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PowerElectronics PDF
PowerElectronics PDF
INDEX
10 Cornerstones...................2 dc-dc converters ......9, 10, 11 Kirchoffs current law .........2 root mean square ............... 19
1-phase bipolar inverter.....11 decibel .................................3 Kirchoffs voltage law.........2 rpm
3-phase inverter .................14 delta-wye transformer..........8 KVL ....................................2 induction motor............ 16
3-phase power and dependent variable.............20 L inductance .......................3 s slip................................. 16
commutation......................7 derivatives .........................19 LHpitols rule.................20 S.S. capacitor principle ....... 2
3-phase PWM inverter.......14 diode current........................8 LC tank circuit ....................3 S.S. inductor principle......... 2
3-phase rectifier ...................7 distortion .............................2 linear range........................12 series ................................. 20
3-phase Thvenin equivalent duty cycle ............................9 linearizing an equation ......20 single-phase bridge rectifier 6
...........................................8 E electric field ..................20 ma amplitude modulation slip .................................... 16
with .............................8 efficiency of induction motor ratio .................................12 slip frequency.................... 16
3-phase voltage and .........................................17 magnitude..........................18 slip speed .......................... 16
commutation..................7, 8 electric motors...................15 Maxwell's equations..........20 space-time ......................... 18
air gap flux ........................16 Euler's equation .................19 mf frequency modulation sphere................................ 20
amp......................................3 even function.......................4 ratio .................................12 square wave
Ampere's law .....................20 farad ....................................3 minimum inductance...........9 Fourier series ................. 5
amplitude modulation ratio12 Faraday's law.....................20 model square wave inverter ......... 11
area Fourier series...............2, 4, 5 induction motor............15 starting torque ................... 15
sphere ...........................20 square wave....................5 motor step-down converter.......... 10
average ................................2 frequency domain..............20 induction motor............16 step-up converter............... 10
average value.....................19 frequency modulation ratio12 newton.................................3 synchronous pulse width
B magnetic flux dens. ......20 fsl slip frequency ...............16 ns synchronous speed .......16 modulation ...................... 12
binomial expansion............20 full bridge converter ..........11 odd function ........................4 synchronous speed ............ 16
binomial theorem...............20 Gauss' law .........................20 overmodulation .................12 tank circuit .......................... 3
bipolar inverter ..................12 general math ......................18 parallel resistance ................3 temperature ......................... 3
bridge rectifier .....................6 generalized harmonics PF power factor..................3 tesla ..................................... 3
buck converter ...................10 1-phase .........................13 3-phase rectifier .............9 THD .................................... 2
buck-boost converter ...10, 11 3-phase .........................14 phase .................................18 Thvenin equivalent............ 7
C capacitance......................3 graph paper........................21 phase current .......................8 3-phase........................... 8
calculus..............................19 graphing terminology ........20 phasor notation..................18 with ....................... 8
capacitance ..........................3 H magnetic field ...............20 plotting I1 ............................8 three-phase rectifier ............ 7
capacitor ..............................2 half-wave rectifier ...............5 plotting iA ............................8 time domain ...................... 20
CF crest factor ....................2 harmonics plotting paper ....................21 time-average...................... 18
commutation generalized, 1-phase.....13 plotting V1 ...........................8 time-averaged power......... 18
3-phase power ................7 generalized, 3-phase.....14 plotting Vdc ..........................8 time-harmonic ................... 20
3-phase voltage ..........7, 8 henry ...................................3 power ..................................2 torque ................................ 15
power..............................6 Hoft .....................................2 electric motor ...............15 constant........................ 17
voltage............................6 horsepower ..........................3 power and commutation......6 starting ......................... 15
commutation interval...........6 hyperbolic functions..........20 power factor ........................3 trigonometric identities ..... 19
complex conjugate.............18 I1 ..........................................8 3-phase rectifier .............9 u commutation interval ...... 6
complex numbers ..............18 iA rectifier current ...............8 pull out ..............................15 unibipolar inverter............. 12
conjugate independent variable .........20 pulse width modulation units .................................... 3
complex........................18 inductance ...........................3 synchronous .................12 V1 ........................................ 8
constant torque ..................17 induction motor .................16 pulse width modulation in Vdc ....................................... 8
constant volts/Hz ...............17 induction motor model ......15 inverters...........................12 vi relationship...................... 2
converter inductor ...............................2 PWM pulse width volt ...................................... 3
buck..............................10 LC tank circuit ...............3 modulation ......................12 voltage and commutation .... 6
buck-boost..............10, 11 integration .........................19 PWM inverter volts/Hz ratio..................... 17
Ck...............................11 inverter ........................11, 14 3-phase.........................14 volume
dc-dc...................9, 10, 11 3-phase .........................14 rectifier sphere........................... 20
step-down .....................10 bipolar ..........................11 three-phase.....................7 watt ..................................... 3
step-up..........................10 harmonic voltage..........13 rectifiers ..............................5 weber................................... 3
coulomb...............................3 pulse width modulation 12 resistance wye-delta transformer ......... 8
crest factor ...........................2 J current density ...............20 in parallel .......................3 ag air gap flux ................. 16
Ck converter ....................11 joule.....................................3 resistor.................................2 efficiency of induction
D electric flux dens...........20 KCL.....................................2 rms ................................2, 19 motor............................... 17
dB decibels .........................3 kelvin...................................3 square wave .................19 volume charge dens. .... 20
dc...................................2, 19 Kimbark's equations ............7 rms harmonic voltage in sl slip speed .................... 16
dc-ac inverters .............11, 14 with .............................7 inverters...........................13
2. KCL
10. FOURIER SERIES
Kirchoffs Current Law. The current entering a node is
equal to the current leaving the node. This is also true In the 1820s, Fourier came out with a 1-page paper on
in both the instantaneous and average (integrate over his Fourier series. A periodic function may be
one cycle) sense. described as an infinite sum of sines and cosines.
DISTORTION [%]
4. vi CAPACITOR
The voltage to current relationship in a capacitor. Distortion is the degree to which a signal differs from
its fundamental frequency.
dv RMS value of harmonics for k > 1
i=C THD =
dt RMS value of fundamental frequency k = 1
5. vi INDUCTOR Vdis
%THD = 100
The voltage to current relationship in a inductor. Vrms1
di
2
Vrms Vrms1
2
v=L = 100
dt Vrms1
Use the polar form of the Fourier Series, see p4.
6. AVERAGE (DC) AND RMS Vdis = rms voltage distortion [V]
Average and dc will be synonymous in this class, but Vrms1 = fundamental frequency rms voltage [V]
are not the same as rms. Vrms = rms voltage [V]
THD = Total Harmonic Distortion [V]
1 t0 +T 1 t0 +T 2
v ( t ) dt v ( t ) dt
T t0 T t0
vavg = vrms =
CREST FACTOR [no units]
The crest factor quantifies the smoothness of the
waveform and is related to the weight of its impact on
7. POWER
components. For DC and a square wave the crest
We are concerned with both instantaneous and factor is 1, for a sine wave, it is 1.414. A large crest
average power. As with rms values, power is related factor means the wave is not as efficient at delivering
to heating. energy.
1 t0 +T Vpeak
Pavg = p ( t ) dt p (t ) = v (t ) i (t ) CF =
T t0 Vrms
p(t) = instantaneous power [W]
L INDUCTANCE [H]
DECIBELS [dB]
i( t ) = I f + ( I o I f )e t / +
A log based unit of energy that makes it easier to v L
v ( t ) = V f + (Vo V f )e t / R
describe exponential losses, etc. The decibel means
-
10 bels, a unit named after Bell Laboratories. where = L/ R
voltage or current 1 t
L = 20 log
reference voltage or current
v L ( t ) = L dtdi I L (t ) =
L 0
v d + I o
power
L = 10 log LC TANK CIRCUIT
reference power
Resonant frequency:
C L 1
UNITS, electrical f =
2 LC
I (current in amps) = q = W = J = N m = V C
s V V s V s s
J N m W s PARALLEL RESISTANCE
q (charge in coulombs) = I s = V C = = =
V V V I never can remember the
formula for two resistances in R1 R2
2 2
R1 || R2 =
C (capacitance in farads) = q = q = q = J = I s parallel. I just do it the hard R1 + R2
V J N m V 2 V way.
H (inductance in henrys) = V s (note that HF = s 2 )
I
2
J (energy in joules) = N m = V q = W s = I V s = C V 2 = q
C
J qV W s kg m
N (force in newtons) = = = = 2
m m m s
Wb V s H I
T (magnetic flux density in teslas) =
2
= 2 = 2
m m m
V (electric potential in volts) =
W J J W s N m q
= = = = =
I q I s q q C
W (power in watts) =
J N m qV C V 2 1
= = = V I = = HP
s s s s 746
Wb (magnetic flux in webers) = H I = V s = J
I
Temperature: [C or K] 0C = 273.15K
where s is seconds
where
bk
Fk = ak2 + bk2 , k = tan 1
ak
2 t0 +T
f ( t ) cos nt dt
T t0
ak =
2 t0 +T
bk = f ( t ) sin nt dt
T t0
0 i (t)
L
+ + vL -
Vm sin t ~ vd RL
-
di
vL = L
dt
While current is flowing through the diode, there is zero
voltage across the diode. When current flow stops at angle
, the voltage across the diode becomes negative
(discontinuous). Since the average (dc) voltage at the
source is zero and the average voltage across an inductor is
zero, the average voltage across RL is the negative of the
average voltage across the diode.
1 2
2
Vdiode = Vm sin d = VR avg
1 T /2
VR avg = I sc RL VR avg =
T 0
Vm sin t dt
Vd = Vm sin b 2Ls I d
With trigger: cos ( + u ) = cos
Vm
did
vL = L = Vm sin ( t ) Vd = the supply frequency [rad./sec.]
dt Ls = the supply inductance [H]
f
0= Vm sin ( t ) Vd d ( t ) Id = the (constant) load current [A]
b Vm = the peak input voltage [V]
Equal
in area vs
Vd POWER AND COMMUTATION
In order to have power, the commutation interval must
not be zero.
2
id
Id
Pd =
Vm
2Ls
(1 cos 2 u )
KIMBARK'S EQUATIONS
Kimbark's equations give the average current, voltage,
and power of a 3-phase rectifier as a function of the
commutation interval u.
0
VLLp
t
I dc = (1 cos u )
3
st
1 :
2L u
3VLLp
nd
2 : Vdc = (1 + cos u ) 1 u 3
2 Vdc = 0 V cos d + 6
VLLp cos d
/3
LLp
2
{ 2 u
(1 cos u )
3VLLp 6
rd
3 : Pdc = 2 60
4L
VLLp = peak line-to-line voltage [V]
= the supply frequency [rad./sec.]
L = the load inductance [H]
u = the commutation interval [degrees]
DT t
T
discontinuous operation
VoT 2 (1 D)
Vo = BUCK-BOOST CONVERTER 1
8 LC The buck-boost converter provides a reversed polarity
Minimum Capacitance: The expressions for finding the output and enables the output voltage to be above or
value of the filter capacitor are derived from the relation below the input voltage.
V = Q/C, where Q is current time.
+ iL + -
I T
C= L Vd L vL C Vo RL
8 Vo -
+
D = duty cycle [no units] - +
Vo = output voltage (average) [V] io
Vo = output ripple voltage (peak to peak) [V]
Vo
Vd = input voltage [V]
Duty Cycle: D=
T = period 1/f [s] Vo + Vd
Lmin = minimum inductance for continuous operation [H]
IL = the difference between the maximum and minimum Minimum inductance:
TVo TV
current in the inductor. For continuous operation, this is
Lmin = (1 D ) = o (1 D )
2
twice the average load current. [A]
2I o 2I L
L = inductance [H]
C = capacitance [F] Vo DT
Ripple voltage: Vo =
RL C
Vd = supply voltage [V]
Vo = average output voltage [V]
IL = average current through the inductor [A]
Io = average output current [A]
v1rms 2 vk rms
Ripple current: iripple peak =
0 L
k >1 k
???
t
t control
waveform
V
output
fs = switching frequency [rad./s or Hz] waveform
f1 = control frequency or modulating frequency [rad./s or Hz]
t
ma AMPLITUDE MODULATION RATIO
The ratio of the control signal amplitude to the triangle
wave amplitude in an inverter circuit.
Vcontrol
ma =
Vtri PULSE WIDTH MODULATION IN
UNIPOLAR INVERTERS
When ma < 1, the inverter is operating in the linear range as
shown in the figure below. When in the linear range, the The relationship between the triangle wave, the
frequency harmonics are in the area of the switching control waveform, and the output waveform for a
frequency and its multiples. A drawback is that the unipolar inverter operating in the linear range is shown
maximum available amplitude of the fundamental frequency below. The square wave output can be produced
is limited due to the notches in the output waveform (see the using a comparator to compare the triangle wave with
next box). the sine wave.
When ma 1, the inverter is in overmodulation. This causes triangle
V wave
more side harmonics in the output waveform.
V inverted
control
waveform
t
t control
waveform
V
output
Vcontrol = peak amplitude of the control signal. The signal waveform
vh rms = v1rms
( GH h ) 2mf 3 0.024 0.071 0.139 0.212
mf = frequency modulation ratio, the ratio of the triangle 3mf 0.335 0.123 0.083 0.171 0.113
wave frequency to the control waveform frequency [no 3mf 2 0.044 0.139 0.203 0.176 0.062
units] 3mf 4 0.012 0.047 0.104 0.157
h = the harmonic (integer)
Vdc = dc supply voltage [V] 3mf 6 0.016 0.044
(GHh) = value from the generalized harmonics table for the 4mf 1 0.163 0.157 0.008 0.105 0.068
th
h harmonic
4mf 3 0.012 0.070 0.132 0.115 0.009
(GHh=1) = value from the generalized harmonics table for
the h = 1 (fundamental) harmonic. In the case of single- 4mf 5 0.034 0.084 0.119
phase, this is the same as ma. 4mf 7 0.017 0.050
1 1 3mf 2
2 0.027 0.085 0.124 0.108 0.038
1 1 1
2) 2
1 + 2 + 2 + 2 + L = 2 3mf 4 0.007 0.029 0.064 0.096
3 3 5 7 3 8
4mf 1 0.100 0.096 0.005 0.064 0.042
1) 2) =
4mf 5 0.021 0.051 0.073
1 1 1 1 2 2
1 + 2 + 2 + 2 + L = 1 2 = 2 4mf 7 0.010 0.030
5 7 11 3 8 3
1 1 1 2
so that + + +L = 1
52 7 2 112 9
2Vdc 2
and iripple peak = 1
0 L 9
Torque ; k1 ( speed )
2
ns = synchronous speed [rpm] Ns = the equivalent number of turns per phase of the stator
s = synchronous speed [rad./sec.] winding
f = frequency of the applied voltage [Hz] Lm = magnetizing inductance [H]
p = number of poles in the motor [integer] im = magnetizing current [A]
k3 = some constant
f = frequency of the applied voltage [Hz]
s SLIP [rad./rad.] Eag = air gap voltage, voltage across the magnetizing
The difference between the synchronous speed and inductance Lm [V]
the rotor speed, normalized to be unitless. The slip
can range from near 0 under no-load conditions to 1
at locked rotor. In other words, the slip is the
fractional loss of rotation speed experienced by the
rotor in relation to the speed of the rotating magnetic
field. If the rotor is moving at the speed of the
magnetic field, then the slip is .
s r
s=
s
sl Slip Speed: The difference between the synchronous
speed and the rotor speed (unnormalized) is the slip speed.
sl = s r
fsl Slip Frequency: Induced voltages in the rotor will be at
the slip frequency, proportional to the slip
f sl = sf
s = synchronous speed [rad./sec.]
sl = slip speed [rad./sec.]
r = rotor speed [rad./sec.]
EFFICIENCY
The efficiency is the power delivered divided by the
power supplied.
1 s
Rr
=
Pmech
= s
; 1 s
Psupplied R
Rs + r
s s 0
Rr = rotor resistance []
Rs = stator resistance []
s = slip [rad./rad.]
P (t ) = v ( t ) i (t ) watts
T 0
Re{V I * } watts
1
P (t ) =
2
T = period [s]
V = voltage in the phasor domain [s]
I* = complex conjugate of the phasor domain current [A]
p 2 1
sin 2 = sin cos cos 2 = 1 2 sin 2
The plot below shows a sine wave and its rms value, along
2
with the intermediate steps of squaring the sine function and sin ( a b ) = sin a cos b cos a sin b
taking the mean value of the square. Notice that for this
type of function, the mean value of the square is the peak
value of the square.
CALCULUS - DERIVATIVES
d u v u u v
dx
= 2
d u
u
dx e = u e
v v
dx a = a ln a
d x x d u
x
dx a = u a ln a
1 u
d
dx
ln x = d
dx
ln u =
x u
d
dx sin u = u cos u
dx cos u = u sin u
d
CALCULUS - INTEGRATION
In an electrical circuit, rms terms are associated with heating
x n +1
= + = +C
n
or power. Given a voltage or current waveform, the rms dx x C x dx
value is obtain by 1) squaring the waveform, 2) finding the n +1
area under the waveform (integrating) over the length of one
1 u
e dx = u e + C xe dx = ( x 1) e + C
cycle, 3) dividing by the period, and 4) taking the square root u x x
of the result.
1 t0 +T 2
f ( t )rms = f ( t ) dt
T t0
eax
xe dx =
ax
( ax 1) + C
a2
The rms value differs from the average or dc value in that
1 1
x dx = ln x + C a dx = ln a a +C
the dc value is the average of the original waveform and the x x
rms value is the square root of the average of the square of
the waveform.
1 1
sin u dx = u cos u cos u dx = u sin u
RMS OF A SQUARE WAVE
sin u du = 12 u 14 sin 2u + C
2
Vp
Vrms
cos u du = 12 u + 14 sin 2u + C
2
u dv = uv v du
DT t Integration by parts:
T
Vrms = V p D
EULER'S EQUATION
e j = cos + j sin