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Abstract: Disease models are essential for understanding cardiovascular disease pathogenesis and developing
new therapeutics. The human induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC) technology has generated significant
enthusiasm for its potential application in basic and translational cardiac research. Patient-specific iPSC-derived
cardiomyocytes offer an attractive experimental platform to model cardiovascular diseases, study the earliest
stages of human development, accelerate predictive drug toxicology tests, and advance potential regenerative
therapies. Harnessing the power of iPSC-derived cardiomyocytes could eliminate confounding species-specific
and interpersonal variations and ultimately pave the way for the development of personalized medicine for
cardiovascular diseases. However, the predictive power of iPSC-derived cardiomyocytes as a valuable model is
contingent on comprehensive and rigorous molecular and functional characterization.(Circ Res. 2015;117:80-88.
DOI: 10.1161/CIRCRESAHA.117.305365.)
Key Words: cardiovascular diseases cardiovascular disease modeling induced pluripotent stem cells
myocytes, cardiac precision medicine
Induced Pluripotent Stem CellDerived models are particularly important for cardiovascular research
Cardiomyocytes: A New and Versatile Human because the physiology of animal models is different from hu-
In Vitro Cardiomyocyte Model man cardiomyocytes. Particularly, considerable differences
Recent advances in genomics and molecular medicine prom- exist between cardiomyocytes from small animal models and
ise to revolutionize human health by enabling more precise human cardiomyocytes, including beating rates, energetics,
prediction, prevention, and treatment of cardiovascular diseas- Ca2+ cycling, myofilament composition, expression of key ion
es on an individual level.1 This precision medicine approach channels, and cellular electrophysiology. These differences in
is based on the ability to diagnose and stratify patients into physiology are substantially less between humans and large
different treatment groups by correlating a patients genotype animal models such as nonhuman primates, pigs, and dogs.3
with their cellular phenotype, and uncover how the genetic The recent advent of the human induced pluripotent stem
differences among people could influence their responses to cell (iPSC) technology,4 and an increasingly refined capacity
therapies. However, realizing this potential requires the devel- to differentiate iPSCs into disease-relevant cell types such
opment of accurate disease models. Models that recapitulate as cardiomyocytes (iPSC-CMs),5 provides an unprecedent-
individual patients disease at the molecular and cellular level ed opportunity for the generation of human patient-specific
could lead to a better understanding of the disease progression cells for use in disease modeling, personalized drug screen-
and pathogenesis and ultimately enable the prediction of indi- ing, and regenerative approaches toward precision medi-
vidual patients responses to targeted treatments. cine.6,7 Implementation of this unique and clinically relevant
Disease models have been and will continue to be in- model system presents a significant advantage in cardiovas-
strumental in providing important insights into the molecu- cular research as it can circumvent complications in translat-
lar basis of cardiovascular development and disease.2 The ing data from models across different species and biological
knowledge gained from studying transgenic animals and characteristics.
transformed cell lines has already been successfully applied iPSC-CMs offer several advantages over current in vitro
to understand human cardiovascular disease. Nevertheless, models such as immortalized cell lines, human cadaveric tis-
this translation would be significantly strengthened by the sue, and primary cultures of nonhuman animal origin. First,
availability of patient-specific in vitro models. Human-based the derivation of iPSC-CMs is at most minimally invasive
Original received March 1, 2015; revision received May 20, 2015; accepted May 22, 2015. In April 2015, the average time from submission to first
decision for all original research papers submitted to Circulation Research was 13.84 days.
From the Stanford Cardiovascular Institute (I.K., M.A., V.T., J.C.W.), Department of Medicine, Division of Cardiovascular Medicine (I.K., V.T., J.C.W.),
and Institute of Stem Cell Biology and Regenerative Medicine (J.C.W.), Stanford University School of Medicine, CA.
Correspondence to Ioannis Karakikes, PhD, or Joseph C. Wu, MD, PhD, Stanford Cardiovascular Institute, Stanford University School of Medicine, 265
Campus Dr, Room G1120B, Stanford, CA 94305. E-mail ioannis1@stanford.edu or joewu@stanford.edu
2015 American Heart Association, Inc.
Circulation Research is available at http://circres.ahajournals.org DOI: 10.1161/CIRCRESAHA.117.305365
80
Karakikes et al Current Status of iPSC-Derived Cardiomyocytes 81
Figure 1. Current applications of patient-specific induced pluripotent stem cellderived cardiomyocyte (iPSC-CM) technology.
iPSC-CMs have been used for disease modeling of inherited cardiomyopathies and channelopathies, regenerative therapies, drug
discovery, and cardiotoxicity testing, as well as for studying metabolic abnormalities and cardiac development.
harboring deleterious mutation that recapitulated key disease progressive lengthening of 3-dimensional iPSC-CM tissues
aspects of HCM, DCM, and LQT syndromes.8,9,1115,21,22 Such that mimics heart growth during development further im-
models are currently being used to decipher the complex geno- proved cell alignment and increased sarcomeric ultrastructural
typephenotype relationships and to determine disease effects organization.47 Despite these advances, the contractile proper-
of specific genetic variants. ties of iPSC-CMs and engineered tissues remain at rudimen-
tary levels.4750
Ultrastructural Features
To maximize the potential applications of iPSC-CMs in car- Electrophysiological Phenotypes and Ion
diovascular medicine, it is essential for these cells to recapitu- Channel Function
late the ultrastructural properties of adult cardiomyocytes. It Comprehensive analyses of the electrophysiological proper-
has been reported that early stage iPSC-CMs are small mor- ties of iPSC-CMs have been reported. Based on the action
phologically and exhibit an immature ultrastructure closely potential (AP) phenotypes recorded in isolated cells, iPSC-
resembling that of fetal CMs (ie, absence of T-tubules and CMs consist of a heterogeneous population categorized as
underdeveloped contractile machinery).4345 However, on atrial-, nodal-, or ventricular-like.15,34,5153 However, cell cul-
prolonged culture, there were significant improvements in ture conditions and differentiation protocols may influence
myofibril alignment, density, and morphology showing adult- these AP properties, possibly undermining the correctness of
like appearance of Z-disks, A-bands, I-bands, and H-zones, this classification.54,55 Although the direct electrophysiologi-
although no clear M-bands or T-tubules were observed.44,45 cal comparison between iPSC-CMs and human adult CMs
Similarly, by combining bioengineering approaches with is challenging because of experimental discrepancies, tissue
electric stimulation, Nunes et al46 developed a platform called heterogeneity, and disease status, it is well documented that
biowire that enables the generation of iPSC-CMs with ultra- iPSC-CMs display mixed AP phenotypes characterized by
structural properties similar to those seen in the native CMs. The relatively positive maximum diastolic potential and slower
Karakikes et al Current Status of iPSC-Derived Cardiomyocytes 83
Figure 2. Expression of key structural and functional genes in induced pluripotent stem cellderived cardiomyocytes (iPSC-CMs).
A, Schematic of the major structural and functional features of iPSC-CMs. In adult CMs, on membrane depolarization a small amount of Ca2+
influx induced by activation of voltage-dependent L-type Ca2+ channels (CACNAC1) triggers the release of Ca2+ from the sarcoplasmic reticulum
(SR) through the ryanodine receptors (ryanodine receptor 2 [RYR2]), termed Ca2+-induced Ca2+-release mechanism. The released Ca2+ ions diffuse
through the cytosolic space and bind to troponin C (TNNC1), resulting in the release of inhibition induced by troponin I (TNNI3), which activates the
sliding of thin and thick filaments, and lead to cardiac contraction. Recovery occurs as Ca2+ is extruded by the Na2+/Ca2+ exchanger (NCX1) and
returned to the SR by the sarco(endo)plasmic Ca2+-ATPase pumps on the nonjunctional region of the SR that are regulated by phospholamban
(PLN). This process is conserved in iPSC-CMs, but major differences exist, such as a nascent SR, the presence of an inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate
releasable Ca2+ pool, and the complete absence of T-tubules. The genes encoding the major transmembrane ion channels involved in the generation
of action potential are also shown. B, Immunofluorescence staining of cardiac troponin T and -sarcomeric actinin in iPSC-CMs. C, Line-scan
images and spontaneous Ca2+ transients in iPSC-CMs. ACTC1 indicates actin, , cardiac muscle 1; CACNA1C, calcium channel, voltage-
dependent, L type, 1C subunit; IPTR3, inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate receptor, type 3; KCNH2, potassium voltage-gated channel, subfamily H
(eag-related), member 2; KCNIP2, potassium channelinteracting protein 2; KCNJ2, potassium inwardly rectifying channel, subfamily J, member
2; KCNQ1, potassium voltage-gated channel, KQT-like subfamily, member 1; MYBPC3, myosin binding protein C; MYH6, myosin, heavy chain 6,
; MYH7, myosin, heavy chain 7, ; MYL2, myosin, light chain 2; MYL3, myosin, light chain 3; SCN5A, sodium channel, voltage-gated, type V, -
subunit; SERCA2, SR Ca2+-ATPase 2; TNNI3, troponin I type 3; TNNT2, troponin T type 2; TTN, titin; and TPM1, tropomyosin 1 ().
84Circulation ResearchJune 19, 2015
have been focused on using electric or mechanical stimulation pathways that may provide therapeutic relevance consistent
that seems to promote electrophysiological maturation.46-50 with the clinical type 2 diabetes mellitus subtype.61 However,
Future studies are clearly needed to characterize in detail the the genetic and the epigenetic basis underlying the observed
electrophysiological properties of iPSC-CMs at both single- cellular phenotypes and differential response to treatments
cell and tissue levels. were not examined. Similarly, by combining bioengineer-
ing and gene editing approaches, Wang et al62 modeled Barth
Excitation Contraction Coupling and Calcium syndrome (BTHS), an X-linked cardiac and skeletal mito-
Handling chondrial myopathy caused by mutation of the gene encod-
Myocardial contraction and relaxation are coordinated on a ing Tafazzin (TAZ). BTHS iPSC-CMs displayed an impaired
beat-to-beat basis by the orchestrated cycling of calcium from biogenesis of cardiolipin, a major phospholipid of the mito-
the cytoplasm, SR, and the sarcomere through excitation chondria. Subsequently, a novel mechanism was discovered
contraction coupling.59 Extensive characterization of sponta- showing that the TAZ deficiency in BTHS markedly increased
neous whole-cell [Ca2+]i transients in iPSC-CMs suggests the reactive oxygen species production, and that suppression of
presence of functional excitationcontraction coupling that reactive oxygen species reversed the BTHS cardiomyopathic
resembles the native myocardium.41 Specifically, it has been phenotype in iPSC-CMs.
demonstrated that Ca2+ influx via the depolarization-activated
L-type Ca2+ channels triggered a marked release of the SR Ca2+ Conclusions and Future Perspectives
stores via the Ca2+ sensitive ryanodine SR receptors, recapitu- The recent advent of iPSC-CM technology has enabled the
lating the Ca2+-induced Ca2+-release phenomenon in iPSC- modeling of human cardiovascular disease phenotypes, drug
CMs,41,46 a key mechanism underlying excitationcontraction screening, and the development of regenerative approaches,
coupling.59 Of note, iPSC-CM cultured on microgrooved sub- representing a technological breakthrough that could be trans-
strates displayed significantly improved Ca2+ cycling and more lated into revolutionary diagnostic and therapeutic modalities
organized SR Ca2+ release in response to caffeine, suggesting for individual patients. Patient-specific iPSC-CMs provide
that SR Ca2+ cycling properties can be influenced by culture a novel human-based experimental platform to recapitulate
conditions.40 In catecholaminergic polymorphic ventricular key features of human cardiomyocyte biology. To date, the
tachycardia, an inherited disease characterized by stress- detailed characterization of patient-specific iPSC-CMs has re-
induced ventricular arrhythmias, iPSC-CMbased modeling vealed that they share molecular, electrophysiological, meta-
also supports the presence of functional SR and ryanodine bolic, mechanical, and ultrastructural properties with primary
receptor Ca2+ transients.17 However, the Ca2+ handling kinet- human cardiomyocytes, but also exhibit diverse functional
ics in iPSC-CMs seem to be relatively slow and characterized characteristics resembling fetal rather than adult cardiomyo-
by a U-shape Ca2+ waveform, suggesting that iPSC-CMs have cytes. The structure and function of iPSC-CMs can be further
an immature Ca2+-induced Ca2+-release mechanism.60 Indeed, enhanced by prolonged culture and bioengineering approach-
iPSC-CMs exhibit a poorly developed SR and absence of es, but the factors and signaling pathways affecting maturation
T-tubules that likely affect their Ca2+ handling properties.43,44 are incompletely understood. Diverse epigenetic processes,
including long-noncoding RNA,63 microRNAs,64,65 chroma-
Metabolic Profile tin and histone proteins,66,67 and DNA methylation,68,69 have
Various studies have demonstrated that iPSC-CMs have a emerged as critical modulators of cardiac gene expression in
metabolic phenotype that resembles embryonic cardiomyo- development and disease. Hence, future studies using high-
cytes, which mostly rely on glycolysis for energy production throughput omic technologies63 will be essential to unravel
instead of lipid oxidation as seen in adult ventricular myo- the genetic and epigenetic mechanisms involved in shaping
cytes. Strategies to facilitate metabolic maturation have been the phenotype of iPSC-CMs. A better understanding of the
developed, including culturing iPSC-CMs with an adipogenic underlying mechanisms could potentially lead to the develop-
cocktail19 or glucose-free medium61 and tissue engineering ment of strategies to create cardiomyocytes with mature-like
approaches.62 These approaches were able to yield advanced phenotypes. The functional maturation is indeed a desirable
levels of metabolic phenotype maturation, as evidenced by phenotype, but it is important to acknowledge that a pheno-
significant increases of fatty acid -oxidation.19,61,62 type resembling the adult cardiomyocytes might not be attain-
By enhancing iPSC-CM metabolic maturation, iPSC-CMs able in in vitro cell culture conditions. It is also important to
have been used to recapitulate key features of mitochondrial recognize that the relatively immature phenotype of the iPSC-
disorders. In a recent study, Drawnel et al61 showed that expos- CMs is not necessarily a disadvantage for certain application.
ing normal iPSC-CMs in diabetic-like conditions (high glu- For example, immature cells could potentially be better suited
cose, endothelin-1, and cortisol) could induce an increment of for cell therapy applications, as they can become mature after
lipid accumulation, oxidative stress, and sarcomeric disarray, integration into the host myocardium, as recently observed for
phenocopying diabetic cardiomyopathy. Intriguingly, the iP- embryonic stem cellderived cardiomyocytes.70
SC-CMs derived from patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus, With the launching of the Precision on Medicine Initiative,1
a disease with complex and multifactorial pathogenesis, also the iPSC-based models of cardiovascular disease are well po-
recapitulated key pathophysiological phenotypes in vitro that sitioned to provide a powerful tool for studying genotype
corresponded to the clinical status of the original donor. A phe- phenotype association and for predicting individual patient
notypic drug screening in this model revealed molecules and responses to therapies. However, relating gene variations
86Circulation ResearchJune 19, 2015
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