antennas
WAVE PROPAGATION
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WAVE PROPAGATION
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Learning objectives are stated at the beginning of each chapter. These learning objectives
serve as a preview of the information you are expected to learn in the chapter. The
comprehensive check questions are based on the objectives. By successfully completing the
NRTC, you indicate that you have met the objectives and have learned the information. The
learning objectives are listed below.
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Upon completion of this chapter, you should be able to: Publishing's
Discussion Group
State what wave motion is, define the terms
reflection, refraction, and diffraction, and
describe the Doppler effect.
State what sound waves are and define a
propagating medium.
List and define terms as applied to sound
waves, such as cycle, frequency,
wavelength, and velocity. Order this
List the three requirements for sound. information on CD-
Define pitch, intensity, loudness, and quality Rom
and their application to sound waves.
State the acoustical effects that echoes,
reverberation, resonance, and noise have
on sound waves.
Define light waves and list their characteristics.
List the various colors of light and define the
terms reflection, refraction, diffusion, and Order this
absorption as applied to light waves. information in
State the difference between sound waves and Print (Hardcopy).
light waves.
State the electromagnetic wave theory and
list the components of the electromagnetic
wave.
Of the many technical subjects that naval personnel are expected to know, probably the one
least susceptible to change is the theory of wave propagation. The basic principles that enable
waves to be propagated (transmitted) through space are the same today as they were 70 years
ago. One would think, then, that a thorough understanding of these principles is a relatively
simple task. For the electrical engineer or the individual with a natural curiosity for the
unknown, it is indeed a simple task. Most technicians, however, tend to view wave propagation
as something complex and confusing, and would just as soon see this chapter completely
disappear from training manuals. This attitude undoubtedly stems from the fact that wave
propagation is an invisible force that cannot be detected by the sense of sight or touch.
Understanding wave propagation requires the use of the imagination to visualize the
associated concepts and how they are used in practical application. This manual was
developed to help you visualize and understand those concepts. Through ample use of
illustrations and a step-by-step transition from the simple to the complex, we will help you
develop a better understanding of wave propagation. In this chapter, we will discuss
propagation theory on an introductory level, without going into the technical details that concern
the engineer. However, you must still use thought and imagination to understand the new ideas
and concepts as they are presented.
To understand radio wave propagation, you must first learn what wave propagation is and
some of the basic physics or properties that affect propagation. Many of these properties are
common everyday occurrences, with which you are already familiar.
WHAT IS PROPAGATION?
Early man was quick to recognize the need to communicate beyond the range of the human
voice. To satisfy this need, he developed alternate methods of communication, such as hand
gestures, beating on a hollow log, and smoke signals. Although these methods were effective,
they were still greatly limited in range. Eventually, the range limitations were overcome by the
development of courier and postal systems; but there was then a problem of speed. For
centuries the time required for the delivery of a message depended on the speed of a horse.
During the latter part of the 19th century, both distance and time limitations were largely
overcome. The invention of the telegraph made possible instantaneous communication over
long wires. Then a short time later, man discovered how to transmit messages in the form of
RADIO WAVES.
As you will learn in this chapter, radio waves are propagated. PROPAGATION means
"movement through a medium." This is most easily illustrated by light rays. When a light is
turned on in a darkened room, light rays travel from the light bulb throughout the room. When a
flashlight is turned on, light rays also radiate from its bulb, but are focused into a narrow beam.
You can use these examples to picture how radio waves propagate. Like the light in the room,
radio waves may spread out in all directions. They can also be focused (concentrated) like the
flashlight, depending upon the need. Radio waves are a form of radiant energy, similar to light
and heat. Although they can neither be seen nor felt, their presence can be detected through
the use of sensitive measuring devices. The speed at which both forms of waves travel is the
same; they both travel at the speed of light.
You may wonder why you can see light but not radio waves, which consist of the same form of
energy as light. The reason is that you can only "see" what your eyes can detect. Your eyes
can detect radiant energy only within a fixed range of frequencies. Since the frequencies of
radio waves are below the frequencies your eyes can detect, you cannot see radio waves.
The theory of wave propagation that we discuss in this module applies to Navy electronic
equipment, such as radar, navigation, detection, and communication equipment. We will not
discuss these individual systems in this module, but we will explain them in future modules.
All things on the earth - on the land, or in the water - are showered continually with waves of
energy. Some of these waves stimulate our senses and can be seen, felt, or heard. For
instance, we can see light, hear sound, and feel heat. However, there are some waves that do
not stimulate our senses. For example, radio waves, such as those received by our portable
radio or television sets, cannot be seen, heard, or felt. A device must be used to convert radio
waves into light (TV pictures) and sound (audio) for us to sense them.
A WAVE can be defined as a DISTURBANCE (sound, light, radio waves) that moves through a
MEDIUM (air, water, vacuum). To help you understand what is meant by "a disturbance which
moves through a medium," picture the following illustration. You are standing in the middle of a
wheat field. As the wind blows across the field toward you, you can see the wheat stalks
bending and rising as the force of the wind moves into and across them. The wheat appears to
be moving toward you, but it isn't. Instead, the stalks are actually moving back and forth. We
can then say that the "medium "in this illustration is the wheat and the "disturbance " is the
wind moving the stalks of wheat.
WAVE MOTION can be defined as a recurring disturbance advancing through space with or
without the use of a physical medium. Wave motion, therefore, is a means of moving or
transferring energy from one point to another point. For example, when sound waves strike a
microphone, sound energy is converted into electrical energy. When light waves strike a
phototransistor or radio waves strike an antenna, they are likewise converted into electrical
energy. Therefore, sound, light, and radio waves are all forms of energy that are moved by
wave motion. We will discuss sound waves, light waves, and radio waves later.
A type of wave motion familiar to almost everyone is the movement of waves in water. We will
explain these waves first to help you understand wave motion and the terms used to describe
it.
Basic wave motion can be shown by dropping a stone into a pool of water (see figure 1-1). As
the stone enters the water, a surface disturbance is created, resulting in an expanding series of
circular waves. Figure 1-2 is a diagram of this action. View A shows the falling stone just an
instant before it strikes the water. View B shows the action taking place at the instant the stone
strikes the surface, pushing the water that is around it upward and outward. In view C, the
stone has sunk deeper into the water, which has closed violently over it causing some spray,
while the leading wave has moved outward. An instant later, the stone has sunk out of sight,
leaving the water disturbed as shown in view D. Here the leading wave has continued to move
outward and is followed by a series of waves gradually diminishing in amplitude. Meanwhile,
the disturbance at the original point of contact has gradually subsided.
Figure 1-2. - How a falling stone creates wave motion to the surface of water.
In this example, the water is not actually being moved outward by the motion of the waves, but
up and down as the waves move outward. The up and down motion is transverse, or at right
angles, to the outward motion of the waves. This type of wave motion is called TRANSVERSE
WAVE MOTION.
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LEARNING OBJECTIVES
ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS
The way energy is propagated into free space is a source of great dispute among people
concerned with it. Although many theories have been proposed, the following theory adequately
explains the phenomena and has been widely accepted. There are two basic fields associated with
every antenna; an INDUCTION FIELD and a RADIATION FIELD. The field associated with the
energy stored in the antenna is the induction field. This field is said to provide no part in the
transmission of electromagnetic energy through free space. However, without the presence of the
induction field, there would be no energy radiated.
INDUCTION FIELD
Figure 2-1, a low-frequency generator connected to an antenna, will help you understand how the
induction field is produced. Let's follow the generator through one cycle of operation.
As the generator potential decreases back to zero, the potential of the antenna begins to discharge.
During the discharging process, the electrostatic field collapses and the direction of current flow
reverses, as shown in view D. When the current again begins to flow, an associated magnetic field
is generated. Eventually, the electrostatic field completely collapses, the generator potential
reverses, and current is maximum, as shown in view E. As charges collect at each end of the
antenna, an electrostatic field is produced and current flow decreases. This causes the magnetic
field to begin collapsing. The collapsing magnetic field produces more current flow, a greater
accumulation of charge, and a greater electrostatic field. The antenna gradually reaches the
condition shown in view F, where current is zero and the collected charges are maximum.
As the generator potential again decreases toward zero, the antenna begins to discharge and the
electrostatic field begins to collapse. When the generator potential reaches zero, discharge current
is maximum and the associated magnetic field is maximum. A brief time later, generator potential
reverses, and the condition shown in view B recurs.
NOTE: The electric field (E field) and the electrostatic field (E field) are the same. They will be used
interchangeably throughout this text.
The graph shown in figure 2-2 shows the relationship between the magnetic (H) field and the
electric (E) field plotted against time. Note that the two fields are 90 degrees out of phase with each
other. If you compare the graph in figure 2-2 with figure 2-1, you will notice that the two fields
around the antenna are displaced 90 degrees from each other in space. (The H field exists in a
plane perpendicular to the antenna. The E field exists in a plane parallel with the antenna, as
shown in figure 2-1.)
All the energy supplied to the induction field is returned to the antenna by the collapsing E and H
fields. No energy from the induction field is radiated from the antenna. Therefore, the induction field
is considered a local field and plays no part in the transmission of electromagnetic energy. The
induction field represents only the stored energy in the antenna and is responsible only for the
resonant effects that the antenna reflects to the generator.
RADIATION FIELDS
The E and H fields that are set up in the transfer of energy through space are known collectively as
the radiation field. This radiation field is responsible for electromagnetic radiation from the antenna.
The radiation field decreases as the distance from the antenna is increased. Because the decrease
is linear, the radiation field reaches great distances from the antenna.
Let's look at a half-wave antenna to illustrate how this radiation actually takes place. Simply stated,
a half-wave antenna is one that has an electrical length equal to half the wavelength of the signal
being transmitted. Assume, for example, that a transmitter is operating at 30 megahertz. If a half-
wave antenna is used with the transmitter, the antenna's electrical length would have to be at least
16 feet long. (The formula used to compute the electrical length of an antenna will be explained in
chapter 4.) When power is delivered to the half-wave antenna, both an induction field and a
radiation field are set up by the fluctuating energy. At the antenna, the intensities of these fields are
proportional to the amount of power delivered to the antenna from a source such as a transmitter.
At a short distance from the antenna and beyond, only the radiation field exists. This radiation field
is made up of an electric component and a magnetic component at right angles to each other in
space and varying together in intensity.
With a high-frequency generator (a transmitter) connected to the antenna, the induction field is
produced as described in the previous section. However, the generator potential reverses before
the electrostatic field has had time to collapse completely. The reversed generator potential
neutralizes the remaining antenna charges, leaving a resultant E field in space.
Figure 2-3 is a simple picture of an E field detaching itself from an antenna. (The H field will not be
considered, although it is present.) In view A the voltage is maximum and the electric field has
maximum intensity. The lines of force begin at the end of the antenna that is positively charged and
extend to the end of the antenna that is negatively charged. Note that the outer E lines are
stretched away from the inner lines. This is because of the repelling force that takes place between
lines of force in the same direction. As the voltage drops (view B), the separated charges come
together, and the ends of the lines move toward the center of the antenna. But, since lines of force
in the same direction repel each other, the centers of the lines are still being held out.
As the voltage approaches zero (view B), some of the lines collapse back into the antenna. At the
same time, the ends of other lines begin to come together to form a complete loop. Notice the
direction of these lines of force next to the antenna in view C. At this point the voltage on the
antenna is zero. As the charge starts to build up in the opposite direction (view D), electric lines of
force again begin at the positive end of the antenna and stretch to the negative end of the antenna.
These lines of force, being in the same direction as the sides of the closed loops next to the
antenna, repel the closed loops and force them out into space at the speed of light. As these loops
travel through space, they generate a magnetic field in phase with them.
Since each successive E field is generated with a polarity that is opposite the preceding E field
(that is, the lines of force are opposite), an oscillating electric field is produced along the path of
travel. When an electric field oscillates, a magnetic field having an intensity that varies directly with
that of the E field is produced. The variations in magnetic field intensity, in turn, produce another E
field. Thus, the two varying fields sustain each other, resulting in electromagnetic wave
propagation.
During this radiation process, the E and H fields are in phase in time but physically displaced 90
degrees in space. Thus, the varying magnetic field produces a varying electric field; and the varying
electric field, in turn, sustains the varying magnetic field. Each field supports the other, and neither
can be propagated by itself. Figure 2-4 shows a comparison between the induction field and the
radiation field.
Q.1 Which two composite fields (composed of E and H fields) are associated with every antenna?
Q.2 What composite field (composed of E and H fields) is found stored in the antenna?
Q.3 What composite field (composed of E and H fields) is propagated into free space?
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
A TRANSMISSION LINE is a device designed to guide electrical energy from one point to
another. It is used, for example, to transfer the output rf energy of a transmitter
to an antenna. This energy will not travel through normal electrical wire without
great losses. Although the antenna can be connected directly to the transmitter, the
antenna is usually located some distance away from the transmitter. On board ship,
the transmitter is located inside a radio room and its associated antenna is mounted
on a mast. A transmission line is used to connect the transmitter and the antenna.
The transmission line has a single purpose for both the transmitter and the antenna.
This purpose is to transfer the energy output of the transmitter to the antenna with
the least possible power loss. How well this is done depends on the special physical
and electrical characteristics (impedance and resistance) of the transmission line.
TERMINOLOGY
All transmission lines have two ends (see figure 3-1). The end of a two-wire
transmission line connected to a source is ordinarily called the INPUT END or the
GENERATOR END. Other names given to this end are TRANSMITTER END, SENDING END, and
SOURCE. The other end of the line is called the OUTPUT END or RECEIVING END. Other
names given to the output end are LOAD END and SINK.
You can describe a transmission line in terms of its impedance. The ratio of voltage
to current (Ein/Iin) at the input end is known as the INPUT IMPEDANCE (Zin). This is
the impedance presented to the transmitter by the transmission line and its load, the
antenna. The ratio of voltage to current at the output (E out/Iout) end is known as
the OUTPUT IMPEDANCE (Zout). This is the impedance presented to the load by the
transmission line and its source. If an infinitely long transmission line could be
used, the ratio of voltage to current at any point on that transmission line would be
some particular value of impedance. This impedance is known as the CHARACTERISTIC
IMPEDANCE.
Q.1 What connecting link is used to transfer energy from a radio transmitter to its
antenna?
Antennas
ANTENNAS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
INTRODUCTION
If you had been around in the early days of electronics, you would
have considered an ANTENNA (AERIAL) to be little more than a
piece of wire strung between two trees or upright poles. In those
days, technicians assumed that longer antennas automatically
provided better reception than shorter antennas. They also
believed that a mysterious MEDIUM filled all space, and that an
antenna used this medium to send and receive its energy. These
two assumptions have since been discarded. Modern antennas
have evolved to the point that highly directional, specially designed
antennas are used to relay worldwide communications in space
through the use of satellites and Earth station antennas (fig. 4-1).
Present transmission theories are based on the assumption that
space itself is the only medium necessary to propagate (transmit)
radio energy.
At a given time the right side of the generator is positive and the left
side negative. Remember that like charges repel. Because of this,
electrons will flow away from the negative terminal as far as
possible, but will be attracted to the positive terminal. View B
shows the direction and distribution of electron flow. The
distribution curve shows that most current flows in the center and
none flows at the ends. The current distribution over the antenna
will always be the same no matter how much or how little current is
flowing. However, current at any given point on the antenna will
vary directly with the amount of voltage developed by the
generator.
Q.3 What three factors determine the type, size, and shape of an
antenna?
Book 11
Waveguide theory
Developing the Waveguide from Parallel Lines
Energy Propagation in Waveguides
Magnetic field pattern in a waveguide
Radiation from probe placed in a waveguide
Waveguide Modes of Operation
Waveguide operation in other than dominant mode
Waveguide Input/Output Methods
Waveguide Impedance Matching
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Waveguide Terminations
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Waveguide Devices
Cavity Resonators
Several types of cavities
Waveguide junctions
Hybrid Rings
Ferrite Devices
Summary
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Microwave antennas
Reflector antennas
Horn radiators
Antenna arrays
Summary
Answers
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LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Q.1 What is the region of the frequency spectrum from 1000 MHz
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LEARNING OBJECTIVES
MICROWAVE COMPONENTS
Microwave energy is used in both radar and communications applications. The fact
that the frequencies are very high and the wavelengths very short presents special
problems in circuit design. Components that were previously satisfactory for signal
generation and amplification use are no longer useful in the microwave region. The
theory of operation for these components is discussed in this chapter. Because the
theory of operation is sometimes difficult to understand, you need to pay particular
attention to detail as you study this chapter. It is written in the simplest manner
possible while retaining the necessary technical complexity.
MEGAHERTZ
Figure 2-1C. - Interelectrode capacitance in a vacuum tube. INTERELECTRODE
CAPACITANCE IN A TUNED-PLATE TUNED-GRID OSCILLATOR
A good point to remember is that the higher the frequency, or the larger the
interelectrode capacitance, the higher will be the current through this capacitance.
The circuit in figure 2-1, view (C), shows the interelectrode capacitance between the
grid and the cathode (Cgk) in parallel with the signal source. As the frequency of the
input signal increases, the effective grid-to-cathode impedance of the tube decreases
because of a decrease in the reactance of the interelectrode capacitance. If the
signal frequency is 100 megahertz or greater, the reactance of the grid-to-cathode
capacitance is so small that much of the signal is short-circuited within the tube.
Since the interelectrode capacitances are effectively in parallel with the tuned
circuits, as shown in views (A), (B), and (C), they will also affect the frequency at
which the tuned circuits resonate.
A third limitation caused by tube construction is TRANSIT TIME. Transit time is the
time required for electrons to travel from the cathode to the plate. While some small
amount of transit time is required for electrons to travel from the cathode to the plate,
the time is insignificant at low frequencies. In fact, the transit time is so insignificant
at low frequencies that it is generally not considered to be a hindering factor.
However, at high frequencies, transit time becomes an appreciable portion of a
signal cycle and begins to hinder efficiency. For example, a transit time of 1
nanosecond, which is not unusual, is only 0.001 cycle at a frequency of 1 megahertz.
The same transit time becomes equal to the time required for an entire cycle at 1,000
megahertz. Transit time depends on electrode spacing and existing voltage
potentials. Transit times in excess of 0.1 cycle cause a significant decrease in tube
efficiency. This decrease in efficiency is caused, in part, by a phase shift between
plate current and grid voltage.
If the tube is to operate efficiently, the plate current must be in phase with the grid-
signal voltage and 180 degrees out of phase with the plate voltage. When transit time
approaches 1/4 cycle, this phase relationship between the elements does not hold
true. A positive swing of a high-frequency grid signal causes electrons to leave the
cathode and flow to the plate. Initially this current is in phase with the grid voltage.
However, since transit time is an appreciable part of a cycle, the current arriving at
the plate now lags the grid-signal voltage. As a result, the power output of the tube
decreases and the plate power dissipation increases. Another loss of power occurs
because of ELECTROSTATIC INDUCTION.
The electrons forming the plate current also electrostatically induce potentials in the
grid as they move past it. This electrostatic induction in the grid causes currents of
positive charges to move back and forth in the grid structure. This back and forth
action is similar to the action of hole current in semiconductor devices. When transit-
time effect is not a factor (as in low frequencies), the current induced in one side of
the grid by the approaching electrons is equal to the current induced on the other
side by the receding electrons. The net effect is zero since the currents are in
opposite directions and cancel each other. However, when transit time is an
appreciable part of a cycle, the number of electrons approaching the grid is not
always equal to the number going away. As a result, the induced currents do not
cancel. This uncancelled current produces a power loss in the grid that is considered
resistive in nature. In other words, the tube acts as if a resistor were connected
between the grid and the cathode. The resistance of this imaginary resistor
decreases rapidly as the frequency increases. The resistance may become so low
that the grid is essentially short-circuited to the cathode, preventing proper operation
of the tube.
Several methods are available to reduce the limitations of conventional tubes, but
none work well when frequency increases beyond 1,000 megahertz. Interelectrode
capacitance can be reduced by moving the electrodes further apart or by reducing
the size of the tube and its electrodes. Moving the electrodes apart increases the
problems associated with transit time, and reducing the size of the tube lowers the
power-handling capability. You can see that efforts to reduce certain limitations in
conventional tubes are compromises that are often in direct opposition to each other.
The net effect is an upper limit of approximately 1,000 megahertz, beyond which
conventional tubes are not practical.
increases?
Q.2 What undesirable effect is caused by the inductance of the cathode lead?
Q.3 How does transit time affect the relationship of the grid voltage and the plate
Microwave antennas
MICROWAVE ANTENNAS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
In this chapter you will study the general characteristics of microwave antennas that are
widely used in radar and communications applications. The basic principles of operation
of microwave antennas are similar to those of antennas used at lower frequencies. You
might want to review the principles presented in NEETS, Module 10, Introduction to
Wave Propagation, Transmission Lines, and Antennas, at this time. Pay particular
attention to basic antenna principles in chapter 4 for a review of microwave antennas. Order this
information in
Antennas are devices used to radiate electromagnetic energy into space. The Print (Hardcopy).
characteristics of transmitting and receiving antennas are similar, so a good transmitting
antenna is often a good receiving antenna. A single antenna performs both functions in
many modern applications.
ANTENNA CHARACTERISTICS
Since the operating principles of low-frequency and microwave antennas are essentially
the same, the electrical characteristics are also very similar. You will need a
fundamental knowledge of radar and communications antenna electrical theory in your
shipboard antenna maintenance work. Antenna theory is primarily a design
consideration of antenna size and shape requirements that depend on the frequency
used. A brief description of antenna electrical characteristics is sufficient for the needs
of most students of electronics.
Antenna Efficiency
The effectiveness of an antenna depends upon its ability to couple or radiate energy
into the air. An efficient antenna is one which wastes very little energy during the
radiation process. The efficiency of an antenna is usually referred to as the POWER
GAIN or POWER RATIO as compared to a standard reference antenna. The power
gain of an antenna is a ratio of the radiated power to that of the reference antenna,
which is usually a basic dipole. Both antennas must be fed rf energy in the same
manner and must be in the same position when the energy is radiated. The power gain
of a single dipole without a reflector is unity (one). An array of several dipoles in the
same position as the single dipole, and fed with the same line, has a power gain of
more than one.
The line impedance can usually be matched to the antenna at only one frequency.
However, the swr will NOT become too high if the antenna is used over a small range of
frequencies and the line is matched to the center frequency.
Antenna Directivity
You can divide antennas into two general classes based on directivity, omnidirectional
and directional. OMNIDIRECTIONAL antennas radiate and receive energy from all
directions at once (SPHERICAL WAVEFRONT). They are seldom used in modern
radar systems as the primary antenna, but are commonly used in radio equipment and
iff (identification friend or foe) receivers. DIRECTIONAL antennas radiate energy in
LOBES (or BEAMS) that extend outward from the antenna in either one or two
directions. The radiation pattern contains small minor lobes, but these lobes are weak
and normally have little effect on the main radiation pattern. Directional antennas also
receive energy efficiently from only one or two directions, depending upon whether it is
unidirectional or bidirectional.
Directional antennas have two characteristics that are important to you in radar and
communications systems. One is DIRECTIVITY and the other is POWER GAIN. The
directivity of an antenna refers to the NARROWNESS of the radiated beam. If the beam
is NARROW in either the horizontal or vertical plane, the antenna has a high degree of
directivity in that plane. An antenna may be designed for high directivity in one plane
only or in both planes, depending on the application. The power gain of an antenna
increases as the degree of directivity increases because the power is concentrated into
a narrow beam and less power is required to cover the same distance.
Since microwave antennas are predominantly unidirectional, the examples you will
study in this chapter are all of the unidirectional type.
Reciprocity
You read in this chapter that an antenna is able to both transmit and receive
electromagnetic energy. This is known as RECIPROCITY. Antenna reciprocity is
possible because antenna characteristics are essentially the same regardless of
whether an antenna is transmitting or receiving electromagnetic energy. Reciprocity
allows most radar and communications systems to operate with only one antenna. An
automatic switch, called a DUPLEXER, connects either the transmitter or the receiver to
the antenna at the proper time. Duplexer operation will be. explained in later NEETS
modules dealing with radar and communications systems. Because of the reciprocity of
antennas, this chapter will discuss antennas from the viewpoint of the transmitting
cycle. However, you should understand that the same principles apply on the receiving
cycle.
Radar Fundamentals
Radio, television, radar, and the human eye have much in common because they all
process the same type of electromagnetic energy. The major difference between the
light processed by the human eye and the radio-frequency energy processed by radio
and radar is frequency. For example, radio transmitters send out signals in all
directions. These signals can be detected by receivers tuned to the same frequency.
Radar works somewhat differently because it uses reflected energy (echo) instead of
directly transmitted energy. The echo, as it relates to sound, is a familiar concept to
most of us. An experienced person can estimate the distance and general direction of
an object causing a sound echo. Radar uses microwave electromagnetic energy in
much the same way.
Radar transmits microwave energy that reflects off an object and returns to the radar.
The returned portion of the energy is called an ECHO, as it is in sound terminology. It is
used to determine the direction and distance of the object causing the reflection.
Determination of direction and distance to an object is the primary function of most
radar systems.
Telescopes and radars, in terms of locating objects in space, have many common
problems. Both have a limited field of view and both require a geographic reference
system to describe the position of an object (target). The position of an object viewed
with a telescope is usually described by relating it to a familiar object with a known
position. Radar uses a standard system of reference coordinates to describe the
position of an object in relation to the position of the radar. Normally ANGULAR
measurements are made from true north in an imaginary flat plane called the
HORIZONTAL PLANE. All angles in the UP direction are measured in a second
imaginary plane perpendicular to the horizontal plane called the VERTICAL PLANE.
The center of the coordinate system is the radar location. As shown in figure 3-1, the
target position with respect to the radar is defined as 60 degrees true, 10 degrees up,
and 10 miles distant. The line directly from the radar to the target is called the LINE OF
SIGHT. The distance from point 1 to point 2, measured along the line of sight, is called
TARGET RANGE. The angle between the horizontal plane and the line of sight is
known as the ELEVATION ANGLE. The angle measured in a clockwise direction in the
horizontal plane between true north and the line of sight is known as BEARING
(sometimes referred to as AZIMUTH). These three coordinates of range, bearing, and
elevation determine the location of the target with respect to the radar.
Bearing and elevation angles are determined by measuring the angular position of the
radar antenna (the transmitted beam) when it is pointing directly at the target. Range is
more difficult to determine because it cannot be directly measured. The radar system is
designed to measure range as a function of time. Since the speed of electromagnetic
energy is the same as the speed of light, range is determined by measuring the time
required for a pulse of energy to reach the target and return to the radar. Because the
speed of the pulse is known, the two-way distance can be determined by multiplying the
time by the speed of travel. The total must be divided by two to obtain the one-way
range because the time value used initially is the time required for the pulse to travel to
the target and return.
The discussion of microwave antennas in this chapter requires only the most basic
understanding of radar concepts! Radar fundamentals will be discussed in more detail
in a later NEETS module.
Q.1 Microwave antennas and low-frequency antennas are similar in what ways?
Q.2 What term is used to express the efficiency of an antenna?
Q.3 What term is used to express the measurement of the degree of mismatch between
Q.5 What is the term that is used to describe narrowness in the radiated beam of an
antenna?
Q.6 What characteristic allows the same antenna to both transmit and receive?
Book 12
Amplitude modulation
Order this
information on CD-
Angle and pulse modulation
Rom
Demodulation
Regenerative detector
Shunt-Diode Detector
FM Demodulation
Ratio detector
Gated-Beam detector
Phase demodulation
Low-pass filter
Summary
Answers
Amplitude modulation
Home Up Next
AMPLITUDE MODULATION
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Home Up Next
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Describe frequency-shift
keying (fsk) and methods of
providing this type of
modulation. Join Integrated
Describe the development of Publishing's
frequency modulation (fm) and Discussion Group
methods of frequency
modulating a carrier.
Discuss the development of
phase modulation (pm) and
methods of phase modulating
a carrier.
Describe phase-shift keying
(psk), its generation, and Order this
application. information on CD-
Discuss the development and Rom
characteristics of pulse
modulation.
Describe the operation of the
spark gap and thyratron
modulators.
Discuss the characteristics of
a pulse train that may be
Order this
varied to provide
information in
communications capability.
Print (Hardcopy).
Describe pulse-amplitude
modulation (pam) and
generation.
Describe pulse-duration
modulation (pdm) and
generation.
Describe pulse-position
modulation (ppm) and
generation.
Describe pulse-frequency
modulation (pfm) and
generation.
Describe pulse-code
modulation (pcm) and
generation.
INTRODUCTION
ANGLE MODULATION
FREQUENCY-MODULATION SYSTEMS
Frequency-Shift Keying
Consider figure 2-1, views (A) through (D). View (A) is a radio
frequency (rf) carrier which is actually several thousand or million
hertz. View (B) represents the intelligence to be transmitted as
MARKS and SPACES. Recall that in cw transmission, this
intelligence was applied to the rf carrier by interrupting the signal, as
shown in view (C). The amplitude of the rf alternated between
maximum and 0 volts. By comparing views (B) and (C), you can see
the mark/space intelligence of the Morse code character on the rf.
The spacing of the waveform in view (D) is an example of the same
intelligence as it is applied to the frequency instead of the amplitude
of the rf. This is simple frequency-shift keying of the same Morse
code character.
Book 13
Number systems
Logic Symbol
The or gate Order this
The inverter information in
The nand gate Print (Hardcopy).
The nor gate
Variations of fundamental gates
Logic gates in combination
Boolean algebra
Summary
Answers
Number systems
Home Up Next
NUMBER SYSTEMS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
INTRODUCTION
How many days' leave do you have on the books? How much
money do you have to last until payday? It doesn't matter
what the question is - if the answer is in dollars or days
or cows, it will be represented by numbers.
MODERN USE
Until now, you have probably used only one number system,
the decimal system. You may also be familiar with the
Roman numeral system, even though you seldom use it.
The terms unit and number when used with the decimal
system are almost self-explanatory. By definition the unit
is a single object; that is, an apple, a dollar, a day. A
number is a symbol representing a unit or a quantity. The
figures 0, 1, 2, and 3 through 9 are the symbols used in
the decimal system. These symbols are called Arabic
numerals or figures. Other symbols may be used for
different number systems. For example, the symbols used
with the Roman numeral system are letters - V is the
symbol for 5, X for 10, M for 1,000, and so forth. We will
use Arabic numerals and letters in the number system
discussions in this chapter.
Base (Radix)
The LSD in a number is the digit that has the least effect
on that number.
a _________.
Q.3 The symbols 0, 1, 2, and 3 through 9 are what type of
numerals?
Q.4 What does the base, or radix, of a number system tell
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
AND
OR
Inverters (NOT circuits)
NAND
NOR
Identify variations of the
fundamental logic gates Order this
and interpret the information on CD-
associated Truth Tables. Rom
Determine the output expressions
of logic gates in combination.
Recognize the laws, theorems, and
purposes of Boolean algebra.
INTRODUCTION
In chapter 1 you learned that the two digits of the binary Order this
number system can be represented by the state or condition information in
of electrical or electronic devices. A binary 1 can be Print (Hardcopy).
represented by a switch that is closed, a lamp that is
lit, or a transistor that is conducting. Conversely, a
binary 0 would be represented by the same devices in the
opposite state: the switch open, the lamp off, or the
transistor in cut-off.
In this chapter you will study the four basic logic gates
that make up the foundation for digital equipment. You
will see the types of logic that are used in equipment to
accomplish the desired results. This chapter includes an
introduction to Boolean algebra, the logic mathematics
system used with digital equipment. Certain Boolean
expressions are used in explanation of the basic logic
gates, and their expressions will be used as each logic
gate is introduced.
COMPUTER LOGIC
GENERAL LOGIC
LOGIC LOGIC
STATEMENT SYMBOL CONDITION
STATE LEVEL
Original: TODAY
P TRUE 1 HIGH
IS PAYDAY
Complement:
TODAY IS NOT P FALSE 0 LOW
PAYDAY
Example 2:
Assume today is
not payday
Complement:
TODAY IS NOT P FALSE 0 LOW
PAYDAY
Complement:
TODAY IS NOT P TRUE 1 HIGH
PAYDAY
Negative Logic
In the examples shown for negative logic, you notice that the
voltage for the logic 1 state is more negative with respect to the
logic 0 state voltage. This holds true in example 1 where both
voltages are positive. In this case, it may be easier for you to think
of the TRUE condition as being less positive than the FALSE
condition. Either way, the end result is negative logic.
If you consider the lamp as the output of a logic device, then the
same conditions exist. The TRUE (1 state) output of the logic
device is to have the lamp lit. If the lamp is not lit, then the output of
the logic device is FALSE (0 state).
The logic operations you will study in this chapter are the AND, OR,
NOT, NAND, and NOR. The devices that accomplish these
operations are called logic gates, or more informally, <emphasis
type="i.GIF">gates. These gates are the foundation for all digital
equipment. They are the "decision-making" circuits of computers
and other types of digital equipment. By making decisions, we
mean that certain conditions must exist to produce the desired
output.
The AND gate is a logic circuit that requires all inputs to be TRUE
at the same time in order for the output to be TRUE.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
INTRODUCTION
Figure 3-1 is a portion of a typical logic diagram. It is
similar to the diagrams you will encounter as your study
of digital circuitry progresses.
expression T R?
Q.5 What will be the output of an X-NOR gate when both
Book 14
Microelectronics
Solid-State devices
Integrated Circuits
Fabrication of microelectronic devices
Fabrication of IC devices
Thin Film
Packaging Techniques
Dual Inline Package
Equivalent circuits
Microelectronic system design concepts
Join Integrated
System packaging
Publishing's
Interconnections in printed circuit boards Discussion Group
Environmental considerations
Summary
Answers
Microelectronics
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MICROELECTRONICS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Learning objectives are stated at the beginning of each topic. These learning objectives
serve as a preview of the information you are expected to learn in the topic. The
comprehensive check questions are based on the objectives. By successfully completing
the OCC-ECC, you indicate that you have met the objectives and have learned the
information. The learning objectives are listed below.
Join Integrated
Upon completion of this topic, you will be able to: Publishing's
Discussion Group
Outline the progress made in the history
of microelectronics.
Describe the evolution of
microelectronics from point-to-point
wiring through high element density state-
of-the-art microelectronics.
List the advantages and disadvantages
of point-to-point wiring and high element Order this
density state-of-the-art microelectronics. information on CD-
Identify printed circuit boards, diodes, Rom
transistors, and the various types of
integrated circuits. Describe the
fabrication techniques of these
components.
Define the terminology used in
microelectronic technology including the
following terms used by the Naval Order this
information in
Systems Commands:
Print (Hardcopy).
microelectronics
microcircuit
microcircuit module
miniature electronics
system packaging
levels of packaging (0 to IV)
modular assemblies
cordwood modules
micromodules
Describe typical packaging levels
presently used for microelectronic
systems.
Describe typical interconnections used in
microelectronic systems.
Describe environmental considerations
for microelectronics.
INTRODUCTION
The most significant step in modern electronics was the development of the transistor by
Bell Laboratories in 1948. This development was to solid-state electronics what the
Edison Effect was to the vacuum tube. The solid-state diode and the transistor opened
the door to microelectronics.
During World War II, the need to reduce the size, weight, and power of military electronic
systems became important because of the increased use of these systems. As systems
became more complex, their size, weight, and power requirements rapidly increased. The
increases finally reached a point that was unacceptable, especially in aircraft and for
infantry personnel who carried equipment in combat. These unacceptable factors were
the driving force in the development of smaller, lighter, and more efficient electronic
circuit components. Such requirements continue to be important factors in the
development of new systems, both for military and commercial markets. Military
electronic systems, for example, continue to become more highly developed as their
capability, reliability, and maintainability is increased. Progress in the development of
military systems and steady advances in technology point to an ever-increasing need for
increased technical knowledge of microelectronics in your Navy job.
Q.1 What problems were evident about military electronic systems during World War II?
EVOLUTION OF MICROELECTRONICS
The earliest electronic circuits were fairly simple. They were composed of a few tubes,
transformers, resistors, capacitors, and wiring. As more was learned by designers, they
began to increase both the size and complexity of circuits. Component limitations were
soon identified as this technology developed.
VACUUM-TUBE EQUIPMENT
Vacuum tubes were found to have several built-in problems. Although the tubes were
lightweight, associated components and chassis were quite heavy. It was not uncommon
for such chassis to weigh 40 to 50 pounds. In addition, the tubes generated a lot of heat,
required a warm-up time from 1 to 2 minutes, and required hefty power supply voltages of
300 volts dc and more.
No two tubes of the same type were exactly alike in output characteristics. Therefore,
designers were required to produce circuits that could work with any tube of a particular
type. This meant that additional components were often required to tune the circuit to the
output characteristics required for the tube used.
Figure 1-1 shows a typical vacuum-tube chassis. The actual size of the transformer is
approximately 4 X 4 X 3 inches. Capacitors are approximately 1 X 3 inches. The
components in the figure are very large when compared to modern microelectronics.
Another major problem with vacuum-tube circuits was the method of wiring components
referred to as POINT-TO-POINT WIRING. Figure 1-2 is an excellent example of point-to-
point wiring. Not only did this wiring look like a rat's nest, but it often caused unwanted
interactions between components. For example, it was not at all unusual to have
inductive or capacitive effects between wires. Also, point-to-point wiring posed a safety
hazard when troubleshooting was performed on energized circuits because of exposed
wiring and test points. Point-to-point wiring was usually repaired with general purpose test
equipment and common hand tools.
In some applications, we are still limited to vacuum tubes. Cathode-ray tubes used in
radar, television, and oscilloscopes do not, as yet, have solid-state counterparts.
One concept that eased the technician's job was that of MODULAR PACKAGING.
Instead of building a system on one large chassis, it was built of MODULES or blocks.
Each module performed a necessary function of the system. Modules could easily be
removed and replaced during troubleshooting and repair. For instance, a faulty power
supply could be exchanged with a good one to keep the system operational. The faulty
unit could then be repaired while out of the system. This is an example of how the module
concept improved the efficiency of electronic systems. Even with these advantages,
vacuum tube modules still had faults. Tubes and point-to-point wiring were still used and
excessive size, weight, and power consumption remained as problems to be overcome.
Vacuum tubes were the basis for electronic technology for many years and some are still
with us. Still, emphasis in vacuum-tube technology is rapidly becoming a thing of the
past. The emphasis of technology is in the field of microelectronics.
Q.4 What discovery proved to be the foundation for the development of the vacuum tube?
Q.5 Name the components which greatly increase the weight of vacuum-tube circuitry.
into consideration?
Home Up Next
SOLDERING
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
INTRODUCTION
Order this
As mentioned in topic 1, advances in the field of microelectronics
information in
are impressive. With every step forward in production development, Print (Hardcopy).
a corresponding step forward must be made in maintenance and
repair techniques.
This topic will teach you how the Navy is coping with the new
technology and how personnel are trained to carry out the
maintenance and repair of complex equipment. The program
discussed in this topic is up to date at this time, but as industry
advances, so must the capabilities of the technician.
LEVELS OF MAINTENANCE
DEPOT-LEVEL MAINTENANCE.
INTERMEDIATE-LEVEL MAINTENANCE
ORGANIZATIONAL-LEVEL MAINTENANCE
Emergent/Emergency Repairs
maintenance level?
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Explain the purpose of conformal coatings and the methods used for
removal and replacement of these coatings.
Explain the methods and practices for the removal and replacement of
discrete components on printed circuit boards. Join Integrated
Identify types of damage to printed circuit boards, and describe the repair Publishing's
procedures for each type of repair. Discussion Group
Describe the removal and replacement of the dual-in-line integrated circuit.
Describe the removal and replacement of the TO-5 integrated circuit.
Describe the removal and replacement of the flat-pack integrated circuit.
Describe the types of damage to which many microelectronic components
are susceptible and methods of preventing damage.
Explain safety precautions as they relate to 2M repair.
To meet the needs for repairing the full range of electronic equipment, you must be properly trained. You must be capable of performing high-quality,
reliable repairs to the latest circuitry. Order this
information in
MINIATURE AND MICROMINIATURE ELECTRONIC REPAIR PROCEDURES Print (Hardcopy).
As mentioned at the beginning of topic 2, 2M repair personnel must undergo specialized training. They are trained for a particular level of repair and must be
certified at that level. Also, recertification is required to ensure the continued high-quality repair ability of these technicians.
THIS SECTION IS NOT, IN ANY WAY, TO BE USED BY YOU AS AUTHORIZATION TO ATTEMPT THESE TYPES OF REPAIRS WITHOUT OFFICIAL
2M CERTIFICATION.
In the following sections, you will study the general procedures used in the repair, removal, and replacement of specific types of electronic components.By
studying these procedures, you will become familiar with some of the more common types of repair work. Before repair work can be performed on a
miniature or microminiature assembly, the technician must consider the type of specialized coating that usually covers the assembly. These coatings are
referred to as CONFORMAL COATINGS.
CONFORMAL COATINGS
Conformal coatings are protective material applied to electronic assemblies to prevent damage from corrosion, moisture, and stress.These coatings include
epoxy, parylene, silicone, polyurethane, varnish, and lacquer. Coatings are applied in a liquid form; when dry, they exhibit characteristics that improve
reliability. These characteristics are:
Because of the characteristics that conformal coatings exhibit, they must be removed before any work can be done on printed circuit boards. The coating
must be removed from all lead and pad/eyelet areas of the component. It should also be removed to or below the widest point of the component body.
Complete removal of the coating from the board is not done.
Methods of coating removal are thermal, mechanical, and chemical. The method of removal depends on the type of coating used. Table 3-1 shows
suggested methods of removal of some types. Note that most of the methods are variations of mechanical removal.
THERMAL REMOVAL. - Thermal removal consists of using controlled heat through specially shaped tips attached to a handpiece. Soldering irons should
never be used for coating removal because the high temperatures will cause the coatings to char, possibly damaging the board materials. Modified tips or
cutting blades heated by soldering irons also are not used; they may not have proper heat capacity or allow the hand control necessary for effective
removal. Also, the thin plating of the circuit may be damaged by scraping.
The thermal parting tool, used with the variable power supply, has interchangeable tips, as shown in figure 3-1, that allow for efficient coating removal.
These thin, blade-like instruments act as heat generators and will maintain the heat levels necessary to accomplish the work. Tips can be changed easily to
suit the configuration of the workpiece. These tips cool quickly after removal of power because their small thermal mass and special alloy material easily
give up residual heat.
HOT-AIR JET REMOVAL. - In principle, the hot-air jet method of coating removal uses controlled, temperature-regulated air to soften or break down the
coating, as shown in figure 3-2. By controlling the temperature, flow rate, and shape of the jet, you may remove coatings from almost any workpiece
configuration without causing any damage. When you use the hot-air jet, you do not allow it to physically contact the workpiece surface. Delicate work
handled in this manner permits you to observe the removal process.
POWER-TOOL REMOVAL DESCRIPTION. - Power-tool removal is the use of abrasive grinding or cutting to mechanically remove coatings. Abrasive
grinding/rubbing techniques are effective on thin coatings (less than 0.025 inch) while abrasive cutting methods are effective on coatings greater than 0.025
inch. This method permits consistent and precise removal of coatings without mechanical damage or dangerous heating to electronic components. A
variable-speed mechanical drive handpiece permits fingertip-control and proper speed and torque to ease the handling of gum-type coatings. A variety of
rotary abrasive materials and cutting tools is required for removal of the various coating types. These specially designed tools include BALL MILLS, BURRS,
and ROTARY BRUSHES.
The ball mill design places the most efficient cutting area on the side of the ball rather than at the end. Different mill sizes are used to enter small areas
where thick coatings need to be removed (ROUTED). Rubberized abrasives of the proper grade and grit are ideally suited for removing thin, hard coatings
from flat surfaces; soft coatings adhere to and coat the abrasive causing it to become ineffective. Rotary bristle brushes work better than rubberized
abrasives on contoured or irregular surfaces, such as soldered connections, because the bristles conform to surface irregularities. Ball mill routing and
abrasion removal are shown in figure 3-3.
CHEMICAL REMOVAL. - Chemical removal uses solvents to break down the coatings. General application is not recommended as the solvent may cause
damage to the boards by dissolving the adhesive materials that bond the circuits to the boards. These solvents may also dissolve the POTTING
COMPOUNDS (insulating material that completely seals a component or assembly) used on other parts or assemblies. Only thin acrylic coatings (less than
0.025 inch) are readily removable by solvents. Mild solvents, such as ISOPROPYL ALCOHOL, XYLENE, or TRICHLOROETHANE, may be used to remove
soluble coatings on a spot basis.
Evaluations show that many tool and technique combinations have proven to be reliable and effective in coating removal; no single method is the best in all
situations. When the technician is determining the best method of coating removal to use, the first consideration is the effect that it will have on the
equipment.
Once the required repairs have been completed the conformal coating must be replaced. To ensure the same protective characteristics, you should use the
same type of replacement coating as that removed.
Conformal coating application techniques vary widely. These techniques depend on material type, required thickness of application, and the effect of
environmental conditions on curing. These procedures cannot be effectively discussed here.
Q.1 What material is applied to electronic assemblies to prevent damage from corrosion, moisture, and stress?
Q.4 Abrasion, cutting, and peeling are examples of what type of protective material removal?
Q.5 Why should the coating material be replaced once the required repair has been completed?
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Book 15
Synchros
Synchro classification
Schematic Symbols
Synchro Characteristics
Operation of three electromagnets spaced 120 apart.
Synchro Torque Transmitter
Torque synchro system
Torque differential synchro systems
TX-TDX-TR system operation (subtraction).
TX-TDR-TX System Operation (Subtraction)
Join Integrated
Control Synchro system operation
Publishing's
Synchro capacitors Discussion Group
Multispeed syschro systems
Zeroing systems
Electrical lock method
Troubleshooting synchro systems
Summary
Answers
Order this
information on CD-
Servos
Rom
Gyros
Related Devices
Step-transmission systems
Resolvers
Summary
Answers
Synchros
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SYNCHROS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
SYNCHRO FUNDAMENTALS
Home Up Next
Servos
SERVOS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
A servo system uses a weak control signal to move large loads to a desired
position with great accuracy. The key words in this definition are move and
great accuracy. Servos may be found in such varied applications as moving
the rudder and elevators of a model airplane in radio-controlled flight, to
controlling the diving planes and rudders of nuclear submarines.
Servos are powerful. They can move heavy loads and be remotely controlled
with great precision by synchro devices.
Closed-loop control systems are the type most commonly used in the Navy
because they respond and move the loads they are controlling quicker and
with greater accuracy than open-loop systems.
The reason for quicker response and greater accuracy is that an automatic
feedback system informs the input that the desired movement has taken
place. Upon receipt of this feedback information, the system stops the motor,
and motion of the load ceases until another movement is ordered by the
input. This is similar to the system that controls heat in many homes. The
thermostat (input) calls for heat. The furnace (output) produces heat and
distributes it. Some of the heat is "fed back" to the thermostat. When this
"feedback" raises the temperature of the room to that of the thermostat
setting, the thermostat responds by shutting the system down until heat is
again required. In such a system, the feedback path, input to output and
back to input, forms what is called a "closed loop." This is a term you will
hear and use often in discussions of control systems. Because closed-loop
control systems are automatic in nature, they are further classified by the
function they serve (e.g., controlling the position, the velocity, or the
acceleration of the load being driven).
The open-loop control system is shown in basic block diagram form in figure
2-1. With this system, the input is a signal that is fed to the amplifier. The
output of the amplifier is proportional to the amplitude of the input signal. The
phase (ac system) and polarity (dc system) of the input signal determines
the direction that the motor shaft will turn. After amplification, the input signal
is fed to the motor, which moves the output shaft (load) in the direction that
corresponds with the input signal. The motor will not stop driving the output
shaft until the input signal is reduced to zero or removed. This system
usually requires an operator who controls speed and direction of movement
of the output by varying the input. The operator could be controlling the input
by either a mechanical or an electrical linkage.
We have discussed the open- and closed-loop control systems and defined
a servo system as a closed-loop control system. Although not technically
accurate by definition, open-loop control systems are also often referred to in
the Navy and many publications as servo systems even though they lack
one of the five basic requirements, that of feedback.
Q.2 In an open-loop control system, what action reduces the input to zero so
For the following discussion of a servo system, refer to figure 2-2, view (A),
view (B), view (C) and view (D).This closed-loop servo system is the most
common type in the Navy today. It is normally made up of electromechanical
parts and consists basically of a synchro-control system, servo amplifier,
servo motor, and some form of feedback (response).
In view A, the dials of both the CX and the load indicate that the load is in
the desired position. Because the load is where it should be, there will be no
error signal present at the servo amplifier and no power to the servo motor.
In view B, the rotor of the CX has been moved by the handcrank to 90.
(This indicates that it is ordered to move the load by 90.) Notice that the
rotor of the CT is still at 0. The CT now develops a signal, called the
ERROR SIGNAL, which is proportional in amplitude to the amount the CT
rotor is out of correspondence with the CX rotor. The phase of the error
signal indicates the direction the CT rotor must move to reduce the error
signal to zero or to "null out." The error signal is sent to the servo amplifier.
In view C, the error signal has been amplified by the servo amplifier and sent
on to the servo motor. The motor starts to drive in the direction that will
reduce the error signal and bring the CT rotor back to the point of
correspondence. In this case the motor is turning clockwise.
The mechanical linkage attached to the servo motor also moves the rotor of
the CT. This feedback causes the amplitude of the error signal to decrease,
slowing the speed at which the load is moving.
In view D, the servo motor has driven both the load and the rotor of the CT,
so that the CT is now in correspondence with the CX rotor. As a result, the
error signal is reduced to zero (nulled). The load stops at its new position.
Note that in this servo system, we moved a heavy load to a predetermined
position through the simple turning of a handcrank. In responding to the
handcrank, the servo system performed a basic positioning function .
Two key points for you to remember, thus far, about the operation of the
closed-loop servo system are:
The original error (movement of the CX rotor) was "detected" by the CT. For
this reason the CT is called an ERROR DETECTOR. The servo motor, in
addition to moving the load, also provides mechanical feedback to the CT to
reduce the error signal. For this reason the servo motor is also called an
ERROR REDUCER.
Q.4 An error signal is the difference between what two quantities fed to the
CT (error detector)?
Q.5 What are the two functions of the servo motor in the system shown in
figure 2-2?
Gyros
GYROS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
PRECESSION
Now, if you stop the gyro top and turn its axis
horizontal, and then start it spinning again, balancing
one end on a pivot, (fig. 3-3), it won't fall. The top's
axis will stay horizontal, resisting the tendency of
gravity to change its direction Although the gyro will
RESIST the force that gravity applies to it, the gyro will
still RESPOND to that force. The gyro responds by moving
its axis at a RIGHT ANGLE to the APPLIED FORCE.
gyroscope?
Q.2 In the drawing in figure 3-1, which axis is the gyro
spin axis?
Q.3 What gyro property causes the gyro to remain in a
fixed position?
Q.4 What type(s) of force does a gyro resist?
Q.5 In what direction will a gyro precess in response to
an outside force?
Related Devices
RELATED DEVICES
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Book 16
Join Integrated
Publishing's
Miscellaneous Measurements
Discussion Group
Bolometer
Frequency measurements
Strobotac
Absorption Wavemeter
Use of the oscilloscope
Testing Diodes with an Ohmmeter
Voltage Checks Order this
information on CD-
Summary
Rom
Answers
Basic meters
DC Ammeter
Ammeter Connections Order this
Proper ammeter connection. information in
Extending Voltmeter Ranges Print (Hardcopy).
Voltmeter Sensitivity
The megohmmeter
Meter Accuracy
Continuity tests
Summary
Answers
Measuring dc Voltages
Measuring ac Voltages
Overload Protection
Meter design characteristics
ICO Measurements
Summary
Answers
Signal Generators
Controls and Indicators
Period Measurement
Huntron tracker 2000
Range Selection
Control Logic
CRT Display
Min/Max Capacitance Values
Summary
Answers
THE OSCILLOSCOPE AND SPECTRUM ANALYZER
Differences of potential.
Vertical deflection plates
CRT Designation
Trace Rotation control
Attenuator Control
Components used to provide a stable display
Turning on the scope
Components Used to Select Vertical-Deflection
Operating Mode
Accessories
IF Section
Normal indications upon power on
Summary
Answers
Home Up Next
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
equipment?
CALIBRATION STATUS
Calibrated Label
Home Up Next
Miscellaneous Measurements
MISCELLANEOUS MEASUREMENTS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Order this
information on CD-
Rom
Explain the measurement of
frequency in various ranges
using vibrating reeds, tuned
circuits, heterodyne frequency
meters, absorption
Order this
wavemeters, cavity
information in
wavemeters, and frequency
Print (Hardcopy).
counters.
Describe the use of frequency-
measurement devices,
oscilloscopes, and spectrum
analyzers in waveform
analysis and maintenance.
Describe semiconductor testing
and applicable terms in
maintenance.
POWER MEASUREMENTS
Q.1 What is the logarithmic ratio between the input and output of a
1-milliwatt reference?
+20dBm=100mW
+10dBm=10mW
+7dBm=5mW
+6dBm = 4mW
+4dBm=2.5mW
+3dBm=2mW
0dBm=1mW
-3dBm=.5mW
-10dBm=.1mW
For a +10 dBm level, start with the 1 milliwatt reference and move
the decimal point one place to the right (+10 dBm = 10 mW).
Another 10 dB increment brings the power level to +20 dBm,
thereby moving the decimal point another place to the right (+20
dBm = 100 mW). For a -10 dBm level, again start with 1 milliwatt,
but this time move the decimal point one place to the left (-10 dBm
= .1 mW). An additional 10 dB decrease results in another decimal
point shift to the left (-20 dBm = .01 mW).
MEASUREMENT METHODS
load in a circuit?
Basic meters
BASIC METERS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
METERS
Galvanometer
In the light and mirror arrangement, the use of a mirror and a beam
of light simplifies the problem of coil balance. When this
arrangement is used to measure the turning of the coil, a small
mirror is mounted on the supporting ribbon, as shown in figure 3-1.
An internal light source is directed to the mirror and then
reflected to the scale of the meter. As the movable coil turns, so
does the mirror. This causes the light reflection to move across the
graduated scale of the meter. The movement of the reflection is
proportional to the movement of the coil; therefore, the intensity
of the current being measured by the meter is accurately indicated.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
In the previous chapters, you have learned how to use some basic and
miscellaneous measuring instruments to perform required maintenance and Order this
upkeep of electronic systems and components. You were also introduced to the information on CD-
construction and operation of basic meter movements in test equipment. This
Rom
chapter will introduce you to some of the testing instruments commonly used
in the Navy today.
MULTIMETERS
Two disadvantages are that (1) the VOM tends to "load" the circuit under
test, and (2) the meter movement is easily damaged as a result of improper
testing procedures.
Never press down on or place any object on the glass face of any multimeter.
This can disable the meter movement from operating properly or cause damage.
In the discussion that follows, you will become familiar with the operation
and use of the multimeter in measuring resistance, voltage, and current.
The meter selected for this discussion is the Simpson 260 multimeter, as
shown in figure 4-1. The Simpson 260 is a typical VOM used in the Navy today.
The multimeter is equipped with a pair of test leads; red is the positive
lead and black is the negative, or common, lead. Eight jacks are located on
the lower part of the front panel. To prepare the meter for use, simply
insert the test leads into the proper jacks to obtain the circuit and range
desired for each application. In most applications, the black lead will be
inserted into the jack marked at the lower left with a negative sign (-) or
with the word COMMON.
Measuring Resistance
Q.2 Before you connect a VOM in a circuit for an ohmmeter reading, in what
The internal components of the multimeter use very little current and are
protected from damage by an overload protection circuit (fuse or circuit
breaker). However, damage may still occur if you neglect the safety
precaution in the CAUTION instructions above.
Before making a measurement, you must zero the ohmmeter to ensure accurate
readings. This is accomplished by shorting the leads together and adjusting
the OHMS ADJ control so that the pointer is pointing directly at the zero
mark on the OHMS scale. The ZERO OHMS control is continuously variable and is
used to adjust the meter circuit sensitivity to compensate for battery aging
in the ohmmeter circuits.
Because zero resistance causes full-scale deflection, you should realize that
the deflection of the meter is inversely proportional to the resistance being
tested; that is, for a small resistance value, the deflection will be nearly
full scale; and for a large resistance value, the deflection will be
considerably less. This means that the left portion of the OHMS scale
represents high resistance; the right side of the scale represents low
resistance. Zero resistance (a short circuit) is indicated on the extreme
right side of the scale; infinite resistance (an open circuit) is located on
the extreme left side of the scale.
Notice that you read the OHMS scale on the multimeter from RIGHT to LEFT. For
example, the pointer of the multimeter in figure 4-3 indicates 8.0 ohms. To
determine the actual value of a resistor, multiply the reading on the meter
scale by the range switch setting (R X 1, R X 100, or R X 10,000).
Q.3 When taking resistance readings with a VOM, you will obtain the most
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
In chapters 3 and 4, you studied the more common pieces of test equipment. As a
technician, you will routinely use this test equipment to troubleshoot and perform
maintenance on electronic equipment. However, the equipments you will study in this Order this
chapter may or may not be found in your shop. This is because these equipments have information in
specific or specialized uses. Unless your rating is involved with the equipment with
Print (Hardcopy).
which they are used, you may not have reason to use them. They are presented here so
that you will be familiar with their overall function should the need arise. The
equipments you will study in this chapter are power meters, signal generators,
frequency counters, and integrated circuit-testing devices.
POWER METERS
As a technician, you will use a POWER METER to measure power. There are various types
of power meters, some of which are called WATTMETERS. Figure 5-1 shows the AN/URM-120
wattmeter, which is one type of power meter commonly used in the Navy. This particular
power meter measures power directly; that is, you connect it directly between the
transmitter output (rf source) and the load, most likely an antenna.
Other types of power meters measure power indirectly; that is, they sample power in
other ways - but not by being placed directly between the output of the transmitter and
the load. Let's discuss the direct-measuring power meter first; then we'll talk about
an indirect-measuring power meter.
A nameplate on the top of the POWER RANGE knob indicates the power range. The POWER
RANGE knob can be rotated 360 to the desired power range. The coupler-detector rotates
180 inside the metal case for either forward or reverse power measurements. Also
located inside the metal case are the indicating meter and cable for interconnecting
the meter to the coupler-detector. The LOCKING knob locks the coupler-detector and
POWER RANGE knobs in place.
Two N-TYPE connectors (one male and one female) are located on either side of the
wattmeter case to connect the instrument between the power source and the load. The
upper and lower parts of the wattmeter are held together with quick-action fasteners,
which permit easy access to the inside of the wattmeter.
Power measurements are made by inserting the proper coupler-detector and connecting the
wattmeter in the transmission line between the load and the rf power source. To measure
incident power with the wattmeter, rotate the arrow on the COUPLER-DETECTOR knob toward
the load, and position the POWER RANGE knob for peak meter reading. To measure
reflected power, position the arrow toward the rf power source.
In effect, rotating the coupler-detector causes the coupler to respond only to a wave
traveling in a particular direction, either to (incident) or from (reflected) the load.
It will be unaffected by a wave traveling in the opposite direction. A diode rectifier
in the coupler rectifies the energy detected by the coupler. This detected rf energy is
measured across a known impedance to obtain either incident or reflected power.
Always de-energize and tag the rf power source before measuring incident power. Insert
the proper coupler-detector for the rf power being measured into the wattmeter case.
Remove the wire shunt (not shown in figure 5-1) from the meter terminals, then connect
the wattmeter into the transmission line, either at the load or the rf source. Ensure
that all connections are tight.
Position the POWER RANGE knob to a value higher than the rated power of the rf source.
If the rated power to be measured is not known, place the POWER RANGE knob in the
highest power position before turning on the power source.
Rotate the coupler-detector so that the arrow indicating power flow points toward the
load. Turn on the rf power source. Rotate the POWER RANGE knob to the proper range for
measuring and observe the point at which the indicating meter peaks.
Q.1 To measure incident power, you must rotate the coupler-detector of the wattmeter so
that the arrow indicating power flow points toward which end of the transmission line?
Reflected power is measured in the same manner as described for incident power, except
that the coupler-detector is rotated so that the arrow points toward the rf source.
The rf power measurements made by the wattmeter are used to determine the voltage
standing wave ratio (VSWR) of the load and the power absorbed by the load. (VSWR is
covered in NEETS, Module 10, Introduction to Wave Propagation, Transmission Lines, and
Antennas.) The VSWR can be determined from a chart provided in the wattmeter technical
manual, or it can be calculated (as shown in the following example for a UHF
transmitter) by the formula below (Pi is the incident power, and Pr is the reflected
power as measured by the wattmeter):
Where:
Pi = 30 watts
Pr = 0.5 watts
The example above results in a standing wave ratio expressed as 1.3 to 1. In a
perfectly matched transmission line where there is no reflected power (Pr = 0), the
standing wave ratio would be 1 to 1. A standing wave ratio of 1.5 to 1 indicates a 5-
percent reflection of energy (loss) and is considered to be the maximum allowable loss.
So, our example is within allowable limits.
If the standing wave ratio is greater than 1.5 to 1, then the transmission line
efficiency has decreased and troubleshooting is necessary. An excellent discussion of
the reasons for standing wave ratio increases is presented in EIMB, Test Methods and
Practices, NAVSEA 0967-LP-000-0130.
You can determine the rf power absorbed by the load simply by subtracting the reflected
power reading from the incident power reading made by the wattmeter (30 watts - 0.5
watts = 29.5 watts).
The power meter just discussed is often described as an IN-LINE POWER METER because
readings are taken while the power meter is connected in series with the transmission
line. Another type of power meter used by the Navy measures power indirectly. An
example of an indirect-measuring power meter is described in the next section.
The HP-431C power meter indirectly measures microwave frequency power by using two
bridge circuits - the detection bridge and the compensation and metering bridge. The
detection bridge incorporates a 10-kilohertz (kHz) oscillator in which the amplitude is
determined by the amount of heating of the thermistors in that bridge caused by
microwave power. (Thermistors were covered in chapter 2 of this module.) The
compensation and metering bridge contains thermistors that are affected by the same
microwave power heating as those of the detection bridge.
An unbalance in the metering bridge produces a 10-kHz error signal. This error signal,
plus the 10-kHz bias that is taken directly from the 10-kHz OSCILLATOR-AMPLIFIER, is
mixed in the SYNCHRONOUS DETECTOR. The synchronous detector produces a dc current (Idc)
that is proportional to the 10-kHz error signal. The Idc error signal is fed back to
the compensation and metering bridge, where it substitutes for the 10-kHz power in
heating the thermistor and drives the bridge toward a state of balance. The dc output
of the synchronous detector also operates the meter circuit for a visual indication of
power.
Q.2 What condition produces the 10-kHz error signal generated by the metering bridge in
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
One of the most widely used pieces of electronic test equipment is the
OSCILLOSCOPE. An oscilloscope is used to show the shape of a video pulse Order this
appearing at a selected equipment test point. Although some oscilloscopes information on CD-
are better than others in accurately showing video pulses, all function in Rom
fundamentally the same way. If you learn how one oscilloscope operates, you
will be able to learn others.
As you will learn in this chapter, there are many different types of
oscilloscopes - varying in complexity from the simple to the complex.
Before we get into our discussion of the dual-trace oscilloscope, we will
first present a general overview of basic single-trace oscilloscope
operation. Shortly, we will see how oscilloscopes use a CATHODE-RAY TUBE Order this
(CRT) in which controlled electron beams are used to present a visible information in
pattern of graphical data on a fluorescent screen. Print (Hardcopy).
Another piece of test equipment used is the SPECTRUM ANALYZER. This test
equipment is used to sweep over a band of frequencies to determine what
frequencies are being produced by a specific circuit under test, and then
the amplitude of each frequency component. An accurate interpretation of
the display will allow you to determine the efficiency of the equipment
being tested.
CATHODE-RAY TUBES
ELECTRON GUN
A high positive potential on the anodes pulls electrons through the hole in
the grid. Because the grid is near the cathode, it can control the number
of electrons that are emitted. As in an ordinary electron tube, the
negative voltage of the grid can be varied either to control electron flow
or stop it completely. The brightness (intensity) of the image on the
fluorescent screen is determined by the number of electrons striking the
screen. This is controlled by the voltage on the control grid.
The electron beam is focused by two ELECTROSTATIC FIELDS that exist between
the control grid and first anode and between the first and second anodes.
Figure 6-2 shows you how electrons move through the electron gun. The
electrostatic field areas are often referred to as LENSES because the
fields bend electron streams in the same manner that optical lenses bend
light rays. The first electrostatic lens cause the electrons to cross at
the first focal point within the field. The second lens bend the spreading
streams and return them to a new, second focal point at the CRT.
Q.3 Why are the electrostatic fields between the electron gun elements
called lenses?
When the electrons leave the electrostatic field, they will take a straight
path to the screen at the angle at which they left the field. Because they
were all deflected equally, the electrons will be traveling toward the same
spot. Of course, the proper voltages must exist on the anodes to produce
the electrostatic field. Changing these voltages changes the focal point of
the beam and causes the electron beam to strike the CRT at a different
point.
The ANGLE OF DEFLECTION (the angle the outgoing electron beam makes with
the CRT center line axis between the plates) depends on the following
factors:
Q.5 What effect do longer deflection plates have on the electron beam?
Book 17
Introduction to radio
System introduction
Navy frequency band use
Communications fundamentals
Summary
Answers
Satellite Characteristics
Earth terminal characteristics
Standard receive-only equipment systems
Role of satellite communications
Future satellite communications
Summary
Answers
Receive Equipment
Naval tactical data system
Portale equipment
Lasers - Theory of operation
Summary
Answers
Introduction to radio
Home Up Next
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Define electrical
telecommunications.
Describe the use of
radiotelegraph,
radiotelephone, teletypewriter,
and facsimile. Order this
information on CD-
Rom
Define and describe the
interrelationships of the
system, set, group, unit,
assembly, subassembly, part,
and reference designations.
Order this
State the frequency ranges of
information in
the various frequency bands
Print (Hardcopy).
and describe the most
common uses of those bands
by the Navy.
Describe a strategic
communications link.
Describe a tactical
communications link.
Describe the five basic
communications modes of
operation.
Describe a switched
communications network.
Describe the purpose of the
two Navy-only networks.
The fleets of our modern Navy travel faster and are spread over
greater areas of ocean than any seagoing force of the past.
Commanders and their subordinates throughout the Department of
the Navy use the facilities of naval communications as a primary
method of communicating.
ELECTRICAL
Radiotelegraph
Radiotelephone
communications?
Q.3 Why is radiotelephone one of the most useful methods of
military communications?
Q.4 What are the disadvantages of radiotelephone
communications?
Teletypewriter
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
In the previous chapter you learned the fundamentals of U.S. naval telecommunications and
communications. Now, let's look at the equipment and systems that are used to communicate in
the Navy. The fundamental equipment used to communicate are the transmitter and receiver.
Transmitters and receivers must each perform two basic functions. The transmitter must
generate a radio frequency signal of sufficient power at the desired frequency. It must have
some means of varying (or modulating) the basic frequency so that it can carry an intelligible
signal. The receiver must select the desired frequency you want to receive and reject all
unwanted frequencies. In addition, receivers must be able to amplify the weak incoming signal
to overcome the losses the signal suffers in its journey through space.
Representative transmitters and their fundamental features are described for you in this module.
TRANSMITTER FUNDAMENTALS
Basic communication transmitters include continuous wave (cw), amplitude modulated (AM),
frequency modulated (fm), and single sideband (ssb) types. A basic description of each of these
transmitters is given in this chapter.
The continuous wave is used principally for radiotelegraphy; that is, for the transmission of short
or long pulses of rf energy to form the dots and dashes of the Morse code characters. This type
of transmission is sometimes referred to as interrupted continuous wave. Cw transmission was
the first type of radio communication used, and it is still used extensively for long-range
communications. Two of the advantages of cw transmission are a narrow bandwidth, which
requires less output power, and a degree of intelligibility that is high even under severe noise
conditions. (For example, when the receiver is in the vicinity of rotating machinery or
thunderstorms.)
A cw transmitter requires four essential components. These are a generator, amplifier, keyer,
and antenna. We have to generate rf oscillations and have a means of amplifying these
oscillations. We also need a method of turning the rf output on and off (keying) in accordance
with the intelligence to be transmitted and an antenna to radiate the keyed output of the
transmitter.
Let's take a look at the block diagram of a cw transmitter and its power supply in figure 2-1. The
oscillator generates the rf carrier at a preset frequency and maintains it within close tolerances.
The oscillator may be a self-excited type, such as an electron-coupled oscillator, or a quartz
crystal type, which uses a crystal cut to vibrate at a certain frequency when electrically excited.
In both types, voltage and current delivered by the oscillator are weak. The oscillator outputs
must be amplified many times to be radiated any distance.
The buffer serves two other purposes. One is to isolate the oscillator from the amplifier stages.
Without a buffer, changes in the amplifier caused by keying or variations in source voltage
would vary the load of the oscillator and cause it to change frequency. It may also be used as a
frequency multiplier, which is explained later in this text.
As you can see in the figure, a key is used to turn the buffer on and off. When the key is closed,
the rf carrier passes through the buffer stage; when the key is open (buffer is turned off), the rf
carrier is prevented from getting through.
The final stage of a transmitter is the power amplifier (referred to as the pa). In chapter 3 of
NEETS, Module 1, Introduction to Matter, Energy, and Direct Current, you learned that power is
the product of current and voltage (P = IE). In the power amplifier a large amount of rf current
and voltage is made available for radiation by the antenna.
The power amplifier of a high-power transmitter may require far more driving power than can be
supplied by an oscillator and its buffer stage. One or more low-power intermediate amplifiers are
used between the buffer and the final amplifier that feeds the antenna. The main difference
between many low- and high-power transmitters is in the number of intermediate power-
amplifier stages used.
Figure 2-2 is a block diagram of the input and output powers for each stage of a typical medium-
power transmitter. You should be able to see that the power output of a transmitter can be
increased by adding amplifier stages capable of delivering the power required. In our example,
the .5 watt output of the buffer is amplified in the first intermediate amplifier by a factor of 10,
(this is a times 10 [ X 10] amplifier) giving us an input of 5 watts to the second intermediate
amplifier. You can see in this example the second intermediate amplifier multiplies the 5 watt
input to it by a factor of 5 ( X 5) and gives us a 25 watt input to our power (final) amplifier. The
final amplifier multiplies its input by a factor of 20 (X 20) and gives us 500 watts of power out to
the antenna.
Figure 2-3 gives you an idea of what the block diagram of a simple AM transmitter looks like.
The oscillator, buffer amplifier, and power amplifier serve the same purpose as those in the cw
transmitter. The microphone converts the audio frequency (af) input (a person's voice) into
corresponding electrical energy. The driver amplifies the audio, and the modulator further
amplifies the audio signal to the amplitude necessary to fully modulate the carrier. The output of
the modulator is applied to the power amplifier. The pa combines the rf carrier and the
modulating signal in the power amplifier to produce the amplitude-modulated signal output for
transmission. In the absence of a modulating signal, a continuous rf carrier is radiated by the
antenna.
In frequency modulation (fm) the modulating signal combines with the carrier to cause the
frequency of the resultant wave to vary with the instantaneous amplitude of the modulating
signal.
Figure 2-4 shows you the block diagram of a frequency-modulated transmitter. The modulating
signal applied to a varicap causes the reactance to vary. The varicap is connected across the
tank circuit of the oscillator. With no modulation, the oscillator generates a steady center
frequency. With modulation applied, the varicap causes the frequency of the oscillator to vary
around the center frequency in accordance with the modulating signal. The oscillator output is
then fed to a frequency multiplier to increase the frequency and then to a power amplifier to
increase the amplitude to the desired level for transmission.
Harmonics
True harmonics are always exact multiples of the basic or fundamental frequency generated by
an oscillator and are created in amplifiers and their associated circuits. Even harmonics are 2, 4,
6, and so on, times the fundamental; odd harmonics are 3, 5, 7, and so on, times the
fundamental. If an oscillator has a fundamental frequency of 2,500 kilohertz, the harmonically
related frequencies are
You should note that the basic frequency and the first harmonic are one and the same.
The series ascends indefinitely until the intensity is too weak to be detected. In general, the
energy in frequencies above the third harmonic is too weak to be significant.
In some electronics books, and later in this chapter, you will find the term SUBHARMONIC
used. It refers to a sine wave quantity (for example, an oscillator output) that has a frequency
that is a submultiple of the frequency of some other sine wave quantity it helped make. For
example, a wave that is half the fundamental frequency of another wave is called the second
subharmonic of that wave; one with a third of the fundamental frequency is called a third
subharmonic; and so forth.
Q.7 If the fundamental frequency is 200 megahertz, what is the third harmonic?
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
EQUIPMENT PURPOSES
Figure 3-1 is a basic block diagram of a voice system. You can see
how this equipment is interconnected to form a basic communications
system.We are going to look at several of the equipment blocks in
detail.
The radio set control unit shown in figure 3-2 provides a capability to
remotely control some radiophone transmitter functions and the
receiver output. Some of the controls are used for turning the
transmitter on and off. Others are used for voice modulating the
transmission (or keying when cw operation is desired). You can even
control the audio output level of the receiver and silence the receiver
when transmitting.
TRANSFER SWITCHBOARDS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
The first artificial satellite was placed in orbit by the Russians in 1957. That satellite, called
Sputnik, signaled the beginning of an era.
Order this
The United States, who was behind the Russians, made an all-out effort to catch up, and information in
launched Score in 1958. That was the first satellite with the primary purpose of Print (Hardcopy).
communications.
The first regular satellite communications service was used by the Navy in 1960. The moon
was used to bounce teletypewriter signals between Hawaii and Washington, D.C. During the
early 1960s, the Navy used the moon as a medium for passing messages between ships at
sea and shore stations. This method of communications proved reliable when other methods
failed.
Military satellite communications technology was at a low level until 1965. At that time high
quality voice transmissions were conducted between a satellite and two earth stations. That
was the stepping stone to the Initial Defense Communications Satellite Program (IDCSP),
which will be covered later in this chapter.
Experience with satellite communications has demonstrated that satellite systems can satisfy
many military requirements. They are reliable, survivable, secure, and a cost effective method
of telecommunications. You can easily see that satellites are the ideal, if not often the only,
solution to problems of communicating with highly mobile forces. Satellites, if properly used,
provide much needed options to large, fixed-ground installations.
For the past fifty years, the Navy has used high-frequency (hf) transmissions as the principal
method of sending messages. In the 1970s, the hf spectrum was overcrowded and "free"
frequencies were at a premium. Hf jamming and electronic countermeasures (ECM)
techniques became highly sophisticated during that period. As a result the need for new and
advanced long-range transmission methods became apparent.
In the past, the various military branches have had the resources to support their
communications needs. Predicted usage indicates that large-scale improvements will have to
be made to satisfy future needs of the Department of Defense. These needs will require
greater capacity for long-haul communications to previously inaccessible areas. Satellite
communications has the most promise for satisfying these future requirements.
The Defense Communications Satellite Program (DCSP) was initiated by the Secretary of
Defense in 1962. Phase I of the program was given the title Initial Defense Communications
Satellite Program (IDCSP). The first satellite launch occurred in June 1966 when seven
experimental satellites were placed into orbit. The final launch of this program consisted of
eight satellites and occurred in June 1968.
The Phase II Defense Satellite Communications System (DSCP Phase II) has changed from
an all-analog communications system to an all-digital communications system. The
performance capability provided by the Phase II DSCS is limited by equipment availability.
Extensive digital traffic capability has become common. You can credit this to the availability
of digital modems (modulator/demodulator) and broadband equipment. Overall performance
of the Phase II DSCS is a great improvement over the capabilities provided by Phase I DSCS.
The Phase II satellites provide a great increase in effective radiated power and rf bandwidths.
You will find these satellite configurations use wide coverage and narrow beam antennas.
They provide an extensive range of communications services and capabilities. (This will be
further discussed later, in this chapter.)
A satellite communications system uses satellites to relay radio transmissions between earth
terminals. The two types of communications satellites you will study are ACTIVE and
PASSIVE. A passive satellite only reflects received radio signals back to earth. An active
satellite acts as a REPEATER; it amplifies signals received and then retransmits them back to
earth. This increases signal strength at the receiving terminal to a higher level than would be
available from a passive satellite.
A typical operational link involves an active satellite and two or more earth terminals. One
station transmits to the satellite on a frequency called the UP-LINK frequency. The satellite
then amplifies the signal, converts it to the DOWN-LINK frequency, and transmits it back to
earth. The signal is next picked up by the receiving terminal. Figure 4-1 shows a satellite
handling several combinations of links simultaneously.
The basic design of a satellite communications system depends to a great degree upon the
characteristics of the orbit of the satellite. In general terms, an orbit is either elliptical or
circular in shape. A special type of orbit is a SYNCHRONOUS ORBIT. In this type you will find
the period (time required for one revolution) of the orbit the same as that of the earth. An orbit
that is not synchronous is called ASYNCHRONOUS. A period of orbit that approaches that of
the earth is called NEAR SYNCHRONOUS (subsynchronous). Orbits are discussed in more
detail later in this chapter.
In addition to the fundamental components shown in figure 4-1, the design of the overall
system determines the complexity of the various components and the manner in which the
system operates. Current satellites are capable of handling many teletypewriter (tty) and
voice circuits at the same time.
Orbit Descriptions
Orbits generally are described according to the physical shape of the orbit and the angle of
inclination of the plane of the orbit. These terms aye discussed in the following paragraphs:
PHYSICAL SHAPE. - All satellites orbit the earth in elliptical orbits. (A circle is a special case
of an ellipse.) The shape of the orbit is determined by the initial launch parameters and the
later deployment techniques used.
PERIGEE and APOGEE are two, of the three parameters used to describe orbital data of a
satellite. These are shown on figure 4-2. Perigee is the point in the orbit nearest to the center
of the earth. Apogee is the point in the orbit the greatest distance from the center of the earth.
Both distances are expressed in nautical miles.
SPECIAL TYPES OF INCLINED ORBITS. - A satellite orbiting in a plane that coincides with
the equatorial plane of the earth is in an EQUATORIAL ORBIT. A satellite orbiting in an
inclined orbit with an angle of inclination of 90 degrees or near 90 degrees is in a POLAR
ORBIT.
Three of these satellites can provide coverage over most of the earth (except for the extreme
north and south polar regions). A polar projection of the global coverage of a three-satellite
system is shown in figure 4-6.
Figure 4-6. - Worldwide synchronous satellite system viewed from above the North Pole.
A satellite in a circular orbit at other than 19,300 nautical miles above the earth is in a near-
synchronous orbit. If the orbit is lower than 19,300 nautical miles, the period of orbit of the
satellite is less than the period of orbit of the earth. The satellite then appears to be moving
slowly around the earth from west to east. (This type of orbit is also called subsynchronous.) If
the orbit is higher than 19,300 nautical miles, the period of orbit of the satellite is greater than
the period of orbit of the earth. The satellite then appears to be moving slowly around the
earth from east to west. Although inclined and polar near-synchronous orbits are possible,
near synchronous implies an equatorial orbit.
A satellite in a circular orbit from approximately 2,000 miles to 12,000 miles above the earth is
considered to be in a MEDIUM ALTITUDE ORBIT. The period of a medium altitude satellite is
considerably less than that of the earth. When you look at this altitude satellite, it appears to
move rather quickly across the sky from west to east.
other components?
Q.3 A satellite in a synchronous orbit can cover how much of the surface of the earth?
Q.4 What areas of the earth are not normally covered by satellites?
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
INTRODUCTION
In the previous four chapters we've looked at communications equipment and systems that were used
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in several frequency ranges. Some have had many applications. In this chapter you will look at
information in
systems used in some portions of the rf spectrum that have not been covered in detail. We will also
Print (Hardcopy).
discuss the naval tactical data system (NTDS), which operates in the high-frequency and ultrahigh-
frequency regions. Various portable communications equipments used in the military and an
introduction to the laser and its uses in communications are included. Some of the applications
presented are fairly new to the military community.
SYSTEMS
As discussed in chapter 1, the frequency range from elf to shf is from below 300 hertz up to 30
gigahertz. The first area we will cover is the lower frequency bands (medium frequency [mf] and
below). You will then get a look at the microwave region and the high-frequency and ultrahigh-
frequency range as it pertains to the naval tactical data system (NTDS).
Most of the receivers and transmitters that you will see used in the mf portions of the rf spectrum and
below are very similar in design. In chapter 1 we discussed the operational uses of the equipment;
now let's look at the equipment itself.
Equipment items covered in this and other chapters are meant to be merely representative of
equipment that may be encountered in naval communications. No attempt will be made to include all
of the possible equipment or equipment configurations.
Transmit Equipment
You should realize the transmitters used in bands of medium frequency and below are similar to
those you studied in chapter 2. In other words, a transmitter used in one frequency range is basically
the same as one used in another range. However, there are some differences. Two of the differences
are component size and the use of a technique called DOUBLING UP.
The components used in bands of medium frequency and below are much larger physically than the
ones previously discussed. This is because of the higher operating voltage and current levels
required to produce the very high-powered rf outputs needed for the uses covered in chapter 1. A
given resistor used in an hf application may be rated at 1/2 watt, whereas the same resistor used in a
lower frequency application would probably be rated in tens or even hundreds of watts.
A block diagram of a doubled-up transmitter is shown in figure 5-1. Remember, bands of medium
frequencies and below are used almost exclusively for broadcast and are on the air continuously.
Doubling up increases reliability. As you can see, two transmitters are located in the same equipment
cabinet. This allows you to quickly transfer circuits if one should fail. This dual installation also allows
both amplifiers to be used together to double the output power. When you use this application, you
sacrifice the doubling-up capability of only the power amplifier. All the other components are still
available as backups. Let's go through figure 5-1 and describe the block functions.
The ipa receives the pre-ipa output, amplifies the signal, and drives other selected power amplifiers.
The ipa is a single-stage, untuned, linear, push-pull, rf circuit that uses water and forced-air cooled
tubes.
Signals are then sent through the amplifier control, where they are used for signal monitoring
purposes before being applied to the final rf amplifier (pa). The pa amplifies the signal to the final
desired power level. The pa also contains variometers (variable inductors) for coupling. This coupled
output is fed to the rf tuning unit.
The rf tuning unit consists of variable oil-filled capacitors and a fixed inductor for frequency tuning.
The signal is then sent to a knife switch. This switch simply routes the signal to the DUMMY LOAD or
the antenna by way of the HELIX HOUSE. (A dummy load is a nonradiating device the absorbs the rf
and has the impedance characteristics of the antenna.) The dummy load is impedance matched to
the pa. It allows testing of the pa without putting a signal on the air. When the equipment is in an
operating mode, the dummy load is not used. The helix house is a small building physically separated
from the transmitter location. It contains antenna loading, coupling, and tuning circuits. The main
components consist of a HELIX (large coil) and variable inductors. The signal is fed from the helix
directly to the antenna. Sometimes two antennas are used.
Antenna designs vary with the amount and type of land available, desired signal coverage, and
bandwidth requirements. Figure 5-2 shows a simplified transmit antenna. The Navy uses TOP-HAT
(flat-top) capacitive loading with one or more radiating elements. Typical top hat antennas consist of
two or more lengths of wire parallel to each other and to the ground, each fed at or near its mid point.
The lengths of wire are usually supported by vertical towers. These antennas may take many shapes.
The matching network shown is in the helix house. Figure 5-3 shows the installation at the naval
communications unit in Cutler, Maine. The Navy has several of these types of installations. They are
used primarily for fleet broadcasts and have power outputs in the .25- to 2-megahertz range. You
should notice the transmitter, the location of the helix houses, and the dual antennas. You should also
notice the transmission line tunnel. It is underground and over a half-mile long. Figure 5-4, view (A)
and view (B), shows another antenna configuration. This array of monopoles (quarter-wave, vertically
polarized stubs) is referred to as a TRIATIC antenna. A triatic antenna is a special form of a rhombic-
arranged monopole array. This type of array is designed to transmit from a particular location. Triatics
are all basically the same but have some design differences at each site. The physical differences
compensate for differences in terrain. Now that we have looked at the transmit side, let's look at the
receive side.
Book 18
Radar fundamentals
Radar subsystems
Transmitters
Modulator Switching Devices
Power amplifier transmitter Order this
information on CD-
Duplexers
Rom
ATR Tube
Waveguide Duplexer
Receivers
Mixer
Receiver special circuits
Logarithmic Receiver
Summary Order this
Answers information in
Print (Hardcopy).
Radar fundamentals
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RADAR FUNDAMENTALS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Modern radar systems are used for early detection of surface or air
objects and provide extremely accurate information on distance,
direction, height, and speed of the objects. Radar is also used to
guide missiles to targets and direct the firing of gun systems. Other
types of radar provide long-distance surveillance and navigation
information.
Radar subsystems
RADAR SUBSYSTEMS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
SYNCHRONIZERS
SYNCHRONIZER FUNCTION
system?
SYNCHRONIZER OPERATION
Note in figure 2-1 that the positive portion of the indicator intensity
gate pulse (applied to the cathode-ray tube control grid) occurs
only during the indicator sweep time. As a result, the visible
cathode-ray tube trace occurs only during sweep time and is
eliminated during the flyback (retrace) time. The negative portion of
the range-marker gate pulse also occurs during the indicator sweep
time. This negative gate pulse is applied to a range-marker
generator, which produces a series of range marks.
The range marks are equally spaced and are produced only for the
duration of the range-marker gate pulse. When the range marks
are combined (mixed) with the receiver output signal, the resulting
video signal applied to the indicator may appear as shown at the
bottom of figure 2-1.
oscillator?
Q.5 In an externally synchronized radar, what determines the prr of
the transmitter?
Q.6 In figure 2-1, what causes the initial and final pulses on the
Figure 2-2 shows the block diagrams and waveforms of these three
synchronizers as they are used in externally synchronized radar
systems. In each case, equally spaced timing trigger pulses are
produced. The prr of each series of timing trigger pulses is
determined by the operating frequency of the associated master
oscillator.
Gating pulses for the indicator circuits are produced by applying the
output of the blocking oscillator to a one-shot multivibrator or
another variable time delay circuit (not shown). Crystal-controlled
oscillators may be used when very stable frequency operation is
required.
Q.9 Which of the basic timing circuits produces sharp trigger pulses
directly?
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
INTRODUCTION
RADAR INDICATORS
The actual range of a target from the radar, whether on the ground,
in the water, or in the air is known as SLANT RANGE. The majority
of displays use as one coordinate the value of slant range, its
horizontal projection (GROUND RANGE), or its vertical projection
(ALTITUDE). Since slant range is involved in every radar situation,
it inevitably appears in at least one display on every set. Slant
range is the coordinate that is duplicated most often when more
than one type of display is used. This is partly because displays
presenting range have the highest signal-to-noise discrimination
and partly for geometrical reasons.
The three most common types of displays, called scopes, are the A-
scope, the RANGE-HEIGHT INDICATOR (RHI) SCOPE, and the
PLAN POSITION INDICATOR (PPI) SCOPE. The primary function
of these displays will be discussed in this section. However,
detailed descriptions will be limited to the ppi scope, which is the
most common display.
THE A SCOPE
The A-scope display, shown in figure 3-1, presents only the range
to the target and the relative strength of the echo. Such a display is
normally used in weapons control radar systems. The bearing and
elevation angles are presented as dial or digital readouts that
correspond to the actual physical position of the antenna.
displays?
Q.2 What are the required radar inputs for proper indicator
operation?
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
TRANSMITTER FREQUENCY
Spectrum Analysis
Frequency-Measuring Devices
frequency?
Q.4 The display screen of a spectrum analyzer presents a graphic
Book 21
Basic measurements
Oscilloscope Method
Multimeter Method
Oscilloscope method
RCL Bridges
Reactance-type measurements
Summary
Answers
Qualitative measurements
SWR Meters
Intermodulation distortion measurements
Summary
Answers
Basic measurements
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BASIC MEASUREMENTS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
INTRODUCTION TO MEASUREMENTS
Now that we have discussed the advantages of calibrated test equipment, let's
review the reason for all this concern. The fundamental electrical quantities of
a circuit are voltage and current and are dependent on the circuit
characteristics of resistance, capacitance, and inductance. In addition to these
three individual characteristics, don't forget that many electronic components
exhibit more than one circuit characteristic at the same time. An example
would be a piece of coaxial cable that is engineered by its manufacturer to
meet characteristic specifications for impedance, capacitance, and
inductance. But let's keep it simple and begin by covering voltage
measurements.
Operation and use of common test equipment was covered in NEETS Module
16, Introduction to Test Equipment, NAVEDTRA B72 - 16 - 00 - 95. It is
recommended that you review this module before continuing.
VOLTAGE MEASUREMENTS
Most Navy technical manuals provide voltage charts that list correct voltages
at all primary test points in a piece of equipment. Voltage measurements,
when compared with these charts, provide a valuable aid in locating troubles
quickly and easily. However, if the sensitivity of the test equipment differs from
that of the test equipment used in preparing the chart, the voltage
measurements may not reflect true circuit conditions. You must keep in mind
that a voltmeter with low sensitivity used on a low range may disturb circuits
under test or provide a false indication. Most technical manuals will tell you
what type and model of test equipment was used to prepare the voltage
charts. As a rule of thumb, the input impedance of the voltmeter should
exceed the impedance of the circuit by a ratio of at least 10 to 1. Technicians
have spent uncounted hours of wasted time because they have selected
improper test equipment.
Q.2 The input impedance of your test equipment should exceed the
DC VOLTAGE MEASUREMENTS
Multimeter Method
A common piece of test equipment used in the Navy is the Simpson 260
analog multimeter, as shown in figure 1-2. It is capable of measuring both ac
and dc voltages of up to 5,000 volts.
Q.4 At what point on a meter movement are the most accurate readings
taken?
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Component testing
COMPONENT TESTING
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
It is imperative that you be able to troubleshoot an equipment failure to the component level.
In the majority of cases, Navy technicians are expected to troubleshoot and identify faulty
components. This chapter, "Component Testing," will acquaint you with alternative methods
of testing various components and their parameters. A quick glance at the Navy's mission
and concept of operation explains why we, in most cases, must be able to troubleshoot to
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the faulty component level. A ship must be a self-sustaining unit when deployed. Storage
information in
space is a primary consideration on most ships and a limiting factor for storage of bulky
Print (Hardcopy).
items or electronic modules as ready spares. Therefore, it is practical to store only individual
components common to a great number of equipment types. This of course, limits the larger
replacement modules available to you during troubleshooting.
Q.1 Why are most ships limited in their ability to stock replacement modules for repair of
electronic equipment?
In equipment that uses vacuum tubes, faulty tubes are responsible for more than 50% of all
electronic equipment failures. As a result, testing of electronic tubes is important to you. You
can determine the condition of a tube by substituting an identical tube known to be good for
the questionable one. However, indiscriminate substitution of tubes is to be avoided for at
least the following two reasons: (1) detuning of circuits may result and (2) a tube may not
operate properly in a high-frequency circuit even though it performs well in a low-frequency
circuit. Therefore, your knowledge of tube-testing devices and their limitations, as well as
correct interpretation of the test results obtained, is indispensable for accurate and rapid
maintenance.
Because the operating capabilities and design features of a tube are demonstrated by its
electrical characteristics, a tube is tested by measuring those characteristics and comparing
them with representative values established for that type of tube. Tubes that read abnormally
high or low with respect to the standard are suspect. Practical considerations, which take into
account the limitations of the tube test in predicting actual tube performance in a particular
circuit, make it unnecessary to use complex and costly test equipment with laboratory
accuracy. For most applications, testing of a single tube characteristic is good enough to
determine tube performance. Some of the more important factors affecting the life
expectancy of an electron tube are listed below:
If the average receiving tube is not overdriven or operated continuously at maximum rating, it
can have a life of at least 2,000 hours before the filament opens. Because of the expansion
and contraction of tube elements during the process of heating and cooling, electrodes may
lean or sag, which causes excessive noise or microphonics to develop. Other electron-tube
defects are cathode-to-heater leakage and nonuniform electron emission of the cathode.
These common tube defects contribute to about 50% of all electronic equipment failures. For
this reason you should immediately eliminate any tube known to be faulty. However, avoid
blind or random replacement of good tubes with fresh spares. The most common cause of
tube failure is open filaments. Evidence of a tube defect is often obvious when the filament is
open in glass-envelope tubes. You will also notice the brighter-than-normal cherry-red glow
of the plate when the plate current is excessive. Also, when the tube becomes gassy or
when arcing occurs between electrodes, you will probably have visual indication. Metal-
encased tubes can be felt for warmth to determine if the heater is operating. You can tap a
tube while it is operating in a circuit to reveal an aural indication of loose elements within the
tube or microphonics, which are produced by loose elements.
Most tubes are extremely fragile and subject to damage during shipment. When you replace
a tube, never make the assumption that the new tube is good because it's new. You should
always test tubes before installing them.
SUBSTITUTION METHODS
Q.3 What is the most accurate method of determining the condition of an electron tube?
NOTE ON SYMBOLS USED IN THE FOLLOWING SECTIONS: IEEE and ANSI standards
(see inside front cover) are used to define various terms, such as anode (plate) current,
anode voltage, and anode resistance. This book uses Ea for anode voltage, Ia for anode
current, and ra for anode resistance. These are the same as Ep, Ip, and rp that you will see
elsewhere. This module uses the terms anode and plate interchangeably.
A representative field type of electron tube tester designed to test all common low-power
tubes is shown in figure 2-1.The tube test conditions are as close as possible to actual tube
operating conditions and are programmed on a prepunched card. The card switch (S101, fig.
2-1) automatically programs the tube test conditions when it is actuated by a card. A card
compartment on the front panel of the tester provides storage for the most frequently used
cards. The cover of the tester (not shown) contains the operating instructions, the brackets
for storing the technical manual, the power cord, the calibration cell for checking the meter
and short tests, the calibration cards, the blank cards, and a steel hand punch.
When a prepunched card is fully inserted into the card switch (S101), a microswitch is
actuated that energizes a solenoid, causing the card switch contacts to complete the circuit.
The card switch has 187 single-pole, single-throw switches arranged in 17 rows with 11
switches in each row. The card is used to push the switches closed; thus, the absence of a
hole in the card is required to actuate a switch.
The meter (M301) contains four scales. The upper scale is graduated from 0 to 100 for direct
numerical readings. The three lower scales, numbered 1, 2, and 3, are read for LEAKAGE,
QUALITY, and GAS, respectively. Each numbered scale includes green and red areas
marked GOOD and REPLACE. Inside a shield directly in front of the meter are five neon
lamps (DS301 through DS305), which indicate shorts between tube elements.
The number 2 pushbutton (MP6) is used for transconductance, emission, and other quality
tests (described later). The number 3 pushbutton (MP7) is used to test for the presence of
gas in the tube envelope. The number 4 pushbutton (MP8) is used for tests on dual tubes. A
neon lamp (DS203) lights when pushbutton number 4 is to be used. Eleven tube test sockets
are located on the panel, plus tube pin straighteners for the 7- and 9-pin miniature tubes.
The power ON-OFF spring-return toggle switch (S105) turns the tester on by energizing a
line relay. The pilot light (DS107) lights when this relay closes. Above the power ON-OFF
switch are five fuses. Fuses F101, F201, and F202 protect circuits in the tester not protected
by other means and have neon lamps to indicate when they have blown. Fuses F102 and
F103 protect both sides of the power line.
Auxiliary Compartment
A group of auxiliary controls covered by a hinged panel is used for special tests and for
calibration of the tester. Two of these controls, labeled SIGNAL CAL (R152 and R155, fig. 2-
2), are used with special test cards for adjusting the regulation and amplitude of the signal
voltage. A pushbutton labeled CATH ACT (S302D) is used for making cathode activity tests.
When this button is pressed, DS106 on the front panel (fig. 2-1) lights, and the filament
voltage of the tube under test is reduced by 10%. Results of the test are read as a change in
reading on the numerical meter scale.
Pushbutton S302E and potentiometers R401 and R405 (fig. 2-2) are used for balancing the
transconductance (Gm) bridge circuit under actual tube operating current. Pressing S302E
removes the grid signal and allows a zero balance to be made with one potentiometer or the
other, depending upon whether the tube under test is passing high or low plate current.
Lamp DS108 on the front panel lights when S302E is pressed. Pushbutton S302C is used for
checking grid-to-cathode shorts at a sensitivity much higher than the normal tests. Results of
this test are indicated by the short test lamps on the front panel.
Certain special tests require the use of a continuously adjustable auxiliary power supply. By
pressing pushbutton S302B, you may use meter M301 to read the voltage of the auxiliary
power supply on meter M301. This voltage may be adjusted by the use of the potentiometer
R142. The rest of the potentiometer controls are calibration controls and are adjusted by the
use of special calibration cards and a calibration test cell.
All circuits in the tester, except the filament supply, are electronically regulated to
compensate for line voltage fluctuations. The filament supply voltage is adjusted by pressing
pushbutton S302A and rotating the filament standardization adjustment switch S106 until
meter M301 reads midscale.
Program Cards
The circuits to be used in testing are selected by a prepunched card. These cards are made
of tough vinyl plastic material. The tube numbers are printed in color on the tabs of the cards
and also at the edge of the card for convenience in filing. A special card is provided to use as
a marker when a card is removed for use. Blank cards are provided so that additional test
cards may be punched for new tubes that are developed or to replace cards that have
become unserviceable.
Operation
Before operating the tester for the first time, and periodically thereafter, you should calibrate
it using the calibration test cards as described in the equipment technical manual.
NORMAL TESTS. - The tester is equipped with a three-conductor power cord, one wire of
which is chassis ground. It should be plugged into a grounded 105- to 125-volt, 50- to 400-
hertz outlet.
Before operating the tester, open the auxiliary compartment (fig. 2-2) and ensure that the
FILAMENT STD ADJ and the Gm BAL knobs are in the NOM position. The GRID SIG and
CATH ACT buttons (S302E and S302D) should be up and lamps DS108 and DS106 on the
front panel should be out.
Turn on the tester and allow it to warm up for 5 to 10 minutes, then press the CARD REJECT
KNOB (fig. 2-1) down until it locks. If a nontest card is installed in the card switch, remove it.
This card is used to keep the switch pins in place during shipment and should be inserted
before transporting the tester.
Plug the tube to be tested into its proper socket. (Use the pin straighteners before plugging in
7- and 9-pin miniature tubes.) Select the proper card or cards for the tube to be tested. Insert
the card selected into the slot in the card switch until the CARD REJECT KNOB pops up.
The card will operate the tester only if it is fully inserted and the printing is up and toward the
operator. Do not put paper or objects other than program cards into the card switch, because
they will jam the switch contacts. If the overload shuts off the tester when the card is inserted
in the switch, check to see that the proper card is being used for the tube under test and that
the tube under test has a direct interelement short.
As soon as the card switch is actuated, the tube under test is automatically subjected to an
interelement short test and a heater-to-cathode leakage test. A blinking or steady glow of any
of the short test lamps is an indication of an interelement short. If the short test lamps remain
dark, no interelement shorts exist within the tube. If a short exists between two or more
elements, the short test lamp or lamps connected between these elements remain dark, and
the remaining lamps light. The abbreviations for the tube elements are located on the front
panel just below the short test shield so that the neon lamps are between them. This enables
the operator to tell which elements are shorted. Heater-to-cathode shorts are indicated as
leakage currents on the #1 meter scale. If the meter reads above the green area, the tube
should be replaced. A direct heater-to-cathode short causes the meter to read full scale.
To make the QUALITY test, push the number 2 button (fig. 2-1) and read the number 2 scale
on meter M301 to determine if the tube is good. (This test may be one of various types, such
as transconductance, emission, plate current, or voltage drop, depending upon the type of
tube under test.)
To test the tube for GAS, press the number 3 button and read the number 3 meter scale. The
number 2 button also goes down when number 3 is pressed. If a dual tube having two
identical sections is being tested, the neon lamp (DS203) will light, indicating that both
sections of the tube may be tested with one card. To do this, check the tube for shorts,
leakage, quality, and gas as described previously; then hold down button number 4 and
repeat these tests to test the second section of the tube. Dual tubes with sections that are
not identical require two cards for testing. A second card is also provided to make special
tests on certain tubes.
AUXILIARY TEST. - As mentioned previously, two special tests (cathode activity and
sensitive grid shorts) may be made by use of controls located in the auxiliary compartment
(fig. 2-2). The cathode activity test (CATH ACT) is used to indicate the amount of useful life
remaining in the tube. By reducing the filament voltage by 10 percent and allowing the
cathode to cool off slightly, the ability of the cathode as an emitter of electrons can be
estimated. This test is made in conjunction with the normal quality test.
To make the CATH ACT test, allow the tube under test to warm up, press button number 2
(fig. 2-1), and note the reading of scale number 2 on meter M301. Note also the numerical
scale reading on M301. Next, lock down the CATH ACT button (fig. 2-2), wait for about 1.5
minutes, then press button number 2 (fig. 2-1) again and note the numerical and number 2
scale readings on meter M301. The tube should be replaced if the numerical reading on
M301 differs from the first reading by more than 10 percent or if the reading is in the red area
on the number 2 scale.
It is sometimes desirable to check certain tubes for shorts at a sensitivity greater than
normal. To make the SENSITIVE GRID SHORTS test, push S302C (fig. 2-2) and note if any
short test lamps (fig. 2-1) light.
You normally test high-power amplifier tubes, which operate in the low-to-high frequency
range, in the transmitter in which they are to be used. When you operate the tube in a
transmitter, its condition can be determined by using built-in meters to measure the grid
current, plate current, and power output and comparing those values with those obtained
when using tubes known to be good.
Quantitative measurements
QUANTITATIVE MEASUREMENTS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
BRIDGE METHODS
The measuring circuit in figure 3-2 also contains two branches. The
resistance, capacitance, or inductance to be measured is connected
to branch X of the bridge-measuring circuit. The subscript X is also
used in figure 3-1 to designate the circuit parameters involved in
computing the values of various electronic parts. Branch S contains
the variable control used to bring the bridge into a balanced
condition. A potentiometer is used for this purpose in most bridge
equipment, because it offers a wide range of smoothly variable
current changes within the measuring circuit.
The third arm of the bridge is the detector circuit. The detector circuit
may use a galvanometer for sensitive measurements that require
high accuracy. In the case of bridges using ac as the power source,
the galvanometer must be adapted for use in an ac circuit. In many
practical bridge circuits using ac to operate the bridge, an electron-
ray indicating tube is used to indicate the balanced condition by
opening and closing the shadow area of the tube. Headsets are also
used for audible balance detection, but this method reduces the
accuracy obtainable with the bridge.
circuit?
Q.2 When you are measuring a component using a bridge, what is
Qualitative measurements
QUALITATIVE MEASUREMENTS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
NEETS, module 10) access is more complicated. Access to the interior of the
waveguide or center conductor of the coaxial cable must be gained by using
a unidirectional or bidirectional coupler, which is inserted into the
transmission line. The coupler contains a slot into which an rf probe is
inserted and positioned with respect to directivity.
The conditions that produce standing waves and their adverse effects are
discussed in detail in NEETS, module 10. The different methods of detecting
and measuring standing waves are discussed in the following paragraphs.
PROBES
Q.1 At what points along a transmission line will a neon lamp glow the
brightest?
BRIDGE METHODS
RESISTANCE-CAPACITANCE BRIDGE
However, the applied frequency must be low enough to avoid skin effect,
stray inductance, capacitance, and coupling between circuit elements and
wiring. The leads must be kept short to eliminate stray reactance, which
causes bridge imbalance. The rectifier circuit wiring must be isolated from
other bridge component fields so that induced voltages do not cause an
erroneous indication. You should only use resistors having negligible
capacitance and inductance effects.
Select the formula that yields a ratio greater than unity. The swr calibration
can be recorded on the meter scale directly, recorded on a chart in terms of
the meter deflection, or plotted on a graph against the meter deflection. The
variable capacitor, in turn, can be calibrated for various characteristic
impedances. This is accomplished by applying suitable resistors (RO) across
the output terminals and noting the capacitor settings at the respective
balance points. A range of 50 to 300 ohms should prove attainable.
Connect the line to the input terminals of the bridge and connect the
transmitter to the output terminals. Adjust the transmitter coupling until full-
scale deflection is obtained. From this point on, the coupling must be left
untouched. Reconnect the bridge in the usual way and proceed with the
measurement.
For maximum transfer of the power out of an rf source, with minimum heating
from reflected power, the total output impedance sensed by the rf source
must be equal to the internal impedance of that source. A perfect impedance
match between transmitter and load would exist if the swr were 1 to 1. As
discussed in NEETS, module 10, test equipment designed to measure the
instantaneous voltage of a standing wave will give you a voltage standing-
wave ratio (vswr). Test equipment designed to measure the instantaneous
current component of a standing wave will give you the current standing-
wave ratio (iswr). Regardless of the type of test equipment selected, both
ratios will be the same.
Q.2 What vswr is a perfect match between a transmitter and its load?
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
This chapter will cover some of the basic test methods and
practices associated with waveform interpretation.
MODULATION MEASUREMENTS
Modulation measurements are sometimes required during tuning
procedures to adjust transmitting equipment for the proper amount
of modulation. During maintenance tests of modulated transmitter
equipment, you should determine the amount of distortion in the
output signal and the modulation level or index. The modulation
level in multiplexing equipment is usually set at the factory or
during corrective maintenance procedures. Proper adjustment of
the input signal level and automatic signal-level regulation circuits
provides the correct amount of modulation. Defects in modulation
circuits of a transmitter can be detected by measurements of the
quality of the received signals at the receiver. Corrective
maintenance analysis of multiplex equipment modulation circuits
can usually be made by signal-level measurements.
what range?
AMPLITUDE-MODULATION MEASUREMENTS
Book 22
Operational concepts
Electronic computers
Digital computer generations
Uses of a digital computer
Using a desktop computer
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OPERATIONAL CONCEPTS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
INTRODUCTION
The purpose of this module is to acquaint you, the trainee, with the
basic principles, techniques, and procedures associated with digital
computers. We will use a desktop (personal) computer for most of the
examples. Personal computers should be more familiar to you than
the large mainframes, and the operating principles of personal
computers relate directly to the operating principles of mainframe
computers. You will learn the basic terminology used in the digital-
computer world. When you have completed these chapters
satisfactorily, you will have a better understanding of how computers
are able to perform the demanding tasks assigned to them.
HISTORY OF COMPUTERS
The ever increasing need for faster and more efficient computers has
created technological advances that can be considered amazing. Ever
since humans discovered that it was necessary to count objects, we
have been looking for easier ways to do it. Contrary to popular belief,
digital computers are not a new idea. The abacus is a manually
operated digital computer used in ancient civilizations and used to this
day in the Orient (see fig. 1-1). For those who consider the abacus
outdated, in a contest between a person using a modern calculator
and a person using an abacus, the person using the abacus won.
Under the pressure of military needs in World War II, the science of
electronic data processing made giant strides forward. In 1944,
Harvard University developed a computing system known as the
Automatic Sequence Controlled Calculator. After the initial design and
construction, several improved models were built.
CLASSIFICATIONS OF COMPUTERS
MECHANICAL COMPUTERS
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INTRODUCTION
The program may be stored in the internal circuits of the computer (computer
memory), or it may be read instruction-by-instruction from external media. The
internally stored program type of computer, generally referred to only as a
stored-program computer, is the most practical type to use when speed and
fully automatic operation are desired.
In addition to the commands that tell the computer what to do, the control unit
also dictates how and when each specific operation is to be performed. It is
also active in initiating circuits that locate any information stored within the
computer or in an auxiliary storage device and in moving this information to
the point where the actual manipulation or modification is to be accomplished.
The four major types of instructions are (1) transfer, (2) arithmetic, (3) logic,
and (4) control. Transfer instructions are those whose basic function is to
transfer (move) data from one location to another. Arithmetic instructions
are those that combine two pieces of data to form a single piece of data using
one of the arithmetic operations.
Logic instructions transform the digital computer into a system that is more
than a high-speed adding machine. Using logic instructions, the programmer
may construct a program with any number of alternate sequences. For
example, through the use of logic instructions, a computer being used for
maintenance inventory will have one sequence to follow if the number of a
given item on hand is greater than the order amount and another sequence if
it is smaller. The choice of which sequence to use will be made by the control
section under the influence of the logic instruction. Logic instructions, thereby,
provide the computer with the ability to make decisions based on the results of
previously generated data. That is, the logic instructions permit the computer
to select the proper program sequence to be executed from among the
alternatives provided by the programmer.
Control instructions are used to send commands to devices not under direct
command of the control section, such as input/output units or devices.
ARITHMETIC-LOGIC SECTION
Actually, the first step in loading instructions and data into a computer is to
manually place enough instructions into memory using the keyboard or
electronically using an operating system (discussed in chapter 1), so that
these instructions can be used to bring in more instructions as desired. In this
manner a few instructions are used to bootstrap more instructions. Some
computers make use of an auxiliary (wired) memory that permanently stores
the bootstrap program, thereby making manual loading unnecessary.
Q.3 What are the names of the sections that make up the cpu?
result?
Q.7 In the arithmetic/logic section, data is returned to what section after
processing?
Q.8 What is the process by which instructions and data are read into a
computer?
Software
SOFTWARE
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
OPERATING SYSTEMS
To give you a better idea of what you can expect to see on your
microcomputer display screen, we will show a few fundamental
disk operating system commands and messages. Again, the
functions of each operating system are about the same, but each
may use a different command to do about the same thing. For
example, try not to get confused because CP/M uses the command
PIP (peripheral interchange program) to copy a file, while MS-DOS
uses the command COPY.
COMMAND.COM
CONFIGUR.COM
DATDBL.BAK
DATDBL.DOC
FINANCE.BAS
MASTER.DOC
It may also give you file size and the date and time of the file. Let's
take an example. Let's say you are to copy the file "MASTER.DOC"
from the floppy disk in drive A to the floppy disk in drive B and then
delete the file on the floppy disk in drive A. You have just displayed
the directory of the floppy disk in drive A. Check to see that the file
you want is on the floppy disk in drive A. It is. You then insert the
floppy disk on which you want the copy into drive B. Be sure it is
formatted with the track and sector information so it is ready to
receive data. Also, be sure the disk is not write-protected. On a 5-
1/4 inch floppy disk that means the write protect notch is
uncovered. Following the A> type
You will learn to use these and many other system commands as
you operate a specific computer.
common on microcomputers?
Q.3 What types of operating systems let more than one user
overcome?
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
INTRODUCTION
One of the major problems we face in using a digital computer is communicating with it. We must have
one or more ways of getting data into the computer to be processed. You learned in chapter 2 that
there are several types of input devices that read data into a computer. But how does one prepare the
data to be used as input? How do we convert human-readable documents into a computer-readable
form, and what type of input media do we use? If the data is to be used by another computer some Order this
distance away, how do we transmit it? Well, as you probably suspect, there are several ways to information on CD-
perform this conversion and transmission process, and that is the chapter of our discussion. Rom
DATA
Data is a general term used to describe raw facts. To put it simply, data is nothing more than a
collection of related elements or items, that when properly coded into some type of input medium, can
be processed by a computer. Data items might include your service number, your name, your Order this
paygrade, or any other fact. Until some meaning has been given to the data, nothing can really be information in
determined about it; therefore, it remains data. When this data has been processed together with Print (Hardcopy).
other facts, it then has meaning and it becomes information we can understand and properly use.
DATA REPRESENTATION
Data is represented by symbols. Symbols convey meaning only when understood. The symbol itself is
not the information, but merely a representation of it. Symbol meaning is one of convention (fig. 4-
1).Symbols may convey one meaning to you and me, another meaning to others, and no meaning at
all to those that do not know their significance. Data must be reduced to a set of symbols that the
computer can read and interpret before there can be any communication with the computer. The first
computers were designed to manipulate numbers to solve arithmetic problems. But as you can see in
figure 4-1, we create, use, and manipulate many other symbols to represent facts in the world in which
we live. We are fortunate that early computer experts soon realized the need to manipulate
nonnumerical symbols as well. Manipulating these symbols is possible if an identifying code or coded
number is assigned to the symbol to be stored and processed. Thus, the letters in a name such as
ALBERT or CAROL can be represented by different codes, as can all special characters, such as #,
(,), &, $, @, and yes, even the comma. The data to be represented is called source data.
SOURCE DATA
Source data or raw data is typically written on some type of paper document, which we refer to as a
source document. The data contained on the source document must be converted into a machine-
readable form for processing either by direct or indirect means. The data may be entered directly into
the computer in its original form; namely right from the source document on which it is recorded by
way of magnetic ink characters, optically recognizable characters, or bar code recognition. Or the data
on the documents may be entered indirectly on input media, such as punched cards, paper tape,
magnetic tape, or magnetic disk. It may also be keyed directly into a computer from a keyboard.
If you look at figure 4-2, you see a list of SERVMART items that have been typed on a preprinted
form. To most people this is just another piece of paper; however, to the Storekeeper (SK) it is a
source document to be used to provide input data to the computer. In this example, the SERVMART
form deals with requisitioning supplies. The form could be sent to the data-entry department to be
used as a source document. There the data-entry operator can key the data into or on whatever
computer medium is to be used, according to a prescribed format. The data elements are numbered in
the order they are to be keyed: (1) document identification, (2) stock number, (3) unit of issue, (4)
quantity, and so on. You'll notice we need more than numbers, and that is where coding systems
come into play.
Q.4 By what two means can the data contained on a source document be converted into a machine-
Q.5 What are some of the types of input media on which data may be indirectly entered?
Book 23
Magnetic tape
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LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Have you ever wondered how a whole album of your favorite music
got onto one of those little cassette tapes? Or, what about
computer floppy disks; have you ever wondered how they can hold Order this
180 or more pages of typed text? The answer to both of these information in
questions is magnetic recording. Print (Hardcopy).
Until 1935, all magnetic recording was on steel wire. Then, at the
1935 German Annual Radio Exposition in Berlin, Fritz Pfleumer
demonstrated his Magnetophone. It used a cellulose acetate tape
coated with soft iron powder. The Magnetophone and its "paper"
tapes were used until 1947 when the 3M Company introduced the
first plastic-based magnetic tape.
In 1956, IBM introduced the next major contribution to magnetic
recording - the hard disk drive. The disk was a 24-inch solid metal
platter and stored 4.4 megabytes of information. Later, in 1963,
IBM reduced the platter size and introduced a 14-inch hard disk
drive.
Until 1966, all hard disk drives were "fixed" drives. Their platters
couldn't be removed. Then in 1966, IBM introduced the first
removable-pack hard disk drive. It also used a 14-inch solid metal
platter.
From then on, it was all downhill. Magnetic tape became more
sophisticated. Floppy disks and disk drives became smaller, while
their capacities grew bigger. And hard disk capacities just went
through the roof. All of the major hurdles affecting magnetic
recording had been successfully cleared, and it was just a matter of
refining both its methods and materials.
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Magnetic tape
MAGNETIC TAPE
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
The three basic materials used to make magnetic tape are (1) the
base material, (2) the coating of magnetic oxide particles, and (3)
the glue to bind the oxide particles onto the base material. See
figure 2-1.
OXIDE COATING
Oxide particles that can be magnetized are coated onto the base
material. The most common magnetic particles used are either
gamma ferric oxide or chromium dioxide. It's very important that
these magnetic particles are uniform in size. If they're not, the
tape's surface will be abrasive and will reduce the life of the
recorder's magnetic heads.
GLUE
The glue used to bond the oxide particles to the base material is
usually an organic resin. It must be strong enough to hold the oxide
particles to the base material, yet be flexible enough not to peel or
crack.
Q.2 Why is plastic magnetic tape used more than metal tape?
frequency range?
Q.4 What type of magnetic tape is used to record computer
programs and data, and what are the additional thickness and
DROPOUT ERRORS
Signal dropout is the most common and the most serious type of
tape error. It's a temporary, sharp drop (50% or more) in signal
strength caused by either contaminates on the magnetic tape or by
missing oxide coating on part of the tape.
During recording and playback, the oxide particles on the tape can
flake off and stick to the recorder's guides, rollers, and heads. After
collecting for awhile, the oxide deposits (now oxide lumps) break
loose and stick to the magnetic tape. As the tape with the lumps
passes over the head, the lumps get between the tape and the
head and lift the tape away from the head. This causes the signal
dropouts. Although oxide lumps cause most signal dropouts,
remember that any contaminate (such as dust, lint or oil) that gets
between the tape and the head can cause signal dropouts.
NOISE ERRORS
SKEW ERRORS
There are two types of skew errors: fixed and dynamic. Fixed skew
happens when properly aligned magnetic tape passes an
improperly aligned magnetic head. Dynamic skew happens when
misaligned tape passes a properly aligned head. This type of skew
is usually caused by one or more of the following:
LEVEL ERRORS
Q.5 What are four types of tape errors that can degrade a magnetic
dropout?
Q.8 You see a build-up of dust and lint on the take-up reel of a tape
recorder. This can cause which of the four types of tape errors?
Q.9 What type of tape error causes noise to appear on the tape
when no signal should appear? What causes this type of tape
error?
Q.10 The multi-track tape recorder in your computer system has a
fixed skew error. What does this mean and what is the probable
cause?
Q.11 Some tapes you are using may have level errors. What does
this mean and what is the cause?
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
State the two types of record and reproduce electronics used on magnetic tape recorders.
There are two ways to record and reproduce analog signals. The first way is direct record. It's also
called amplitude modulation (AM) electronics. The second way is frequency modulation (FM). Even
though direct record and reproduce circuits are much different from FM record and reproduce
electronics, they both share the same two very important jobs. They both must: Order this
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Take an input signal, process it as needed, and then send it to the record magnetic head for Print (Hardcopy).
reproduction.
Take the reproduced signal from the reproduce magnetic head, process it as needed, and output it for
listening or analysis.
This circuit takes the input signal, amplifies it, and sends it to the summing network. It also matches the
impedance between the source of the input signal and the magnetic tape recorder.
Bias source. This circuit generates the high-frequency bias signal and sends it to the summing network.
Normally, the frequency of the bias signal will be five to ten times higher than the highest frequency the
tape recorder can record.
Summing network. This network takes the input signal and the bias signal, mixes them, and sends the
resulting signal to the head driver circuit.
Head driver circuit. This circuit takes the signal from the summing network, amplifies it, and sends it to
the record head for recording.
Direct reproduce electronics amplify the very weak input signals from the reproduce head, and send
them out for listening or analysis, as needed. Figure 5-2
Pre-amplifier circuit.
This circuit takes the very weak reproduced signal from the reproduce head and (a) amplifies the signal,
(b) removes any bias signal that was used during the recording process, and (c) sends the signal to the
equalization and phase correction circuit.
Equalization and phase correction circuit. This circuit takes the pre-amplified signal and fixes any
Frequency response problems that the reproduce magnetic head may have caused. To better
understand this, look at the voltage versus Frequency response graph in figure 5-3.
The top of the graph shows the input signal that comes from the pre-amplifier and the bottom shows the
equalization signal generated by the equalization circuit. In the top part of the graph, note how the
output voltage level varies as the frequency of the signal varies.
This isn't good. A good output voltage level is one that remains constant as the frequency changes. The
equalization signal corrects this problem. Notice that when the input signal and the equalization signal
are combined they cancel each other out. This allows a nice flat (voltage versus frequency) output
signal to go to the output amplifier circuit.
This circuit takes the signal from the equalization and phase correction circuit and amplifies it for output.
It also matches the magnetic recorder's impedance to the output device that is used for listening or
recording.
FM RECORD ELECTRONICS
FM record electronics process signals to be recorded differently than direct record electronics. Instead
of recording the input signal just as it appears at the recorder's input, FM record electronics use the
input signal to vary (modulate) the carrier frequency of a record oscillator. The frequency modulated
output signal of the record oscillator then becomes the signal that's actually recorded onto the magnetic
media. Figure 5-4 shows a block diagram of the FM record electronics.
This circuit does two things: (a) it serves as an impedance matcher between the signal source and the
magnetic recorder, and (b) it pre-amplifies the input signal.
This circuit generates a carrier signal onto which the input signal will be modulated. The input signal is
used to vary (frequency modulate) the carrier signal. This is how the input signal gets frequency
modulated onto the carrier signal. The output of this circuit is the frequency-modulated carrier signal.
The center frequency of the carrier depends on two things: (a) the bandwidth of the signal you're
recording, and (b) the media onto which you're recording.
For magnetic tape, the carrier frequency can be as low as 1.688 kHz for an operating tape speed of 1-
7/8 inches per second, and as high as 900 kHz for 120 inches per second.
Head driver circuit. This circuit takes the frequency-modulated output from the record oscillator circuit,
amplifies it, and sends it to the magnetic head for recording. The output level of this circuit is set to be
just below the magnetic saturation point of the magnetic media.
FM REPRODUCE ELECTRONICS
The FM reproduce electronics work just like direct reproduce electronics, with one exception. FM
reproduce electronics must first demodulate the original input signal from the carrier frequency before
the intelligence can be sent to the output device for listening or analysis. Figure 5-5 shows a block
diagram of the FM reproduce electronics.
Pre-amplifier circuit.
This circuit takes the frequency modulated carrier frequency from the reproduce head and amplifies it.
Limiter/demodulator circuit.
This circuit takes the output of the preamplifier, stabilizes the amplitude level, and demodulates the
signal intelligence from the carrier frequency.
This circuit takes the signal intelligence from the limiter/demodulator circuit and cleans up any noise or
left over carrier signal.
This circuit takes the output from the low-pass filter and amplifies it for output. It also matches the
impedance of the magnetic recorder to the output device.
Q.1 What two types of record and reproduce electronics are used by magnetic tape recorders?
Q.2 The head driver circuit in a tape recorder's direct record electronics component (figure 5-1)
function?
Q.6 What is the major difference between direct reproduce electronics and FM reproduce
electronics?
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one to buy? Or, did you instead end up confused when the salesperson started spouting words like
SNR, flutter, and bandwidth. If so, you weren't alone.
This chapter (1) defines the seven most common magnetic tape recording specifications, (2) describes
their effect on the magnetic recording process, and (3) tells how to measure each specification. The
remaining paragraphs in this chapter describe each of the following magnetic tape recorder
specifications:
Signal-to-noise ratio
Frequency response
Harmonic distortion
Phase response
Flutter
Time-base error
Skew
SIGNAL-TO-NOISE RATIO
Signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) is the first magnetic tape recorder specification we'll describe. It's one of the
most important specifications of a magnetic tape recorder.
The SNR is the ratio of the normal signal level to the magnetic tape recorder's own noise level. It's
measured in decibels (dB). In other words, the higher the SNR of a magnetic tape recorder, the wider
the range of input signals it can properly record and reproduce.
The noise part of the signal-to-noise ratio is generated in the magnetic tape recorder itself. Although
noise can be generated by almost any part of the magnetic tape recorder, it's usually generated by
either the magnetic heads or the magnetic tape.
You can measure the SNR with a vacuum tube voltmeter (VTVM) and a signal generator. The
equipment set up for measuring the SNR is shown in figure 6-1. After equipment setup, measure the
SNR as follows:
Set the signal generator to inject a test signal into the tape recorder. The technical manual for the tape
recorder you're testing will tell you how to set up the signal generator.
While recording and reproducing, set the output level of the tape recorder's reproduce electronics to a
level that displays 0-dB reference on the VTVM.
Disconnect the signal generator. The voltage displayed on the VTVM will drop from 0-dB to some
negative dB level. This level is the magnetic tape recorder's SNR.
There are two things you should know when reading SNR specifications in technical manuals,
equipment brochures, etc.
First, the SNR is stated in three ways. You'll see it as (1) root-mean-square (RMS) signal-to-RMS
noise, (2) peak-to-peak signal-to-RMS noise, or (3) peak signal-to-RMS noise. If the SNR specification
doesn't state which way it was measured, you could be mislead. For example, a 25-dB RMS SNR is
equal to a 34-dB peak-to-peak signal-to-RMS noise ratio, or a 28-dB peak signal-to-RMS noise ratio.
Second, all SNR specifications should include the record level that was used. Since the SNR varies
directly to the record level, you could be mislead by a SNR that doesn't include the record level of the
test signal used when the SNR was measured.
Frequency response
The frequency-response specification of a magnetic tape recorder is sometimes called the bandwidth. A
typical frequency-response specification might read within + / - 3 db from 100 Hz to 100 kHz at 60 ips.
This means the magnetic tape recorder is capable of recording all frequencies between 100 Hz and 100
kHz at 60 inches per second (ips) without varying the output amplitude more than 3 dB.
FREQUENCY-RESPONSE DEFINITION
Frequency response is the amplitude variation with frequency over a specified bandwidth. Let's convert
this to plain English. The frequency-response specification of a magnetic tape recorder tells you the
range of frequencies the recorder can effectively record and reproduce. What exactly does the word
effectively mean? That's hard to say because Frequency response varies from recorder to recorder,
and from manufacturer to manufacturer. But a good rule of thumb is that an effective frequency-
response specification tells the lowest and highest frequencies that the recorder can record and
reproduce with no more than + / - 3-dB difference in output amplitude.
FREQUENCY-RESPONSE MEASUREMENT
The equipment setup for measuring the Frequency response of a magnetic tape recorder is the same
as for measuring the signal-to-noise ratio. It's shown in figure 6-1. After equipment setup, measure a
recorder's Frequency response as follows:
The magnetic record head transforms the electrical signal into a magnetic field for recording onto
magnetic tape. If the bias signal level is set to high, you might erase the higher frequencies. If it's too
low, you'll get excessive tape distortion.
The reproduce head transforms the magnetic field from the magnetic tape back into an electrical signal.
As explained in chapters 3 and 5, the head gap of a recorder's reproduce head and the operating
speed of the magnetic tape transport determine the wavelength of the reproduce head. The wavelength
determines the center frequency of a recorder's frequency-response specification. Once you pass this
center frequency, both below and above, the output voltage level of the recorder's reproduce head will
decrease. Figure 6-2 shows this. This is why the equalization circuits described in chapter 5, figure 5-
3,are used.
Poor tape-to-head contact can seriously degrade the record and reproduce process. Magnetic heads
are designed to reduce tape-to-head gap as much as possible. A tape-to-head gap is extremely
degrading at the higher frequencies. Figure 6-3 shows this. Note how a .1-mil gap causes only a small
loss at 10 kHz. But, at 1 MHz, it causes a 46-dB loss! You must maintain tape-to-head contact. Keeping
the magnetic tape recorder heads and tape transport clean is the best way to do this.
Which of the SNRs can record and reproduce the widest range of input signals and why?
Q.2 You plan to measure your tape recorder's SNR. What test equipment will you need?
Q.3 Technical manuals for tape recorders can state the SNR in what three different ways?
Q.4 The frequency-response specification of your tape recorder reads within +/- 3 dB from 150 Hz to
this indicate?
Q.6 List four factors that can degrade the Frequency response of magnetic tape recorders.
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This chapter introduces you to digital magnetic tape recording. It describes (1) the three formats for
digital magnetic tape recording, (2) the eight methods of encoding digital data onto magnetic tape, and
(3) the configuration differences between the three types of digital tape recorders.
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Until now, you've learned about magnetic tape recording from an analog point-of-view. That is, the Print (Hardcopy).
signal you record and reproduce is the actual analog input signal waveform. In digital magnetic tape
recording, the signal you record and reproduce is, instead, a series of digital pulses. These pulses are
called binary ones and zeros. These ones and zeros can represent one of three types of data: (1) data
used by digital computers, (2) pulsed square-wave signals, or (3) digitized analog waveforms.
The digital magnetic tape recording process stores data onto tape by magnetizing the tape to its
saturation point in one of two possible polarities: positive (+) or negative (-). The saturation point of
magnetic tape is the point where the magnetic tape is magnetized as much as it can be.
There are three digital magnetic tape recording formats: serial, parallel, and serial-parallel. Each of
these is described below. Figure 7-1 shows each of the three formats as they apply to recording an
eight-bit binary data stream.
This is the simplest of the three digital magnetic tape recording formats. It's usually used when
recording instrumentation or telemetry data.
In this format, the incoming data pulses are recorded onto a single recorder track of the magnetic tape
in a single, continuous stream. Figure 7-1A shows how this looks.
In this format, the incoming data pulses come in on more than one input channel and are recorded side-
by-side onto more than one tape track. The data pulses across the width of the magnetic tape are
related to each other. Figure 7-1B shows how this looks. This format is usually used to store computer
data.
This format is more complex. It takes a serial input stream of data pulses, breaks them up, and records
them on more than one recorder track. When the tape is reproduced, the recorder recombines the
broken-apart data into its original form. Figure 7-1C shows how this looks. The serial-parallel format is
usually used in instrumentation recording when the input data rate is high.
Before we describe the methods for encoding digital data onto magnetic tape, let's define the following
terms:
Mark: The voltage state of a digital one (1) data bit. It's also sometimes called true.
Space: The voltage state of a digital zero (0) data bit. It's also sometimes called false.
Bit-cell period: The time occupied by a single digital bit.
Packing density: The number of bits per fixed length of magnetic tape per track. There are three
categories of packing density:
Bit-error rate: The number of bits within a finite series of bits that will be reproduced incorrectly.
Q.1 In digital magnetic tape recording, the series of recorded digital pulses can represent what three
types of data?
Q.2 What three formats are used for digital magnetic tape recording?
Q.3 What format of digital tape recording is normally used to store computer data?
Q.4 What format of digital tape recording takes a serial input stream of data pulses, breaks them up,
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LEARNING OBJECTIVES
INTRODUCTION
(IBM) in 1956. It was developed to allow mainframe computers to store large amounts
of computer programs and data. This new technology eventually led to what's now
known as the computer revolution.
This chapter introduces you to the following aspects of magnetic disk recording:
There are two types of disk recording mediums: flexible diskettes and fixed (hard) disks.
The following paragraphs describe (1) how flexible and fixed disks are made; (2) how
data is organized on them; (3) how to handle, store, and ship them; (4) and how to
erase them.
Flexible diskettes, or floppy disks as they're more commonly called, are inexpensive,
flexible, and portable magnetic storage mediums. They have the following
characteristics.
Floppy disks are made of round plastic disks coated with magnetic oxide particles. The
disks are enclosed in a plastic jacket which protects the magnetic recording surface
from damage.
Floppy disks come in three sizes: 8 inch, 5 1/4 inch, and 3 1/2 inch. Figure 8-1 shows
each size. All disk sizes can either be single-sided or double-sided. Single-sided disks
store data on only one side of the disk; double-sided disks store data on both sides.
Floppy disks are also classified by how much data they can store.
This is called a disk's density. There are three levels of floppy disk density: single-
density, double-density , and high-density.
Some of the more common types of floppy disks and their storage capacity are listed
below:
Data is stored on a floppy disk in circular tracks. Figure 8-2 shows a circular track on a
floppy disk. The total number of tracks on a floppy disk is permanently set by (1) the
number of steps the disk drive's magnetic head stepper motor can make, and (2)
whether the disk drive has a magnetic head for one or both surfaces of the floppy disk.
These two things will also determine the type of floppy disk that's needed. Each type of
disk is rated with a number that represents how many tracks per inch (TPI) it can hold.
Some common track capacities are 40, 48, 80, and 96 TPI.
Each track of a floppy disk is broken up into arcs called sectors. A disk is sectored just
as you'd slice an apple pie. Figure 8-2 shows the sectors of a floppy disk.
How many slices are made? That depends on who made the disk and in what host
computer the disk is used.
Hard Sectoring: This method sectors the disk physically. The disk itself will have marks
or sensor holes on it that the floppy disk drive hardware can detect. This method is
seldom used today.
Soft sectoring: This method sectors the disk logically. The computer software
determines the sector size and placement, and then slices
the disk into sectors by writing codes on the disk. This is called formatting or initializing
a floppy disk. During formatting, if the computer software locates a bad spot on the disk,
it locks it out to prevent the bad spot from being used. Soft sectoring is by far the most
popular method of sectoring a floppy disk.
Once a floppy disk is formatted, the computer uses the disk's side number, a track
number, and a sector number (together) as an address. It's this address that locates
where on the disk the computer will store the data.
Floppy disks hold a lot of data. Even disks with only a 360,000-byte storage capacity
can hold 180 pages of data! That's why it's important to handle, store, and ship floppy
disks properly. One hundred and eighty pages of data is a lot of data to retype just
because of carelessness.
Before we get into disk handling and storage procedures, let's first learn about head-to-
disk contact. Do you remember reading in chapter 2 that the quality of magnetic tape
recording is seriously degraded when dust, dirt, or other contaminates get between the
magnetic head and the tape? Well, the same is true for magnetic disk recording. In fact,
head-to-disk contact is extremely important with floppy disks. This is because floppy
disk drives, unlike magnetic tape drives, spin at very high speeds - 300 to 600
revolutions-per-minute (RPM). If anything gets between the head and the recording
surface, you can lose data, or even worse, you can damage the magnetic head and the
disk's recording surface. Figure 8-3 shows the size relationship between a disk drive's
magnetic head, the disk recording surface, and some common contaminants.
Figure 8-3. - Size relationship of distance between head and disk to contaminants.
You must handle, store, and ship floppy disks with great care if you want them to stay in
good condition. Here's some specific precautions you should take:
DO always store 8" and 5-1/4" floppy
disks in their envelopes when not in use.
Dirt, dust, etc., can get on the recording
surface through the magnetic head
read/write access hole if you leave it
exposed for any length of time.
DO always write on a floppy disk label
first, and then place the label on the
disk. NEVER write directly on a floppy
disk. If you absolutely must write on a
disk, use a felt-tip marker.
DO hold floppy disks by their outside
corners only. DO NOT bend them. And
NEVER, NEVER paper clip them to
anything, or anything to them.
DO always store floppy disks in an
upright position.
Laying them on their side can cause
them to warp.
DO always keep floppy disks away from
food, liquids, and cigarette smoke. All of
these can easily damage floppy disks.
DO always ship floppy disks in
appropriate shipping containers.
When shipping only a few disks, use the
specially designed cardboard shipping
envelopes. If you must ship a large
number of disks, make sure the box you
use is sturdy enough to protect the disks
from damage. A good rule of thumb is to
use a shipping box that allows you to
place 2 inches of packing material
around the disks.
DO NOT touch any exposed recording
surfaces. Something as simple as a
fingerprint can destroy the data on a
floppy disk.
DO NOT expose a floppy disk to
magnetic fields. Telephones, magnetic
copy holders, printers, and other
electronic equipment generate magnetic
fields that can destroy the data on a
floppy disk.
DO NOT expose floppy disks to extreme
heat or cold. Floppy disks will last longer
if they're stored in an environment that
stays around 70-80 degrees Farenheit
and 30-60 percent relative humidity.
Floppy Disk Erasing
There are two ways to erase a floppy disk: (1) degauss it and then reformat it, or (2) just
reformat it. The process for degaussing floppy disks is the same as for degaussing
magnetic tape. Refer back to chapter 2 for the details on this.
If the floppy disks were used to store classified, or unclassified but sensitive information,
they can't be de-classified by erasing them. This is because, with the right equipment
and software, the data that was on the disk can be reconstructed. Floppy disks are
cheap and easy to replace. If you can't re-use the floppy disks to store other classified
data, just destroy them, using the procedures in OPNAVINST 5510.1, DON Information
and Personnel Security Program Regulation.
Q.2 What type of floppy disk is made to store data on both sides of the disk?
Q.5 The floppy disks you are using have a rating of 96 TPI. What does this mean?
Q.6 The process of formatting a floppy disk is called what type of sectoring?
Q.7 What three components determine the address that locates where on a floppy disk
Q.8 Why should you always store floppy disks in their envelopes?
Q.9 Why should you never place floppy disks near telephones or other electronic
..
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LEARNING OBJECTIVES
OPTICAL FIBERS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Chapter 1 taught you that a fiber optic data link has three basic
functions.
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One function is that a fiber optic data link must convert an electrical information in
signal to an optical signal permitting the transfer of data along an Print (Hardcopy).
optical fiber.