BRITISH STANDARD BS 8006 : 1995 Code of practice for Strengthened/reinforced soils and other fills : state I AWITHION 7 HST PERMISSION EXCT™T AS PERMITTED NY COPYRIGHT LAS ib” SaBS 8006 : 1995 ‘This Bish Standard, naving ‘een prepares under the (Soecuan of the Secor Board for ‘Suseing and Civil Enpneenn. was publsned under die sothonty of the Standards Board and comes into effect an 1S November 1985 © ast 1998 ‘The folowing BSI references Fela wo one work gn ue Commitee reference 8/526 = Draft fr comment 81214551 OC ISBN 0580 24216 1 Committees responsible for this British Standard ‘The preparation of this British Standard was entrusted by Tecnnical Commirtee 8/526, Geovecanics, 10 Subcommicee B/S2 Surengthened/reinforces soils and other fill. upor: which t ‘were represenved. following bodies British Coal Corporation British Palways Board Bridsh Texzle Confederation County Surveyors’ Society Department of Transpor (Highways Agency) Department of Transport (Transport Research Laboratory’) Federation of Civil Engineering Contractors Institution of Civil Engineers Institution of Highways and Transportation Insocution of Structural Engineers Zine Development Association Amendments issued since publication Amd. No. [Date Tex affectedAw Contents Page Commitvees responsible Inside frone cover Foreword vi Section 1 General LL Scope 1.2 References 1.3 Definitions LA Symbols, Section 2, Concepts and fandamental principles 2.4 General 6 2.2 Limit state principles 6 2.3. Partial factors 6 2.4 Design loads 7 7 8 8 2.5 Design strengths 2.6 Fundamental mechanisms 2.7. Soll reinforcing mechanisms in walls and slopes: 2.8. Soil einforeing mechanisms in embankment foundations 8 2.9 Soil reinforcement interaction 10 2.10 Soil properties to be considered u 2.11 Reinforcement geometry 2 2.12 Reinforcement bond 2 2.13 Effects of flexible reinforcement axcal stiftness on loads 13 2.14 Factors affecting tensile behaviour of flexible reinforcement 13 Section 3 Materials — —— 3.1 Soils and fills 18 3.2. Reinforcing macerials at 3.3 Facings 23 3.4 Pasteners between the facing and reinforcing elements 24 3.5. Testing materials and components not covered by relevant specifications 24 Section 4 Testing for design purposes 4.1, General ar 2 Fl and ground 27 4.3. Soil reinforcement 29 4.4 Pacing units 32 4.3. Trial constructions to evaluate constructability 32 Section 5. Principles of design 5.1 Design philosophy 33 5.2 Service life 33 5.3 Factors of safety 33 5.4 Fasteners and connections 33, 3.5. Serviceability 35 6 Design information 36BS 8006 : 1995 Section 6. Design and walls and abutments 6.1 Gersral 5 6.2. Partial factors used in this section + 6.3 Basis for design 6.4 Dimensions (or the structure 6.5. Exemal sabibry 6.6 Internal suabiliy 6.7 Facings 6.8 Connections 6.9. Soil nailing for walls ‘Section 7. Design of reinforced slopes 7A Gener 80 Partial factors used in the design of reinforced slopes 80 Areas of applicasion a1 Reinforcement of fll materials 81 Reinforcement of existing ground 85 Facings. 8s (on 8, Design of embanlenents with reinforced soil foundations on poor ground 8.1 General 98 8.2 Partial factors used in the design of embankments wich reinforces soi} foundations on poor ground 98 8.3 Reinforced embankments over soft and very soft foundation soils se Reinforced embankaments over areas prone to subsidence 108, Section 9. Construction and maintenance — 9.1 Genera 9.2 Walls and abutments 9.3. Slopes 9.4 Foundations 9.5 Handling, storage and placing ‘Annexes A. (normative) Assessment of partial material factors for reinforcements B (normative) Microbial activity index test (normative) Determination of effective angle of interna! friction (¢’) and effective cohesion (c’) of earthworks materials 148 (normative) Site damage test aa (normative) Deteomination of coefficient of friction and adhesion Seeween fil and reinforcing elements or anchor elements for Feinforced sol! and anchored earth siructures (normative) Til constructions (informative) Propping forces ng on‘Tables 1 Factors affecting performance 2 Selection of fill for walls and abutments 3 Category of structure depending upon ramificacion of failure 44 Elecarochemical properties of {il used with plain steel, galvanized sceel and stainless steel materials Grading of 6l] material for basal mattresses 6 Minimum properties of some different types of stee! reinforcement 7 Sacrificial thickness to be allowed on each surface exposed to corrosion 8 Jointing methods and approximate strengths of polymeric materials 9 Material standards (or different types of facing 10 Properties of bolts and screws up to 40 mun stock size 1A Propeities of dowels and rods up to 40 mm stock size 12 _Exaruples of service life 13 Checklist for investigations of reinforcement products 14 Factors affecting durability and performance of buried soil reinforcement macerials 15 Partial materials factors (or reinforcements 16 Summary of partial {actors to be used in section 6 A7 Partial load factors for load combinations associated with walls 18 Partial load factors for load combinations associated with abuements 19 Dimensions of walls and abutments 20 Determination of the minimum embedment as a function of the tmochanical height £7 in metres and che factores bearing presure ge in kNita! 21 Minimum vertical movement capacities required for facing systems to cope with vertical internal settlement of reinforced fill 22 Guide to the effects of settlement 23 Usually accepted tolerances for faces of retaining walls and abutments 24 Serviceability limits on post-construction internal strains for bridge abutments and retaining walls 25 Connection loads for ultimate and serviceability limit states 26 Summary of partial factors to be used in section 7 27 Summary of partial factors to be used in section 8 28 Arching coefficient C; for basal reinforced piled embankments B.1 Classification for microbial activity B.2 Determination of sulfate reducing bacteria classification, Page u 18 18 19 20 au 23 23 24 24 aT 30 30 34 afes a7 49 49 51 106 7 18Page Figeres 3 heange of applications of reinforce soi 2 Effect of reinforcement on a sou eleme=t 3. Reinforcing mechanisms in walls and slo 4 Forms of reinforcement 5 Types of seams 6 Sach configuration 7 Bodian joint 8 Selection of materials for reinforcement, connections and facings for reinforced soil structures 26 9 Suress/strain relationship for sand under plane strain loading 22 10 Examples of structures in category 1 — applicable to walls and slope 38 11 Examples of structures in category 2 — applicable to walls and slopes 39 12 Examples of foundations in category 2 40 18 Examples of structures in category 8 — applicable to walls and slopes 41 14 Examples of foundations in category 3 a2 15 Definitions and wpes of walls and abutments, 6 16 Common facings used with structures 65 17 Load combinations showing load factors 63 38 Design procedure for reinforces soil walls 66 19 Initial sizing of structures 67 20. Sizing of walls with various geomernies 66 21 Definition of embedment, Dy 69 22 Ultimate limit states — external stability 69 23 Serviceability limit states — external and interna) stabil 69 24 Definition of soll properties and principal loads 70 25 Pressure distribution along base of wal) a 26 ‘Types of slip surface failure a 27 Stability — effects to be considered a 28 Stresses imposed due to self weight, surcharge and retained backfill 72 29 Dispersal of vertica) strip load Unrough reinforced fill — ue back ‘wedge method 72 30. Dispersal of horizontal shear trough reinforced fil) — Ge back wedge method 2 31 Determination of adherence capacity of the reinforcement — tie bac wedge method 73 32 Types of reinforced soil anchors 33 Internal wedge stability 34 Internal wedge stability analysis of simple problem 38. Assessment of post-construction strain under appbed load Tass 6 36. Variation of coefficient of earch pressure with depth — coherent gravity method 76 37. Dispersal of vertical strip load through reinforced fill — coherent gravity method 7 38 Dispersal of horizontal fnear through reinforced fill — coherent gravicy method " 39 Line of maximum tension for retaining wall — coherent gravity method "7BS 8006 : 1995 a 3 6 65 66 Definition of maximum tension line 2 (retaining wall without superimposed strip loads) — coherent gravity method Lines of maximum tension for structures with strip loads — coherent gravity method Definition of line 1 — coherent gravity method Examples of structures requiring global stability analysts — coherent gravity method Soil nailed walls Examples of slope reinforcement Design basis for reinforced slopes Ueimate limit states — external stability Ultimate limit states — internal stability Ultimate limit states — compound stability Serviceabllity limut states Definition of soil properties and principal loads for reinforced steep fil slopes ‘Two-part wedge analysis for internal stability of reinforced fill slopes Other methods of internal stabiliry analysis of reinforced fill slopes Force components in two-part wedge analysis of compound stability Applications of soil nailing Use of owo-pare wedge analysis for soll nailing Use of log-spiral analysis for soil nailing Reinforcement used to control initial stability only of embankment Reinforcement used to control both initial stability and settlement of embankment Ultimate limit states for basal reinforced embankanents, Serviceability limit states for basal reinforced embankments Procedure for assessing rotational stability by sip circle analysis Lateral sliding stability at fileinforcement interface [Analysis of foundation excrustion stability ‘titimate limit state stability analysis for basal mattress reinforcement Piled embankment configurations ‘Uitimae Limit states for basal reinforced piled embankments Servicebility limit states for basal reinforced piled embankments Outer limit of pile caps Variables used in determination of Trp Lateral sliding stability at M/reinforcemenc interface Variables used in analysis of overall stability of basal reinforced pled erbankmencs Conceptual role of reinforcement in limiting surface deformations due co subsidence Parameters used to determine reinforcement Wrap-around construction techniques Reinforced soil retaining walls Typical drainage detail for abutment bankseae Reinforced soil mass acting as drain Porous pipe at wall face Drainage details for walls supporting cuttings Page 78 78 8 79 39 29. 29 39 on 92 93 98 96 or 110BS 8006 : 1995 em si 82 53 a 85 86 87 85 89 Al Az As AS Dl List of references Page Wrap-arouné facing 138 Reinforces gabions 135 Reinstatement of failed siope 199 Soil nailing technique 140 Laving ane jointing sequence for besa) reinforcement 340 Advancing mud wave a Inverted “U" construction wn Construction of a "U shaped leading edge 341 Basal mares fabrication technique ww Assessment of funy 144 Assessment of fni22 145 Assessment of fnt2 45 Assessment of fn) Schematic lavout ofBS 8006 : 1995 Foreword ‘This British Standard has been prepared by Subcommittee B/521 Strengthenedsreinforced soils and other Mills. It supersedes PD is withdrawn. 17 : 1988 which ‘There has been an increasing use of soil reinforcement techniques in Great Bricain over the past decade for a variety of applications from verucal walls and Bbuuments through reinforced slopes to reinforced foundations. The modern Grpetus for the use of such techuques stems from the development af reinforced wai techniques for vertical or near vertical slopes some 25 years ago. generally taing metallic reinforcement, usually with modular concrete facing units. The evelopment of the use of porymeric materials in the form of geatextiles in the Givil engineering industry has been accompanied by thetr introduction into Fantorced soil applicauons including the reinforcing of slopes and foundations, Reinforced soil techniques are now used extensively fora range of design lives dnd service requirements and are stil in an active stage of development Particularly 29 far as the Use of polymeric materials is concerned, and it was felt vert tne absence of a code of practice covering the techniques was hindering their wider development. ‘This code of practice contains material which is both for the information and guidance of engineers and material which forms recomamendations on good Practice. Engineering judgement shovld be applied to determine when the Plcoinmmendations of the code should be followed and when they shoule: not ‘This code of practice embodies the experience of engineers successfully engaged on the design and construction of the particular class of works. Ibis intended for the use of engineers with some knowledge of the subject as a basis for che design of similar works. ‘A.code of practice represents good practice at the time itis written and, A htsbly technical developments can render parts of it obsolescent in time. It is the responsibility of engineers concerned with the design and construction of suorks to remain conversant with developments in good practice, which have taken place since publication of the code, Iuhas been assumed in the drafting of this British Standard that the execution of its provisions is encrusted to appropriately qualified and experienced people. ‘As a code of practice, this British Standard takes the form of guidance and ‘reommendations. It should not be quoted as if it were a specification and particular care should be taken to ensure that claims of compliance are n misleading, CompLance with a British Standard does not of itself confer immanicy from Tegal obligations.‘This British Standard contains guidelines and recommendations for the application of hnforcement techniques to soils, as (Il or in situ, wilco other fills. The standard is writzen in a limit Bote format and guidelines are provided of safery ‘Sahgine in terms of partial material factors and Toad factors for various applications and design lives ‘The code is divided into nine sections. Section | identifies the scope, definitions and SStation of the code. Section 2 describes the Roncepes and fundamental principles of reinforced SSLL Section 3 provides recommendations for the ARS of materials where existing standards are pvailable. Where materials are used which are not Covered by existing standards or where known sepverials are to be used in ways not covered by Sxdsting standards section 4 gives recommendations for che testing and approval of such materials. Sections 5 to 9 relate to design, construction and maintenance of walls and abutments, slopes and foundations. They include specific Aeeommendations for characterization of the soils fo be used and other factors affecting the design Gnd performance of the structures. Emphasis is placed on quality control both with regard to the Consistency of the properties of the fill and feinforeing macerials and to the handling of the materials on site. Much of the existing practice of reinforced soil is based on the use of Limit equilibrium design methods which incorporate a global factor of fafety, In keeping With the principles of limit state desigh, consistent structural dimensions and materials quancities have been maintained with existing practice by calibration af the partial factors in the limit stare design relaonships in this code. ‘This approach is different to that adopted by some concurrent codes of practice, e.g. BS 8002 : 1994, Grhich rely on the use of ‘worst credible parameter to develop an adequate margin of safety, The clauses are supplemented by a substantial lis. Of references to enable the user to consider in greater depth the applications of the technique. 1.2 References 1.2.1 Normative references ‘This British Standard incorporates, by dated or undated reference, provisions from other Dublcations. These normative references are made Er che appropriate places in the text and the cited publications are listed on page 156. For dated References, only the edition cited applies; any Subsequent ainendments to or Tevisions of the cited ‘publication apply to this Britsh Standard only Srhen incorporated in the reference by amendment or revision. For undated references, the latest Gdition of the cited publication applies, together with any amendments. 1.2.2 Informative references ‘This British Standard refers to other publications that provide information or guidance. Editions of these publications current at the time of issue of this standard are lisved on page 158, but reference ‘should be made to the latest editions. 1.3 Definitions For the purposes of this British Standard the folowing definitions apply. 1.3.2 anchored earth Form of reinforced soil which uses anchors embedded within the soll mass to provide stability. Resistance to pull-out is provided by passive action of the anchor and friction along the anchor shaft or loop. 1.3.2 cohesive frictional fll FMI containing at least 15 % material passing a 63 um sieve in accordance with BS 410. NOTE. ts descrbed inthe Specfeation for Flghray ‘Works [1] unger Ul matanad dasses 1C and 7D. 1.3.3 fill material Material in the reinforced soil structure in contact swith the reinforcing elements, connections and facing, including Boe seer Gl and any ‘ter 1.3.4 frictional lL AAU containing less than 15 % material passing a 63 im test sieve in accordance with BS 410. NOTE. {tis deserbed in the Speciication for Figheray ‘orks {i} tnder Mi auanal cases 6f and 60 1.3.5 geogrid Polymeric, planar structure consisting of an open network of connected tensile elements used in geotechnical and civil engineering applications. 1.3.6 geotextile Permeable, polymeric material, which may be woven, nonwoven or knitted, used in geotechnical and civil engineering applications. 1.9.7 partial factors Specific design parameters to account for uuncertaingy 1.2.8 polymeric reinforcement Generic term thae encompasses geosynthecie mavenals used in geotechnical engineering such as, (eotertles and geogrids. 13.9 reinforced soil General term which refers co che use of placed or in sita soil or other matenal in which tensile reinforcements act ckrough interface friction, bearing or other means to improve stability.Section } BS 8006 ; 199: 1.3.20 reinforcement base strength Unfactored scrength of the reinforcement at the fend of its selected esign life 1.4.11 reinforcement design strength Factores strength of the reinforcement at the end of its selected design life. It is che reinforcement Qase serength divided by the appropriate partial material factor 1.3.12 reinforcement 1.3.12.1 axially flexible reinforcement Reinforcement that can absorb tensile loads only 1,8.12.2 exially stiff reinforcement Reinforcement that can absorb tensile, shear and bending loads. 1.3.12.8 extensible reinforcement Reinforcement that sustains the design loads at ‘sorains greater than 1 %: 1.9.12.4 inextensible reinforcement Reinforcement that sustains the design loads a ‘strains less than oF equal to 1%. 1.3.19 retained backfill Fill material located between the reinforced mass and the navural sol. 1.8.14 soil nailing ‘Tepe of reinforced soil formed by installing reinforcing elements in sicu into an otherwise Undiseurbed soll mass. 4.4 Symbols 0 Size or diameter of pile caps ae Crost-sectional area of connections or connection components dep Cross-sectional area resisting bearing ‘Suesses in connecuon components aq Cross-sectional area of the shear plane of connection component resisting shear b Width of the loading strip contact area at right angles to the structure Width of footing or foundation b’ Variable, defined in figure 37 bj Width of slice # in stability analysis Cohesion of the soil under effective stress conditions. @ —_Undrained shear strength @ Maximum vertical deflection of ‘unsupported reinforcement Distance of strip load from wall face a Variable, defined in figure 37 % Diameter of a fastener In # connection Vertical displacement of surface of pavement or embankment due to Subsidence below Eccentricity of an applied force Eccentricity of vertical stip load with Respect uo the ceritre line of the contact Grea of the load on top of a structure Eccentricity of resultant vertical load at jth Jeve) about centreline of reinforcement “average height of {i above reinforcement Height of fill above jth lever of reinforcements Height of the prop above toe of a structure ‘Height of {Ul above toe of a structure ‘Variable in 6.8.4.9.5 Variable in 6.8.4.3.6 Variable, defined in figure 37 Number of shear planes resisting appbed shear, 6.8.4.3.3 ‘Number of slices in 2 moment stability analysis Sideslope of embantonent Vertical stress on pile cap Value of acidity of an aqueous solution Bearing pressure ‘Ultimate bearing capacity of foundation soil Pore pressure ratio Pile spacing Long term height of an anchor head Design life ‘Test duration Pore water pressure ‘Average pore pressure acting on the base of ‘Shee # in stabibity analysis Uniformly distributed surcharge on top of a servcture Depth measured from top of wall or slope Depth of design line 1; coherent gravity method Critical depth of foundation sliding block 6 m critica) depth, Depth of dispersal of horizonta) shear Width of an clement of reinforcement Length of Meyerhof pressure distribution Long term wideh of an anchor head Long term horizontal projection area of shaft of loop of an anchorBS 8006 : 1995 Section | Ge Dex Ds RP Ma Arehing coefficient Cavity diameter formed at the underside of 2 pavement or embankment Embedment depth of reinforced walls and aburments Deformation diameter at surface of pavement or embanianent due to Subsidence below Elastic modulus Function in 6.6.3.2.1 Factored design load Unfactored characteristic load Horizontal shear applied to the strip contact area of width b on top of the ‘Structure per metre 'run* Resistance of pile Overall height of reinforced structure or ‘All, mechanical height of structure ‘ual height Coefficient of earth pressure Coefficient of active earch pressure Coefficient of earth pressure af rest Coefficient of passive earth pressure Length of element of reinforcement or anchor Length at right angles in plan to the face of the structure of the Dortom layer of reinforcing elements Distance between centres of end fasteners of a connection, Length of that part of the jth layer of reinforcements within the potencial failure plane Reinforcement bond length needed beyond outer row of piles in piled embankment Effective length of reinforcement Length of that part of the jth layer of reinforcing elements beyond che potential failure plane Bond length of basal reinforcement within sip circle Length of nail jin a slope Horizontal distance becween ourer edge of pile cap and toe of embaninent Length of side slope of an embantonent Maxamum bending moment in a connection ‘component Reinforcement base bending moment resistance Ma Mp M Mo Ma Map Mar Mrs Mar Maw A Bending resistance in a connection component Disturbing moment in sip circle or og-spiral analysis Maximum bending moment in nail j in the slope Out of balance moment, My = Mp - Mw Restoring moment in slip circle analysis Restoring moment due to ples under an embankment Restoring moment due to reinforcement Restoring moment due to soil strength Restoring moment due to tension in nails Restoring moment due to shear in nails Moment about XX ads Moment about ¥-¥ axds Normal force acting on potential failure plane Bearing resistance of anchor at level jin yall ‘Total horizontal width of top and boctom faces of the jth layer of reinforcements per metre ‘run’ of seructure. in case of arid reinforcement the width of the jth laver of gid per metre ‘run’ of structure. For nails, It is the perimeter of individual nails Horizontal component of backfill thrust on reinforced soil block Horizontal propping force Pull-out resistance generated on anchor shaft in cohesionless fill at level j in wall Uttimate pull-out resistance of an anchor at level jin wall Vertical component of backfill thrust on reinforced soll block Pressure beneath strip loading Force acting at discontinuity berween ow regions of two-part wedge analysis Average pressure Bearing capacity of pile Reaction Radius of entical sip surface in rocational failure Radius of slip surface at slice + tn log-spiral analysis Radius of slip surface coinciding with nail J in log-spiral analysis, Horimotal factored discurbing force Reaction at slice # in log-spual analysis, Verbal factored resultant forcepecuon } BS 8006 : 1995 Tas Tes Tas To T Vertical loading, applies te @ strip contact fares of wiéth 8 on top of 2 structure, p*r Length of strip tosd S, Veriea} spacing of reinforeement Vertical spacing of jth leyer of reinforcement ‘Total tensile force to be resisied by the layers of reinforcement which anchor ‘wedge of reinforced soll, per metre "Tun (wedge analysis) ‘Average tensile load along the length of the feinforcement at the jth level an the wall or slope Reinforcement base swrength Applied maximum tensile load on connection ‘Tensile force developed due to cohesion in reinforced fil at Jevel j in wal Exrapolated creep rupture strength at the tend of the design life Exrapolated tensile load based on creep strain at the end of the design life ‘Tensile force in the reinforcement developed from the lateral thrust of ti¢ ‘embankment Design tensile strength of the reinforcement ‘Tensile force developed from the horizontal shear applied to the top of the seructure to bbe resisted by the jah laver of reinforcing elements ‘Total maximum tensile force resisted by the Jjeh layer of reinforcement ‘Maximum tensile force in basal reinforcement General tensile force in reinforcement ‘Tensile force in basal reinforcement due to shear stresses at surface of foundation ‘Tensile foree in basal reinforcement needed to resist rotational failure Tensile force generated in basal reinforcement in piled embankments due te transfer of vertical loading ‘Tensile foree generated in basal reinforcement over unsupported void ‘Tensile force developed from the externa! Yoading (S_) on top of the structure ‘Tensile force developed from the external loading Ultimate tensile strength of mezalli reinforcements b o Applied maxamum ioaé on 2 connection component ssaxsmum shear load in nai Fora weight of sol) structure per mety Weight eight of soil contained within Coulomb failure wedge the slope slice 1 in seabihicy analysis Disributed vertical load acting on bass! reinforcement between adjacent pile c2ps Horizontal moment arm in rotational failure Design soil parameter valve Horizontal moment ann to sce i in rotational failure Characteristic soil parameter valve Vertical moment arm in rotational failure Vertical moment arm to reinforcement J in slope or wall Section modulus Section modulus about X-% axis Section modulus about Y-¥ axis Inclination of slope supported by einforced Friction coefficient relating sail friction angle to soil/reinforcement bond “Adhesion coefficient relating soil cohesion to soil/reinforcement bond “Angle of inclination of base of soil slice ¢ ‘Angle of inclination of backfill thrust on reinforced soil block Inclination of a potential failure plane to the vertica} plane Inclination of slope Unit weight of the soil “Angle of shearing resistance berween soi! ‘and reinforcement measured under effective stress conditions Lateral strain of soll under an applied load ‘Axial corapression under an applied load Reinforcement strain Masamum allowable strain in reinforcement ‘Angle of draw in embankment fil Angle of slice 4 in a log-spiral analysis ‘Angle of nail j Jocation in the slope in Jog-spiral analysis “Angle (to the vertical) between the outer ‘edge of the outside pile cap and the shoulder of an embankment Load shedding coefficientSection 1 ES Oe Oy cr ay a % Coefficient of friction becween the fill and reinforcing element derived from the identity 1 ~ tan é', where 6 is the angle ff bond stress between the fill and the reinforcing elements Statistical mean of results obtained ‘Apparent coefficient of friction Rate of increase in undrained shear strength with depth of foundation Normal stress Statistical standard deviation of results obeained Maximum bearing pressure becween connected parts Ultimate bearing strength of connection components ‘Tensile stress in connections Extreme fibre bending stress for compression Extreme fibre bending stress for tension Horizontal stress on an element of soil Ultimate shear strength of connection components Normal effective confining stress acting on nail jin the stope Ultimate tensile strength of connection components Vertical stress on an element of soil Vertical stress acting at level jin a wall Applied vertical effective stress ‘Major principal effective stress Minor principal effective stress Shear stress average shear stress ° on te Ss Sn Smt Sma Mohe-Coulomb angle of friction. ‘Angle of friction of soil under total stress conditions Angle of internal friction of soit under effective stress conditions ‘Angle of constant volume shearing resistance under effective stress conditions Peak angle of shearing resistance under effective stress conditions Moment correction factor Inclination to the horizontal of nail jin the slope Partial load factor applied to external dead loads Partial load factor applied to soil unit weight loads Partial material factor applied to reinforcement Partial material factor related to material properties of the reinforcement Partial material factor related to construction effects and tolerances of the reinforcement Partial material factor applied to soil parameters Partial factor associated with ramification of failure Partial load factor applied to external live loads Partial factor of safety against pull-out failure of the reinforcement. Partial factor of safery against sliding failure across the reinforcement or soilBS 8006 : 1995 Section 2. Concepts and fundamental principles 2.1 General Reinforcement may be incorporated in engineenng fil of inserted into natural gound either to Provide sweeper slopes utan would otherwise De osible or to improve load carmsing capacity Reiworcement may also be used to umprove the performance of weak sols to support embankments Gromer resilient structures. These applications Siiich are Dustrated in figure 1, may involve the Use of a range of reinforcement tvpes and rechnigues induding: = metallic strips, grids or meshes; ~ polymeric strips, sheets, grids or meshes; = anchors of muld-anchors (but not ground anchors); = soi) nails and in situ reinforcement, 2.2 Limit state principles Limit state principles are applied to the design of reinforced soll walls, slopes 2nd foundations te Embankment or similarly resilient structures, The fEwo limit states considered in design are the {timate limit stale ang the serviceability inde sate Ulamate Umit states are associated with collapse oF other similar forms of structura failure, These Staves are attained, for a specific mode of failure, when disturbing forees equal oF exceed restoring forces. Margins of safecy, against attaining the Limit sate of collapee, are provided by the use of partial gratenial factors and partial load factors. These Pardal factors assume prescribed numerical values of unity or greater Discurbing forces are increased bby multiplying by prescribed Joad factors produce design loads. Restoring forces are Beereased by dividing by prescribed material factors fo produce design strengths, Provided the design Strength equals or exceeds the design load chen there is deemed to be an adequate margin of safety ‘agains attaining the wdmate Lit state of collapse Serviceability limit states are atzained if the mragnitudes of deformation occurring within ¢he eagn life exceed prescribed limits or if the Serviceability of the structure is otherwise impaired, Construction tolerances are Subject to Erpaiate limits and are considered separately {rom ‘rw serviceability Limit state. In assessing deformations or swralns to determine compbance Snth the appropriate limit state, the prescribed Fumenieal values of load factors are different to Ghose used in assessing the ultimate Unit state of Collapse and usually assume a value of unity: In esessing magnitudes of total or differentia} Sethlements all partial factors are set 0 2 value of un excet for thove pertaining 2 the 2.3 Partial factors Limit state design for reinforced soil employs fou: Poineipal parua) factors all of which assume Presenibes numerical values of unity or areates Feevol these are load factors fy (and Jia) appbed t esd loads and fo applied w bve loads. The principal materials factor if (and Jina), The Fourth factor fps used to take account of te Coonomie ramifications of failure. This factor 3s Craploved, in addition to the materials factor. tO produce @ reduced design strength. itis not feasible to uniquely define values for loae or material factors. Pri ranges of these Values ave given to take account of the type of Saucture, the mode of loading and the selecied Gesign Life and are considered in sections 6, 7 and 8 tn relation to walls, slopes or embankment Foundations respectively. In 2 particular application the load factors applied to dead loads and live loads can vary depending upon the load ‘Combination under consideration; in some Cteumstances the partial load factors for live loads may be set to zero Wo produce 2 worst case Combination for the design load. "The material factors applied to shear strength are sunusly preseribed. For 2 given application and Gesign life. the matenal factor applied to soil feinforcement wil assume 2 prescribed minimum, Clue chat will reflec: che selected design life an¢ type of reinforcement used. In contrast to load Fretors, reuvforcement material factors are principal factors that can be broken down into various Components and subcomponents that individually SGaress each aspect of reinforcement strength. BY Gefinition each companent or subcomponent has 2 Value of unity or greater but the values may’ vary or different reinforcemencs. Guidance is provideé fn how chese matéria! factors are devermined Partial factors are applied in a consistent manner ‘0 Frunimize the nsk of attaining a limit state. Ln the Case of the ultimate limit state of collapse, Gotental failure mechanisms will vary from one Epplication to another and those pertaining to one Spplieation, such a a reinforoed soil wall, may’ be Gifferent to another application such 3s 2 einforced soil slope oF reinforced soi) foundation. Potential failure mechanisms to be considered are Gescribed in the particular sections of tis code seiueh address the analysis and design of walls slopes and foundations,A999 Section 2 although potential failure mechanisms may vary sere ge application to another the ultimace Limit Tete of collapse and the serviceablity limit state of Siig inforced soil applications should be considered an Rinne of both extemal and internal stability. The usessment of external stability involves asstaderation of the stability of the reinforced soil Seuss. in the case of a reinforced soil wall, for Teample, this would include assessment of Gotendal faure modes such as forward sliding Prong the base of the wall. For each (allure mode aonsdered, prescribed load factors and material facxors are appropriately applied to external Aarurbing forces and external restoring forces to Ghaure that the factored restoring force equals or exceeds the factored disturbing force. The incernal stability of a reinforced soil mass is governed by the interaction berween soil and Seiaforcement. This tnteraction occurs by friction felmdhesion. Where internal stability depends upon. the shedding of load from the reinforcement to the Si an appropriate margin of safety is aciueved by Snhancing this load, by a load factor of prescribed etue. and redueing the (ricconal, or adhesive, parameters concroliing the sol/reinforcement Fhrenscuon by a material factor of prescribed value Soil reinforcement interaction also involves the Pelharaission of load from soil to reinforcement. i Uldition to chis load being funcaon of dead and {ive loads it will also be a function of the ‘characteristics of the reinforcement and in Garucular the axial tensile safiness and bending Pafiness of the reinforcement. A margin of safety achieved by erthancing this load by a load factor Of presenbed value, and reducing the strength of the reinforcement Using a material {actor of Greseribed value, Reinforcement design strength ray be governed by an ultimate limit state of Collapse or a serviceability limit state 4 Design loads Loads may be dead Joads or live loads and these are calculated in an unfacwored form. Consequently, if load is developed solely by the self Sveight of soil the load would be calculated using weight of the soil; the characteristic value being the worst credible value. The magnitude of disturbing loads. such as those Guich can be developed by lateral earth pressures. wie controlled by many factors including pore water eescures and sol shear srength, In calculating Eiscurbing loads and forces che shear strength paramecers of the soil and pore fluid are used eAfantored, ‘The numerical value of the calculated Haw diseurbing toad, defined in terms of effective ‘Stress or otal stress, is increased by mulbplying by Sprescribes load factor with 3 value of unity, oF Greater The end product of this factoring is the Sesign load. ‘The magnitudes of design loads transmitted to a reinforeing élement will be a function of prevailing Gead and live loads. However, the magnitude, and nature, of the loads absorbed by the reinforcing, clement will also be affected by the physical properties of the reinforcing element. 2.5 Design strengths A fundamental principle of limit state design is Ghat the design strength should be equal to, or greater than, the design load. In the case of external stability the design load may be resisted by forces generated in the soil. Resisting forces will be a functon of several variables including pore water pressure and soil shear Sorength, their characteristic values are determined as 2 cautious estimate of the value affecting the Sceuerence of the Limit state. These are reduced by Smaterial factor, of prescribed value, co produce & Gesign strength, As with any other geotechnical problem, due account should be taken of any Vanation of soil shear strength with time over the selected design life In the case of internal stability the design load may be resisted by forces generated in the soil and feinforcement. Resisting forces generated by feinforcement will be determuned on a statistical basis (annex A), and reduced by a material factor to produce a design strength. ‘Tne maionty of reinforcing elements, such as sinps, sheets and grids, have thicknesses which are Smal compared to their other dimensions. Such, elements are flexible and, due to their low bending Stiffness, can only absorb avdal tensile loads, The magnitude of the loads absorbed by reinforcing Clements incorporated in compacted fill wil be ‘fected by the axdal tensile stfiness of the feinforcing element. Where the design load can be Sustained at a total axial tensile strain less than or equal to 1% the reinforcement is classified as inextensible and the design load includes the tlfects of higher forces on a wall, or slope, as set Out in sectons 6 and 7. Where tie design load is Sustained a total azcal tensile strains exceeding 1% the reinforcement is classified as extensible In considering the wimate limit stazes of collapse of soll reinforeed with flecble reinforcement, 3 Gesign strength may be determined by dividing the lunfactored reinforcement base strength by 2 presenbed value of the parval material (ctor fn The dengn strength employed may be dictated by considerations of a serviceabibity Limit state rather than the ultimate Limit sate of collapse. if the Economic consequences of failure are high, the Serived design strength may be further reduced by dividing by a paral factor fy to take account of these consequences. It follows chat where che Feinforcement design strength is governed by the thiumase lurut state of collapse it is derived from the unfactored reinforcement base strength divided by the chain product fin x JnBS 8006 : 1995 Section 2 2.6 Fundamental mechanisms Soil has an inherently low tensile srength but a hugh compressive strength which is only limited by the ability of the soi! 1o resist applied shear scresses. An objective of incorporating soil reinforcement is to absorb tensile loads, or shear ssrresses, thereby reducing the loads which might otherwise cause the soil to fail n shear or by ‘excessive deformation. There is some similanty to ‘the principle of reinforced concrete as the reinforced mass may be considered 2 composite material with improved properties, particularly in tension and shear, over the soil or concrete alone. Although soi) can be loaded under a compressive stress regime, tensile strains can develop within the soll mass, This is illustrated by the simple model in figure 2 which shows 2 sample of dry sand confined by an externally applied compressive suress 09 and loaded by a compressive stress 0} ‘where 0) > oa. Under this loading regime an unreinforeed sample will suffer an adal compression dy and 2 lateral expansion 5p, See figure 2a. Clearly, this laveral expansion will be associated with the development of lateral tensile ‘serains within the soil mass. Uf several horizontal lavers of reinforcement are inserted into the sol, see figure 2b, and the same external loads applied, then the resulting Geformations are diy and Mbp, Where dy < by and “bye 29%), ‘and cohesive fil should not be used in walls and abutments of structures in categories 2 and 3. tables 2 and 3. Table 2 Selection of fill for walls and abuements Table B. Category of structure depending upon , | ramification of failure Gauegory Paral far) Examples oF sraccores Vin rl | Now [Rewiring walls ane |Gow) | applicable} slopes less than 3.5 min retained height where failure would result in — (medium) rminimal damage and Joss of access 10 [Embanianends and | scruceures where failure | | would resale in moderate damage and) [lose of services | 3 a \Aburments, servceures high) ireculy supporting rmowrwas trunk and | [inci vondeor "| railways or inhabited) buildings, dams, sea | | walls and slopes. nver training walls and slopes: Soto Sirwcrare es ewes) 1 [Fico i wes2D |= - -_4 Cohesive frictional = |= [> i> | (see 8.1.2.1) \ Pulveried-fosleh [> [>| (see 33.242) Gk [sMoeaa% |= [> |= SMC > 29% [> [= Argliaceous maternal [9 [a T= Genera fi (Cay fils) [> t= _1- | T This table shows the Hypes of Soll to be used in various classes of structures based upon structural performance and constructability. Consideration {should also be given to the durability of the reinforcement in connection with the service life, see 9.1.2.2 2'Due to the variable nature of arpillaceous [materials the proposed source should be subject to 2 specifie study and client approval prior to [construction and 2 frequent quality control testing! during construction, see 3.1.2.4.4 and 9.2.3.6 {WStructures in category 1 should be restricted to | simple servctures designed by expenence without analysis 25 described in DD ENV 1997-1 : 1995 OTE 1. See figure 10, 11.12, 19 ané 14 for examples of suructures in eatopories }, 2 and 2. | 3.1.2.2 Chemical ond electrochemical criteria ‘The influence of the chemical properties of the fill, with respect to the durability of concreve elements Should be considered in accordance with BS 3400 Pan 4 ‘The limits of the electrochemica? properties of soil fill with respect to steel metallic reinforcements are ‘detailed in table 4, There is Utie guidance on the Soil of fil quality to be used with other metallic reinforcemenes, Polymeric reinforcements are not influenced by electrochemical action but can be affected by certain chemicals. The influence of chemicals on proprietary polymeric materials should be considered in the product certification procedures, see section 4BS 8006 : 1995 Fang ape A re rougnreau! HL 20098 ono} = € UA: 126 SH uno parish pam enepayoezeP YIN! Fes sng Wi tne pon 94 ro sea ro soa amend op) ona saves ounow Wy panhas 199 USHIPPY Section 3 Sa BOTs RTH Pu FAIA PHAN TSR sg He RATTRAY THIEN I eau (0dr MS LOCL BD MY ge 2 Fas AL muse rsiuedora) 80 Tyann Tn 40 sapisamosd prapwansos ata “FUE,BS 8006 : 1995 Section 3 3.1.2.8 Cohesive AU Conesive Ml. as defined in Spesstication for Highway Works |. shows noi be used if th construction of relinforced soil walls for permanent works, elther faced or unfaced 3.1.2.4 Other fills and industrial wastes 3.1.2.4. General Materials meeting the mechanica) and chemical Umvtations in 3.1.2.1 and 3.1.2.2 are permitted. A greater frequency of testing should be carried out to maintain adequate quality control 3.1.24.2 Puuverized-fuel ash (pio) Only conditioned hopper ash should be used as pfe fill class 7B conforming with Specification for Bighway Works |. fa is generally self-hardening and its shear surength parameters, as determined by BS 1977 Pans 7 and 8, are time dependent. Fresh samples of pfs should be prepared and vested to assess the strength parameters relevant to the construction. ‘sate, The value of c' for pfa used in design should bbe limited co = 5 kN/m?. The unit weight of pia sed in design should be obtained from the intended source. A check should be made at the ‘construction stage to confirm chat the unit weight does not exceed the design value, 3.1.2.4.8 Colliery spoit Colliery spoil is the waste from the mining of coal normally deposited in large tips. The most common rock types found in colliery spoil are mudstones, silestones, shales, sandstones and, in some areas, limestones. The broperties of colliery spoil vary ‘considerably both within 2 tip and from tip to tip and its suitability in reinforced soll should be the ‘subject of specific testing and assessment. 3.1.2.4.4 Arpillacerus materials ‘The chemical characverisucs of argillaceous materials such as clay shales used as fi for reinforced soil should be assessed to ensure consistency and compatibility with the reinforcing elements, Argillaceous materials used as fil can. contain carbonaceous material and psn, often in localized concentrations. Pvrive can oxidize and the process can generate heat which results in a risé in soil temperature, Oxidation can result in an increase in acidity whch can effect concrete aeings, metallic reinforcements and ceriain polymeric reinforcements. Polymenc reinforcements can be influenced by the increase in operational temperature caused by any’ exothermic reaction. ‘The use of argillaceous materials in permanent scructures is not accepted by some authoriies because of concern for the durability of the reinforcing elements and because the needs for testing and assessinent are greatly increased over other materials, [21], 112} 3.1.2.4. Chalk Chalk with a saturation moiswure conten: 53% and a natural may be used as fill, see also 3.1.2.4.6 Friable materials Friable soils, for example those which are susceptible to degradation by water over time should not be used in reinforced soll scruct:res 3.1.9 Pill materia) in slopes ‘The use of {nictional or cohesive frictional fills meeung the recommendations of 3.1.2.) and 3.1.2.2 or other fils meeting the recommendations of 3.1.2.4 may be used for steep slopes. Cohesive fill may be used in conjunction with an appropriate reinforcement for reinstated or new slopes |13}. Embanisnents with reinforced foundations may also use cohesive fill and in these circumstances a basa) drainage laver may be 3.1.4 Fill material in fonndazions Materials used in foundations should be selected granular fil in accordance with the Specification for Highway Works }\}. Material used as fW in ‘basal mattresses should conform to table 5. Table 5. Grading of fill material for basal ‘cordance with BS 410, Percentage Br mais passing | these i 100 1 20 to 100 | 65 t0 100 | 45 to 100 i 13 0 60 [20 wo 45 t Ow 25 Ow 12 [Wining eeves granular Fl (coarse grading) with he | Yatiowing consurvent subject to tre requirements of clase 601 of the Specyication for Highoow Works | itural gavel, natural sang, crushed gravel, owed Tock ther than apillaceous rock, crushes Concrete, chalk. well | ‘bate collier a 3.2.5 Natural ground (for soil nailing) Soi) nailing may be used in any: natural ground but some Bound conditions are more suitable for application of the technique than others. The factors affecting the performance of soi) nailing are Sdentified in 2.10. The effects of non: homogeneous ground on the stability and durability of soil nails should be evaluated for all solls outside the Umits of table 4aw section 3 3.2 Reinforcing materials 9.2.1 General Reinforeing elements are made from materials (hat Feito reastance to degradation when buried. The havGorement may take the form of sheets, Eds, Teithes, serps, BaFs, rods, etc. (see figure 4) Tihish are capable of sustaining tensile loads and secltects of deformation developed in the Ml. Steel has been used for many years in soi) SeeGtonments for piles and pipelines and the Segre of corrosion is reasonably wel establisnes. se@ryong term behaviour of polymers in a soil Thevrorgaent 8 not quite so well established eNhough they Rave now been employed for over & aseade, Where necessary guidance should be estan from specialists on the behaviour of products under simultaneously applied congisure that the conditions model satisfactorily the intended use of the reinforcement. Nove, User of this Brush Seandard are advised to considey Te eg af quality system assesment andlor 3pProra) oe en rocedures when using proprietary metalic and copies et iorcements for permanent. traces sor goby ynenquereer of fastare auld be v0 Permissible non-proprietary materials should Perform to the general material clauses derailed in 3.2.2, 3.8.1 and 3.4, 3.2.2 Metallic soil reinforcements 3.2.2.1 General Metalic soi reinforcements are made from wietarials having a certain resistance to corrosion When buried and may take the form of sheets, grids, meshes, sips, bars, rods, etc., which are SNable of resisting tensile loads and the effects of Geformation developed in the il Steel reinforcement material should conform to the Stieria described in 3.2 and table 6 gives examples of recommended types of steel. Steel for galvanizing should have a silicon concent suhuch aows for a galvanized coating conforming to BS 729 except that the average zinc coating Seight for an individual test specimen should not be tess than 100 g/m?. 3.2.2.2 Corrasion allowance "The non-structural sacrificial thickness to be Tlowed on each surface of steel elements exposed to corrosion of clase 61, 63, 7C, and 7D fils is ven in able 7, For other fils a separate Evaluation should be made, vis recommended that all metallic components puried in soil i.e. reinforcing clements, Ponnections, facing lugs and where applicable the facing units, should be of electrolytically COmpacble material. Where this is not possible, Clectrical insulanon of durability equal to the SEivice life of the structure should be provided between different materials. Nails protected in accordance with the recommendations for Corrosion protection in BS 8081 may require less or ‘no corrosion protection. “ibis & Vinimam properties of some different eypes of steel reinforcement Tipe of eel reinforcement Yoximum | Tee Sear | “eer co | serene ah Manes | nm sovir | mn Nimo? Nimo? | (Carbon sel 10 BS EN 10025 : 1980 yi 208 340 $295 78 | | [carton gs 9 BS EN 10005 “15H 6 1380 Sosoua | | Sanden wee wo BS 119: Pare 2: 1985 [10 305 B10 ~} 316S31, 316833, \ Stainles eel to BS LAM: Fart 2: 1983 |6 390 0 B16S9 CR cemper rolled to 2 mifumum [0.2 % proof seress of 310 N/mn® | [Carbon see! rod wo BS 4449 : 1988 ‘Fo diameter | 485 1290 Ta35, 7BS 8006 : 1905 Section 3 "Table 7. Sacrificial thickness to be alowed on |] ‘hereby owe ove-lapping sections are coupled SERS Spas ocarsven | Seg iste ‘Design Reinforcement | Sacrificial thickness * the end |eervice " manterial 1 Joints should be formed to have the highest ie eee SE ARS pe, | inn TIENTS tence chuaeeroe of be hewn wre) MET a er eee ands sens f land teed [Fram | Should correspond closely to those procesures | Jot water fzuctere | employed when devermining the properdes of the 5 eee sen | Tin hae ao tes pomane Se ERE eed tence sol teat 5 to lo in accordance with BS 6906 : Part 1 or 1SO 1032) 222 Onriape inate hare reuse ma tener ‘0 AIRS ATMISE Seep ae Se eS SERS ae eels SSAA, Sesto new Serene the stay nile Seen » STS SPSS ‘Re natn SeatrsngY A ue or nating ues wuer wicca: SEE Ses den SSSR PAE elon eric’ 60 SG 40.38 {0.63 3.2.4.3 Sewing s [0.08 10.09) Various seam cypes are used with sewn a—f 0 SSR Alan as Re SE rc non Hare Threaten te own 1s 0. ] figure 6. Typical performance characterisucs are 120 Te To} shown in table 6. Details concerning sewn joints $ > ~ + including type of seam, stitching, sewing thread | (0.2 and sewing machines, are detailed in 9.5.4.5. SELES Raaya Cees | 22.44 poannioine Moma thinerientaue stan | ibn ny te fe 73a eecsve nets es Site tS ines Bad ah ec NOTE Linear erpsnuon maybe used fos uemedite | table'B. Care should be taken to ensure that NOTE 3. These values apply to steels embedded tn fils of class) > dodkins have sufficient cross-sectional area and PEARS RTURL RS Bate] | Gene eo enese Seon, wing esimatnciinmeaticnincwioseat | “oodhne neo ng tv tor he varet masa EE 3.2.8 Polymeric reinforcements Design and testing recommendations for polymeric reinforcements are given in secuon 4. 3.2.4 Polymeric reinforcement joints 9.2.4.1 General Joints are subdivided into prefabricated joints and Joints made during execution of the works. A ‘number of different jointing systems are in use. Joints in geovemtiles should normally be sewn where load transference is needed. For polymeric ‘meshes o grids a bodlan may be emploved ~joints are pre-tensioned prior to loading, to reduce joint displacement as the components Jock together 3.2.4.6 Stapling ‘This method may be used with geotextiles to make temporary joints. Stapling should never be used for structural jointing, 8.2.4.6 Other jointing methods ‘Other joining methods may’ be adopted, however, the general recommendations a set out in 9.2.4.1 vill sul! apply:BS 8006 : 1995. Section 3 [Hable B. Jointing methods and approximate strengths of polymeric materials = Sola 75 oad errving ¢Miclener) | Displacemene? Woven georextle | Prayer seam [30 wo 50 < 25 (see figure 5) | | [eS am — |= (see figure 5) | “F seam) [30 60 <8 1 | (See figure 5) i Double ‘J seam"? 30070 <3 | (see figure 5) al Interloclang seam 9 (see | = 80 <3 | figure 3) \* 2: seam (gee figure 5) [70 t0 100, = 10 Bonded Dependent upon - —) method and ares 1 | ondiions Polymeric geogrid [Bodkin (see figure 7) x 3 to 15) | Lacing Dependent upon method | Dtnese ae sen seam VS TRESS fa Seoes ot he cenade suena of she joint sivided by che ene srengu of che aoling seer seat ee one displacement of joints seeording to BS 6906 : Pt 1 or 180 10921, *y Deasemene slver part tendionang to remove slack in ine [Aone scane gives» aude o typical ou characters. suitable test method, ¢ BS 6806 : Part | or 180 10924 stould | | Bote so decermine actual oun eharacseris { 3.3 Facings 3.3.2 Soft facings 4.8.1 Hard facings ‘These are considered in 9.2.5.3. Pacings may consist of concrete, steel sheet, steel 9-9-9 Facing anit joint filer materials gids or meshes, timber, proprietary materials oF 3.3.8.1 General combinations of these. Fillers should be durable, flexible, resistant to the ‘The facing should conform to che appropriate effects of air pollution, insolation and water which se ace sndard given above and should be sized Can be contaminated with de-icing salt by normal design procedures using the appropriate Oy ears see table S or else be subject co.atest 3.9.5.2 Bedding material programme, see section 4 ‘The selection of the bedding material will depend upon the structural behaviour of the facing [able 5 Yacoral Vaastu Tor diferent roe of acing] assumed in the design of the wall. Cement mortar aces —_— Scat durablegaskes teal ch 2 ean bonded = Spa. tork, bitumen bonded cork or ethylene propylene [ener BS 8110; BS 5400 diene monomer (EPDM) has been used ‘Steel sheet ‘BS L449: Parc 1 3.3.3.3 Sealing material | Steet ids and meses | BS 4482; BS 4489 ‘The Sling of joints other than bedding joints may Rare oeser osed cell plyecylene foam oF (BS Hao | sumeel polyurethane ou Sep nthe ut or | mer is 3268: Bs 5075, | onnale rip over the rear face of Oe Joint temporary works) \Gaivanising 1s 20BS 8006 : 1995 Section 4 SS For wholly frictional fills and under plane strain condisions typical to recaining walls the strains to ‘mobilize gy are small. Bishop !14) quotes axial Strains of 1°3 % for dense sands and Cornforth ‘23; illustrates an axial strain of simula: magnitude, see figure ©. Consequently 9p migh: be mobilized at axial strains of 1 % oF Jest. For greater strains the mobilized fnietion angle will tend towards 6 qy. For thus code of practice use is made of op for walls, ‘abutments and steep slopes constructed with frictional fil, and gq, for fil) to shallow slopes and embankments founded on weak foundations. 4.2.8 Fill deformation and strength ‘Tae mobilized shear strength, and the coefficient of earth pressure X will depend on the strain ‘properties of the fllsoi) and reinforcement. Wall movements needed to mobilize the aczive condition (X,) aze small in frictional fil, typically 2 rotation ‘of 0.001 rad. Experience has shown that with inextensible reinforcements latera stresses in the upper fill behind 2 wall wil be largely determined bby compaction stresses, and can approximate to a , condition. Guidance is given in sections 6 to 8 (oh the appropriate selection, 4.2.4 Fill strength related to reinforcement ‘The ada! tensile stiffness of reinforcement materials is classified as extensible or inextensibie, see 2,5, Steel below the vield point and some polymeric materials mobilize their design strength ava total axial surain of | % or less, whereas the majority of polymeric reinforcements, such 2s geotewtiles and geogrids mobilize their strength at higher strains, 4.2.5 Determination of fill strength ‘The effective angle of internal friction 9’ and effective cohesion c’ may be determined by shear box or criaxial tests in accordance with annex C of this standard, BS 1877 : Parts 7 and 8 or appendix A of BS 6906 : Part 8 : 1991. Shearing should not comunence until each soil sample is fully consolidated under each normal ‘cress level applied. The rate of shear should be consistent with drained conditions prevailing in whe sample. 4.2.6 Determainazion of ground strength ‘The shear strength of ground subject to sol) nailing may be determined using conventional techniques, for site investigation and testing described in BS 5930 and BS 1377 : Parts 7 and & or shear box testing described above with due regard for sample disturbance. 4.2.7 Effeets of soil on reinforcement darabilitr ‘Tne chemistry of the soil and soil water can have 2 significant effect on the durability and therefore load carrying capacicy of the soil reinforcement. tn parteular the electrochemical characterisues of the soil can maxe it corrosive to metallic reinforcement. In recognition of this certain limits Sefined in terms of chemical and electrical ccharacterisocs, have been placed on the fil used woth galvanized, ungalvanized or stainless stee! (see table 4), Although the use of such low corrosivity fills do not eliminate corrosion, the rate and nature of the corrosion is less severe, ané limits the corrosion to less than the limits given in table 7. ‘At present there are no formalized limics applied to the aggression of fil, or soul. with respect to polymere reinforcement. Any such limits that are subsequently defined will be a function of the specific polymeric reinforcement and in particular the specific polymer, and additives, used in che reinforcement. The performance of polymenc reinforcements, particularly in the long term, can be impaired by’ organic or inorganic chemicals or extreme pH values of the soil. 4.2.8 Sice damage ‘The durability of both metalic and polymeric reinforcement can also be affected by the particle size, shape and hardness of the fil. This stems Trom the ability of the fl! to damage the reinforcement during placement and compaction of the fil, The sevenity and nature of the damage caused by @ particular MUU and placement method ‘wi van’ from one reinforcement product to another In general surface scratches will have negligible effect on metallic reinforcement consisting of galvanized steel provided such damage does not expose the bare steel. The effects of construction damage on polymeric reinforcement need to be fully investigated for each proprietary material. However, these can be more severe than for nietallic reinforcement, Although the general navure of construction induced damage to polymeric reinforcements, e.g. cuts, tears, splits and perforations can be assessed by'site uals no test methads have yet been derived by which the same nacure and degree of damage can be reproduced consisiently in the laboratory. (Criteria exist 10 assess the ability of polymeric reinforcements to survive the construction process without the design function being impaired, 16: ‘These involve reductions in the values of tensile scrength and strain to be taken into account when assessing the design tensile capacity of the reinforcements. Cuts, wears, splits and perforations can lead to some loss of performance, and this may bbe assessed either from site trials or empirically from laboratory tests which simulate the effect of such damage, for example see annex: D.Section 4 4.3 Soil reinforcement 4.3.1 General Reinforced soil should be designed with an Reitivate margin of safery against reaching the aaeaiiee Umit state. In addition, checks for WeNTgeabibiy Limits should be made, These are eolaced in cerms of strain levels in the supyprcement which should not be exceeded Design against collapse requires consideration of Pactinternal and external stability. The main ofrence of the soil reinforcement on external ineiniey is wn fixing the geometry of the reinforced sapitss, for example the effective width of a wall Sib therefore its resistance co sliding or ang curing, These aspects of design are considered OrSocdons 6, 7 and 8. Similarly these sections An Seer various aspects of design with respect ¢O consital seability. However in general incernal espiley will be concrolled either by failure of the SuiPforeement through tensile rupture or by loss of Jena Consequently the objective should be to senise meaningful and reproducible test methods doves assess rupture and bond behaviour under TaliSeale conditions. The same or simular tests may Bu nployed, where necessary, to determine ve gratin characteristics with 2 view to designing fora defined serviceability requirement. 4.3.2 Serviceabilicy limits Serviceabilty limits are expressed in cerms of limit Sera tensile strains in the reinforcement which aad not be exceeded. These Limits wil vary with Ene eype of structure and wil come into operation Shaifferent stages according to the type of scructure. 4.9.3 Bond strength “The pull-out or sliding resistance of reinforcement sre citact with fil is assessed on the basts of direct SAsor testing such as that desenbed In annex E or BS 6906 : Part 8 For walls and slopes bond failure is assessed using, peak bond secength which is reduced by 2 parcial Fees to give a margin of safery to the design, For ‘Sinrorced foundations bond failure is assessed Ting the large strain bond strength ath she fil Gath a parval factor applied to give a margin of Ssafery to the design. ‘The use of the shear box to assess bond strength reflects current design practice in accordance with Bis 2006. Part 8. Whilst che shear box test should prove adequate for quality control purposes the use pelaboratory and in situ pullout tests may De Appropriate to assess load-displacement Charsceeristics with respect to serviceability For certain reinforcing elements such 25 rods, used Ae Soll mailing, or anchored fill systems shear Dox testing is inappropriate. [t is also current practice: tS %bace ine frictional bond scrength of rough linear reinforcements, such as ribbed strips, on the result Oe pullout tests. Uniess otherwise established it is fecommended that field pull-out vests be carried Seto verify the bond strength of these materials assumed in design, 4.3.4 Darability and performance with cime 413.41 General ‘The definition of durability is the ability to fraintain requisite properes over the selected Gesiga life. In recognition of the fact that no (rater) is immutable, the design engineer should Be able to quantify how pertinent properties change with time and what factors will affect ceectnisms or rates of change. [n the context of Teinforcement for reinforced soil a check lst of factors to be considered is given in table 13. ‘Although each of these factors should be JOnaidered, a combination of two or more factors (efvencing the reinforcement simultaneously can lead to a mote critical situation. Testing of the ‘Minforcement under combined conditions shows fhe carried out 25 appropriate to the reinforcement. ‘The prime factors likely to affect the durability of Tuinforcing materials are listed in table 14 which ites general [actors and specific factors, General Ghote reflect environments and in-service conditions which will apply to all soil (einforcements, For metallic and polymeric Teinforeing elements these include design life, joading, water and installation induced damage for polymeric reuuforcements there are to additional general factors of pre-installation UV ‘exposure and operational temperature. In addition to general factors there wil be factors that affect performance which will be specific to the reinforcement product For metalic reinforcements in general performance land the variation of performance with time will be Aitected by the corrosivity of the sol. In Jecognition of us certain lunits have been set for The secrrochemical parameters of fl, see cable 4. In adihtion to corrosive environments associated ‘with the soil there may be corresive fluids nemduced into the reinforced soil mass, €.2. Squeous solutions of salt (common salt used in ‘ticing) oF spillage of corrosive fluids transported by road. The effects of loading and construction damage to metallic reinforcement may not be Sime Gependent. Corrasion, which is related to the Glecuochemical nacure of che soil and the air/water ment, is ame dependent and is considered Js a reduction in net reinforcement cross-sectional area with Gime. For the conditions pertaining t0 Teinforced soll, the effects of individual factors are ‘additive and not incerdependent. Thus rates of Cormason, for example, do net vary with load ancenssitySection 4 BS 8006 : 199: [Table 13. Checklist for investigations ‘of reinforcement products TT Physical and mechanveal properdes +s) full Geseription of the material and relevant technical literature; \ | ty thon and long verm data ultimate and design valves of tensile streneih swess sain ura, Ne of Young's modulus; creep: Hexsbility, extensibulty Sirenuat, thermal oF tida) loading: coefficient of friction with fil wpe (dvnamic ang scatic) however induced 8 2 Durabilicy Tre etfects of the following agencies on phsical and mechanical properdes wo be investgated cenrome pH values; chlorides; sulfates; ozone; hydrocarbons and other chemicals commons transported on highways, water; a rte at aeared rays (including shor: term exposure prior to instalation): Coe rand other animal and vegetable Life forms; termperature; fire; vandalism handling, storage "" damage!) extension and movement!) P Performance during installation and use. effects on facing! Sthe affect of the Combination of load, chemiea) envvonmment and construcdon damage, ie | | combination of 1, 2 and 3 [Bconseruction details: fasteners: effect on 3b) and 2 F Qualiry control procedures with production processes Teena ee rmvosure to an aggresive environmen. 6 longer fest of shor: verm UV | Feces Hon ete reinforcements eons and marae spr on metal reforcemenis Caer Tent of sauce faugue however wdoced, €& sruccural loading, thermal loading 1 {ire effec of sa fasgve However induced, ef svcural londrg, ermal loading | [HO The tect of basis, fires or vandalism on the behaviour ofthe tire These tops to be Sneed by se ANS) ‘Tne performance of polymeric reinforcements is affected by a number of inter-related variables Some variables wil) relate directly tw durability of the polymer and additives used in the reinforcement while others wil relate to thé Visco-elastic narure of polymeric materials. in respect of tensile creep rupture, all of these Vanables will interact, A consequence of this is that the sum of the effects of discrete environments may be less than the total effects of compound environment. Any such synergism Should be considered in design. As with metallic: reinforcement there are general and specific factors’ ‘which will affect performance. The specific factors Which are listed in table 14 will vary according to the product under consideration. Much of this Nariation wil) depend upon the specific formulation of the polymer and additives used in the fanufacoure of the product. For example, oné polymer can be degraded in a highly alkaline environment whilst another can not. In addition the addives incorporated in the polymer, the manufacturing process and the physical form of the Feinforcement ‘wil affect performance. Consequently testing is product specific. At present there are no formalized limitations on the Environments in which polymeric reinforcements are expected to operete. Table 14 Factors affecting durability ané performance of buried soil reinforcement materials _— [wera [Gener facore | peste facars [Mesalic | Loading _|BacceriaWlelecoo- | chemical composibon | | oso \ Water corse ma \ Dan —s | {Powmene GhemicaVbacverial | Cneeauon of sol | \ Aggressive nuids | UV exposure i ‘Temperature iBS 8006 ; 1995 section + 4.3.4.2 Tests for durability TEAS toc polymeric reinforcement durabiity are Teviewed in PD 6553. Tor metalic reinforcements consisting of steel For mich and experience has alowed an rreeer chemical specification for (ills to be Sect. see table 4, which allow for losses in Gravrnrcement thickness less than the lus Bven sole 7 For more aggressive environments & SF Seine seudy for the particular site recommended tris not practical to consider all of the possible is Renmmencal hazards which could aifect the enuigrmance of polymer reinforcements although pererally (tis aoe anucipated that conventional general and bacwerological contents of fills and Chern ails wil pose any problems. The designer rane consider the site specific aspects of & srselve where, for example, petrol or other scheme Tspilage might occur. The subsequent use coe completed works can also introduce ofoblems if these can induce high ground Promeratures or even possible combustion since ere Gould affect the performance of polymeric reinforcing maceriais, The risk of attack of aggressive fluids on both Tee ie and polymerte reinforcements can often be Feet ian by using prevercauve design measures dea 3s the incorporation of impermeable barriers and effective drainage systems. 4.2.5 Design parameters Bond failure is not considered here, It is necessary Boe Jar how the reunforcement base strength at 3 enoal eo the design Ufe can be defined as the Getehueengeh ‘with respect ro tensile cuprure For metallic reinforcements which extibit negible eeLO'ne reanforcement base strength at the end of he design life can be taken as the product of Gigurote tensile strength and the net cross-sectional uleimattine member The net cross-sectional area i Bre poss cross secrional area less the area lost bY Corrosion (see 3.2.22). Provided the total axial Sohin in une reinforcement is not expected to SEAMS over the design Ufe of the structure 10 {Stiher information is needed. Clearly che Key {attot for metalic reinforcement is knowledge of races of corresion. For polymere reinforcements, the reinforcement seePmengeh ray nov be governed by tensile creep eoShae. le may be governed by the strain occurring Giter construction of ie may be governed by the toad in the reinforcement after stess (or 1oad) fRiaeation au constant stain. Thus the base Trrengrh of a polymeric reinforcement should Be the lesser of: 5) bose smengeh with respect fo tense éreeP rapeare; >) base strength wth respect to creep strain In the case of basal reinforcement and clays where the gain in strengzh is slow (i.e, where ‘consolidation is slow) consideration may need to be ven to the concept of stress relaxation. 4.3.6 Tests for polymeric reinforcements 4.9.6.1 General ‘Three basic levels of testing are considered for polymeric reinforcements, 1) Indax testing. Testing carried out under ‘Sxandardized conditions used to compare the basic properdes of products, (e.g. wide width tensie strength, creep under load, friction properties, ete.). 1b) Quality control testing. Rapid testing to assure continuity of quality. ©) Performance testing. Testing of polymeric reinforcements in contact with a soi/fil under Standardized conditions in the laboratory, to provide a beter simulation of site conditions than index testing. Performance testing may also be carried out at full-scale on site ‘The range of tests presently available is limited, and 4 variety of test methods from various national Sandards (BS, ASTM, DIN, NF, ete.) are often Quoted in manufacturer's literature and Secasionally used in specifications. A number of ese methods have been published in the BS 6906 Series, and these will be supplemented or superseded by 150 and EN tests. Purure ISO and EN publications will also deal with sampling and identification. The majority of chese tests will relate to index or quality conerel testing. 4.3.6.2 Tensile strength and creep properties ‘To ascess the reinforcement base strength at a selected design life a Knowledge of che stress and Simin properties of the reinforcement is essential. ‘The tensile test (BS 6906 : Part 1 or ISO 10319) should be used to determine the short term Strength properties. Creep testing should folow the procedure given in BS 6908 : Part 5. The Recommended minimum test duration of 10 000 h Should be adhered to for all polymeric reinforcements having a service life in excess of 10 Years. For temporary or short term works, see table 12, the minimum creep rupeure test duration Should be 1000 h. Although BS 6906 » Part 5 is inrended to provide information on creep strain performance the same test method may be used, Writh clevated laads, tp assess tensile creep rupture: performance. The testing of jounts should be carried out in. accordance with the principles of BS 6906 : Part 1 or ISO 10321 anBS 8006 : 1995 section 4 Tesing is normally cerned out at a sandard temperature of 20 °C or 25 &C but the properties of different polymeric reinforcements are sensitive to temperature to éifferent degrees and vesting shoulu cover the range of o2erational temperatu ely in the structure, As 2 guide mean ground peratures in the UK are about 10 °C with range of about 0 °C to 20 °C =: depth and abvat =10 °C w = 85 °C nea" exposed surfaces in soil Strucwures, Aspect, diurnal end seasonal ‘Auctuations should be consideres. Design su should be based on the maximum operational ‘temperature. ths 4.3.6.3 Other properties ‘Testing may be necessary to determine the following properties for design purposes. 2) Site damage. The susceptibilicy of polymeric reinforcement to damage Guring installauon and the value of the partial material factor fmt, May" be determined by carefully controlled site or ful-scale trials of the effect of installation on relevant properties, see 5.3.3, ) Jn-plane flow. This wil) be relevant if the designer considers that the reinforcement could act as a drainage channel for excess pore pressure removal, This may be of benefit in margina) quality fis 4.3.7 Reinforeement camples Where the risk category’ or design Life of the scrueture makes it appropriate, it would be helpful to include provision for recovery of reinforcement samples over an extended number of years and for these to be compared with reference samples kept in darkroom conditions. This would be of value Doth in giving early warning of potential problems at that structure and in providing useful background on the long term performance of both similar structures and the type of reinforcement, Durabilicy to vitra-violet exposure for an appropriate duration is of particular imporcance, and polymenc reinforcements should be able to meet the recommendations of 9.4.2.7 4.4 Facing units Facing units should either be designed to the appropriate British Standards or may be assessed Dy testing, 4.5 Trial constructions to evaluate constructability Construction tml: shoulé be carried out if the soi reinforcemer:, the reinforcemen: corections oF Teinforcement acing connections are significantly different {rom those used previously or have not been p-eviously used, A eal should also be carried ou" the proposed use of the fill material falls utside previous experience with respect to che pe of reinforcement under consideration, see annex F Dense sand 450 400 350 200 250 Shear stress (kNinv) i 200 1 150 +00 4 ° + 2 3 ‘Axial strain (%) | Mobilized shear stress versus axial strain ! ter tertom Buzsaré sane rom | Pane Sian iest i Figure 9, Stressisrnin relationship for Sand under plane serainlowding ii Section 5. Principles of design 5.1 Design philosophy “The philosophy followed in this document is to design against the occurrence of a limit stare (see Section 2.3. The objective in taking this approach is to achieve compasbility with other related codes of pracace and reference has been made to CARLA [17] By ies nature reinforced soil is a combination of scuctural and geotechnical engineering. The evolution of limit stare design in structural Engineering has led to the definition of a number ff partial load factors which are applied (0 loads in Gesign combinations and material factors which are ‘applied to the structural components. fn geotechnical engineering the application of parcial factors to the various geotechnical parameters has hot been found practical in general design and Overall factors of safety are still used. For the purposes of reinforced soil design 2 Umit state is deemed to be reached when one of the following occurs! a) collapse or major damage; +b) deformations in excess of acceptable limits; ) other forms of distress or minor damage which would render the scructure unsightly, require nforeseen maincenance or shorten the expected life of the structure, ‘The condition defined in a) is the ultimate limit state, and b) and c) are serviceability Umit states; Practice in reinforced soil is to design against the ‘ultimace limut state and check for the serviceability limut state, In reinforced soll design some of these limit states may be evaluated by conventional soil mechanics approaches (¢.g. settlement). In this Case design loads should be applied to the soils as, for the design of 2 conventional structure, Other deformations may be due to excessive strain in the reinforcements and current design practice is generally to ensure that an adequate factor of Safery against excessive loading of the reinforcements is available. 5.2 Service life ‘The service life of reinforced soil structures should be considered in design. (n most aplicacions the Selected design life of the reinforcing elements is Equal co the service Ife of the structure. In certain caces, mostly foundations to embankments, the entire scrucnure can have a long term service life bur it may only be necessary for the reinforced portion to function for a shorcer Gime hile the ‘Surrounding ground gains strength Table 12 gives examples for the categorization of the service life of reinforced soll for a variety of applications. For each service category consideration should be given to: = site investigation requirements; ~ environmental and loading considerations; ~ requirements for handling, storing and placing raaterials; © quality control; = safety margins appropriate to that particular category of structure; = demolition during or'at the end of service fe 5.3 Factors of safety 5.3.1 General ‘The recommended approach to applying factors of safety is one of partial material and load factors as recommended in CIRIA (17). The partial factor format developed below is appropriate to reinforced soll where a variety of materials may be used for structures of various selected service lives land where the ramifications of failure depend upon ‘geometries and end use. It is recognized that the magnitude of 2 factor of safety influences structural behaviour in the case fof reinforced soil a larger factor of safety implies a stronger and stiffer structure subject to less deformation and possibly increased stresses in the reinforcement, (18] In principle the overall factor-of safety of a construction reflects the consequences of its failure. An approach to this is to consider the economic consequences of failure at some future ‘ame, This implies 2 reliahility analysis approach to design, (19). However, pending further work on this lve it ig recommended that for routine design the cansequences of failure should be taken into aécout in applying the pal factors desenbed low. 5.3.2 Economic ramifications of failure factor A partial factor, fa, should be applied to cake ‘secount of the ramifications of failure of the structure, see table 3. Factor fy will be common to all reinforcements and sheuld be assigned values dependent upon the class of risk for the particular structure as given in table 3. Examples of Structures in categories 1, 2 and 3 identified in table 3 are given in figures 10, 11, 12, 13.and 14, Following the recommenclations of CIRLA (17], Sn could be applied co either the material factor fm (8.3.3 and 5.3.4) or the load factor j (5.2.6) However, the application of increased (factored) ‘extemmal Toads to an earth retaining structure oF to a slope stability problem is not always unfavourable, This is because increased stress in 3 frictional soil results in an enhanced shear strengzh.BS 8006 : 1995 Section 5 SES Post-cansiniction defarmetions of the structure are ‘caused by several factors including: a) exernal = foundation settlement. = loadings not considerec in design. ») truernal: ~ creep strain of polymeric reinforcements, ~ creep of fine grained soi fill: = presence of a laver of wet fill; = compression of fil; deterioration of the reinforcement due to meu corrosion or polymer degradation, Foundation sectlements are calculated by conventional soi) mechanics approaches, see sections 6, 7 and 8. Design of structures using polymeric reinforcement ‘should take account of the creep properdes of the material, see section 4, Unforeseen corrosion and degradation can lead 10 excessive deformations and therefore long term ‘monutoring may be included in particularly sensitive structures or structures for which the ramifications of failure are serious. 5.6 Design information 5.6.1 Site investigation 5.6.1.1 General ‘The use of reinforced so may be considered: 4) 2s an integral pan of the design concept of a project; by) as an altemative to the use of reinforced concrete o7 other structural solutions either on the grounds of economy or as @ result of ground conditions; 6) wo act as temporary works; 4) as remedial or smpravernent works to an exsting configuration ‘The knowledge of ground conditions at the time of proposing 9 reinforced soil solution should Gepend on the application and on the state of advance of the desig. ‘The techniques available for ground invesugabons are described in BS 5930. The stages of invesugation recommended can be conveniently surumarized as: 1) inital desk and field study: 2) main field and laboratory investigation; 2) investigation during construction LE the use of reinforced soll is envisaged from the ‘art of a project the wnidal desk and field study and the main field and laboratory investigation should be implicitly esigned with this in mind. Reinforced soil is often used on areas of weak sot where conventiona!, more rigid structures woule suffer distorion and damage unless supported on piles. The inherent fiewaiulty of reinforced so! ca: accommodate the effecis of settling ané consolidation of the subsol without structural damage. However this type of epplication requires a thorough suds 0” the foundation soil including: the effects due to short term loads during construction. and the effect of long term loads as ‘consolidation proceeds. The site investigation should provide information of setulement (total anc fifferencal), the rate of such settlement and the evaluation of the foundation soll strengths together with a review of tie bearing capacity and rotational slip stability, {20, ‘An investigation based on the intended use of ‘conventional structures may’ not adequately identify the data needed for reinforced sou construction, For example, in conventional structures the concept of the allowable bearing capacity is often governed by the normal limits for Gifferentia! settlement of concrete or masonry strvetures, Reinforced soll can wolerate differentia! Settlements of one order of magnitude greater and ‘separate considerations should be ver to foundation shear failure and settlement Where necessary the scope of the site investigation work should consider the possible chemical or biological effects of the soll or fill environment on the proposed reinforcements. The specification of materials and the testing recommendations given in sections 3 and 4 should be considered when. planning the site investigations. 5.6.1.2 Initial desk and field study NOTE, See 4.2 and 4.9 of BS $230 «1982, ‘The availability and characteristics of the potential Jocal fl materials should be assessed together with details of local drainage. Where appropriate the possible build up of povenuially corrosive or Getrimental chemicals should be considered. Where reinforced soil is to be used to retain ground adjacent to or below existing structures or land. ‘he condition of the surrounding land. buildings. highways ané services shoulé be established 5.6.1.3 Ground investigation 5.6.1.3.1 Brent of tmvestigation NOTE, See eauee 20 of BS 8990 In many cases reinforced soil can be constructed over ground conditions which would be unsuitable for less Nexible construction systems. Where 3 strvenue is constructed over poor foundations, Information of the medium and longer term behaviour of the foundation strata under the imposed loads should be obtained, particularly deformation considerations are important as in tne case of 2 bridge abutment or an urban retaining seructureBS 8006 : 1995 Section 5 5.6.1.2.2 Methods of investigation and sampling NOTE, See 85 5990. ‘Appropriate methods of determining the Aerechnical parameters of the foundation strata and of the retained fill should be used. With foundation conditions in granular materials Gandard penetration tests will often be adequate. Gnere soft clay deposits undertie the site Continuous undisturbed sampling techniques allied fo penecrometer testing may be appropriate in Graluating sectement behaviour and to assess Construction dime or post-construction movements. 5.6.1.3.3 Ground water NOTE. See clause 20 of BS 5090 : 1961, Ground water conditions are of importance to feinforeed soll structures. The pH and chemical Content of the ground water may affect the durability of reinforcing elements, fasteners and facings. Fluctuations in the ground water regime fray affect the overall structural behaviour Testing for ground water chemistry is considered in section 4. ‘The groundwater investigation should be designed to provide knowledge of the permeability of the fil or ground to be reinforced as well as the nderlying strata in order to define long term (drainage patterns which affect three unrelated aspects of water flow as follows: 2) possible bulld up of pore water pressures Gwithin the reinforced structure (stability); ) possible build up of deleterious materials within the reinforced zone (durability): ) consolidation characteristics (settlemenservicesbility). 5.6.3.4 Data presentation and reporting Field data and strata descriptions should be presented in accordance with BS 5930, ‘The site investigation report should contain the relevant design parameters for the appropriate Seucture as detailed in sections 6, 7 and 8. index {esting and parle size discribucon results from teach soil type together with short and long term Seength parameters and where applicable Consolidation paramecers, should be included. ‘The fill or ground proposed to be used in che Seructure should be subject to the testing fecommendauions of sections 9 and 4. Any limitation of the testing procedures should be sated. Recommendacions regarding the design teport are aven in 5.64 5.6.1.4 Investigation during construction Monitoring of serlement and of pore water dissipation should be undertaken with construction ‘over soft foundations where the rate of loading heeds to be controlled co ensure stabilicy. Where the scructure recains in situ material or forms a repair or stabilization measure, the Tetained or stabilized material should be inspected fs itis uncovered. The results of this inspection Should be compared to the findings of the ground investigation and the design assumptions, and the ‘design checked against any variations. ‘Tne construction of soil nailing requires the driling of holes for the insertion of reinforcement, or the Griving of nails, Records of these activities should be maintained and correlated to the ground investigation findings. In situ pull-out testing may be considered as a further investigation activity; the results of tests should be compared to the main investigation findings. 5.6.2 Environmental considerations 5.6 Uf relevant, the effects of impact or seismic loads should be Considered using static methods. Loads due to water pressures including seepage pressures, buoyancy and lateral pressures should be considered, together with increased allowances for feinforcement deterioration where applicable 1 General 5.6.2.2 Chemical and biological considerations Materials commonly used in reinforced soil are classified in section 3 and testing recommendations fare given in section 4. The future use of the Strucuse should be considered during design including the possible concentration of biological or chemical material or hear. Potential problems associated with salt run-off from highway grtting Sperations should be considered. Adequate details Should be provided to safeguard both fill and reinforcement. 5.6.2.9 Past-construction damage ‘The implication of post-construction damage should be considered in design. Examples of post-constuction damage are accidental Joadings Such a vehicle impact, slitting of geotextles and geognds by vandals, fire and flooding, Generally reinforced soll is resilient to normal impact loadings and damage is often superficial and can be repaired without affecting the integrity of the primary scructural components, Other post-consmucrion damage can be due to Superunposed strains sich as those due to ground movements resulting érom the collapse of Underground mine sorkings or other cavities, or movement along faults. Potential problems of this, hacure should be identified during the ground \gwestigation phase. a7BS 8006 : 19: Section 1 Anhabited buitsing | orschoo! im] Figare 12. Examples of foundations in 1 category 2 | ee | 403) Motorway oF principal road «) Inhabited bailing | |___s | ay strveuure adjaceac schoolyard Dam 1 Sea wall or siver ining wal (ond slopes) ) Abuene by Motorway or principal oad ‘Railway Figare 10. Examples of structures in category 3 — applicable to walls and slopes anSection 6 BS 8006 : 1995 6.4 Dismensions of the structure 6.4.1 General Prior to considering exvema! stabibry the overall geomerry of the wall or abutment should be SGlected. Consideration of either the external oF the inemad stability mey require the dimensions of he structure to be increased from the inital size The initial dimensions of the structure should not bbe less than the minimum specified in table 19 Unless it can be satisfactorily demonstrated by ‘previous experience that smaller values are adequate. The geometrical size of a structure should be based Spon'a concept of mechanical height, H, which is Befined as the veruical distance from the toe of the Scucture to the point where 2 hne at arc tan 0.3 to ‘he vertical outcrops the upper ground line above the wall, Figures 19 and 20 pve details of the tial sizing of structures of the form shown in figure 15 and referred wo in table 10. Walls with mpezoidal cross section should only be considered Venere foundations are formed by excavation into Tock or when good foundations exist 6.4.2 Embedment ‘The toe of the structure should be embedded below ground surface. The definition of fembedment is provided in figure 21, Embedment is fXtommended to avoid Jocal failure by punching in the weinity of the facing and to avoid the phenomenon of loca! soi flow similar to piping Biaioe une structure, Tne amount of ermbedrne: Gepends on various factors which include P pressure imposed By the simctare on HS foundation, otros depth (usually taken as 0.45 mis the ux); = nek of piping if a water head builds up behind The facing in river and sez walls sek of exposure of the toe due to subsequent ‘excavation; isk of scour at the toe of and sea walls. Structures should have an embedment depth of at Jeas: the corumonly adoptes frost penetration Gepth of 0-45 m unless they are founded on # rock Gr suruccural base such asa raft, mattress oF old Cavements. The Minimum embedment should Rot Be tess than that given in table 21 which is Spplicable to a structure slenderness ratio of not Jess than L’ ~ 0.7 ané for good ground Conditions. On sites where the foundation is weak Or soft, greater embedment should be considered. In table 20 the minimum embedment depth ‘expressed in terms of the mechanical height of the ral provides a conservative value and is generally Used for inital sizing, The minimum embedment depth expressed in terms of the factored bearing pressure at the bese of the wal) provides a more Tigorous solution. For suructures subject to water action by. river oF dea, ant-scour precautions, Tip-rap or gabion Fratsresses should be provided to ensure stability. In these cases an embedment depth greater than the rrinimum defined in table 20 should be considered, river training walls “Table 19. Dimensions of walls and abutments Seneare PE ‘Walls with normnal retaining function ‘Bridge abutments “Trapezoidal walls and abvement Suepped walls and abuuments “Was subject to low thrust from retained fil such as negative backslope or embedded walls, see igure 15g) andj) Low height wails ie. less than 1.3 m arc ass SH = 0.125 Os 5H < bes: Sums O18 Oa sb 2078 SUH 5 0.222 senate Si ahe vertical spacing of reinforcement Pi Re dagen of manfrcement 31am eve FASS ot Soeure defined in fure 200, [htiniaom relnforcemensWenth 10.78 (3 m minimum) [The greater of O.6H + 2m or 7m [0.7H for reinforcements in top half of structure, G.4i! for reinforcements in botwom half of structure | Jor 3 m minimum | \ | _ 16.7 in wp half of sructure, see figure 20c) for Honger sanps at base O.6H or 3 ye minimum [Subject w paricular considerations TP For wapezainl wall the veraca spacing of he reinforcements sows obey te folowing 46Section 6 BS $006 : 1995 Sec able Zo. Determination of the minima embedment a9 a fanction of the mechanical eight in | ‘petes and the factored bearing pressure gy in KN/en? _ Taps ofthe osed a eB nines Gabeamene Dy [Sain mbetnene a, > |i Azo [Wale [Ha Tins 10-5 Ano | abotmends Tlano [pt x10 Boa We (oe, = 370) | Wals iano [aria 1 Aa (woud = 2/1) [Walls a [a0 ~ 10 Fy = BE (oot By = 3) _| Walls Tai 3a 1079 ; ‘NOTE: For detinson of Rotation see figure 20 | NOTE.2, By = 0.48 6.5 External stability 6.5.1 General “The effects of dead loads and other loads and forces acung on the structure should be considered when assessing external stability. Stability should be checked for bearing and tilt failure, forward sliding, and slip eile failure, figure 22, as well as Setslement of the structure, figure 23a. The Gefinitions of soll properties for the reinforced soil, retained fill and foundation, together with the principal superimposed loads considered in stability Eglculations are shown in figure 24. Both short and ong term soll properties should be considered to allow far the construction and in-service conditions land changes in pore water pressures. Passive earth pressures exerted on the foot of the wall or Ecructure below ground level should be ignored ‘when considering stabilizing forces, 6.5.2 Searing and tilt failure ‘The sypical bearing pressure imposed by a reinforced soll structure on the foundation strata, is shown in figure 25a. For design, 2 bearing pressure g, based upon a Meyerhof distribution may be assumed, see figure 250. Re a Tae where 2g ie the faccored bearing pressure acting on the base of the wall: is the resultanc of all factored vertical toad ‘components (load factors from tables 17 and 18 as applicable to each load case); ‘3 the reinforcement length at the base of the wall; is the eccencricity of resultant load R, about enare line of the base of width L. Ry e ‘The imposed bearing pressure q, should be compared with the ultimate bearing capacity of the foundation soil as follows: aus 1 2 + ym HS Ing *™ where gui isthe ultimate bearing capacity of foundation so} is the foundation soil density; is the wall embedment depth: is the partial material factor applied to que (ee table 16). y Da Iris 6.5.3 Sliding along the base The stability against forward sting of the uructure at the interface berween the reinforced fill and the subsoil should be considered. The resistance to movement should be based upon the properties of either the subsoil or the reinforced fil, whichever is the weaker, and consideration should be given to sliding on or becween any feinforcement layers used at the base of the structure, For long term stability where there is soil-to-soil contact at the base of the structure; ~ “Be For long term stabilicy where there is reinforcement-to-soil contact at the base of the seructure; ARy 5 Ry BE Ge SBy 5 TERE? |For shor: term stability where there is soll-to-se!) contact ai the base of the structure Py = 4b For short term stabilicy where there is feinforcement-to-soll contaci at the base of the In 3s ESL where Py is the horizontal factored disturbing force (load factors from tables 17 and 18 a5 applicable to load case): Ry ig the vertical factored resultant force (load factors from tables 17 and 16 2s applicable to load case); is the peak angle of shearing resistance under effective stress canditions; cl isthe cohesion of the sai] under effective stress conditions: ca is the undrained shear strength of the soil, L isthe effect fag ‘= the partial niaterials factor applied to tan e’p. cf and c, see iable 16: fy is the partial factor against base sliding is the interaction coefficient relating sol/reinforcement bond angle with tan pi is the adhesion coefficient relating soil cohesion to soil/reinforcerent bond. ve base width for sliding: Where a layer of reinforcement coincides with the ase of the wall the value of f, Usted in table 16 for soli/reinforeement siding should be used. Where reinforcement does not coincide with the base of the wall the valve of f, Usted in table 16 for soil-to-soll sliding should be used. 6.5.4 Settlement 6.5.4.1 General The total sertlement of 2 reinforced soil structure is the combined effect of the setdement of the foundation soi) under the influence of the pressures imposed by the reinforced soil srueture, Bnd the internal compression of the reinforces backfill Reinforced soil structures built on good ground behave ina manner similar to convencional earth Tetaining structures and do not undergo significant Eetilement, However, due to their general abilky to Srithstand the effects of lange sertlements of poor Youndation soils they are used with great effect 38 these situations, (18), [20}. '22}. (232, (28), 1251. To Gbisin maximurn economy the supporsing ound Ghd the reinforced soil structure should be 48 considered e& a whole, 126), [27] Where reinforced sol) wells are built adjacent + diner new seructures consideration should Be Bven fo the possible interaction of the structures. To Uhgure’ compatible response of both structures it nay be appropriate co combine the structures as an Integral urut rather than vse two different Uaasmmaction forms, Thus : mixture of reinforced Sol wing walls and piled abutments wil) often, Seguire greater care than the use of reinforced sol for both the wing walls and the abucment of bndge ‘Tots, settiement can influence the serviceability of the wall or abutment, €.8, loss of headroorn in the Case of a bridge deck supported on reinforced soi Sbounente, It can also affect the serviceabibty of Grains and services 6.5.4.2 Settlement af foundation soil Virwally all foundacion soils will sectle when Subject to increased overburden pressures as is the shee when supporang reinforced soll structures Gowever due to the inherent ability of such structures to Tespond to foundation movernents the Tolowing clauses should be considered as being tnore relevant to significant serelements. ‘The Tanificance of any eetilement is a matter for the Structura! desicner, but will be mainly determines by the type of structure and anv adjacent structures or services sensitive to foundation movements, The calculations of foundation Settlements supporaing reinforced soil structures follow classica) soil mechanics theory. The accual pressures unposed on foundations by reinforced so Seractures are lower and more evenly distributed than conventional concrete structures and this ormally accs co reduce foundation settlements. 6.5.4.3 Internal settlement of reinforced soil ful) ‘The amount of setuement (compression) within the faivorced volume will Gepend mainly upon the hrature of the fil, its compaction, and the verdcal Dressures within the fil) This pressure will be Langels'2 function of structure height. For walls ané abutments che specified fills, when properly eOmpacted, will produce relatively small internal Semlements. The amaunt of interna] settlement to Re accorsmodated by a reinforcement sysem wil Gepend on the height of the structure, the fil tube, the surcharge loading, the type of facing ané Uiiection, The movement capacises detaed in fable 21 should be considered as @ minimum to be provided.Section 6 BS 8006 : 1995 Fable 21. Minimum vertical movement ities required for facing systems to cope with vertical internal settlement of reinforced a ‘Serucearal form Winimas verdeal movement apacky of ermeem Discrete panels ‘Joint closure of Lin 150 relative to panel height Full height panels Vertical movement, capacity of connections 1 in 150 | relative to panel height Semi-eliptical facings _ | Vertical distortion of 1 {n 150 relative to panel height Geotextile wrap-around | No specific limit except facings for appearance or serviceability considerations 6.5.4.4 Difrerential settlement Whereas the total settlement of a structure can interfere with some special aspect of its function, eg, loss of clearance to bridge deck in the case of fan abutment, it is differential or relative settlement which in general produces the most severe effects bn the completed struccure itself Reinforced soil is tolerant of large differential settlements and it is often the facing which Getermines the limita to settlement, Where large differential settlements are anticipated, as in the case of mining subsidence, special sip joints may be incorporated into the facing, [28], (23]. A guide to the tolerance of reinforced soll structures to differential settlements along the line of the facing 's provided in table 22. Reinforced soil bridge abutments are able to accommodate differential settlements significantly in excess of the established tolerable mavement critena for bridge decks, (30). In these conditions special structural precautions should be used sith regard to the bridge superstructure, (25], (83), (32), [33 “Table Galde to the effects of settlement | Masimam dftercodal | Comment element 1 in 1000 Not normally significant 1 in 200 Pull height panels may be : affected by joints closing or opening 1 in 100. Normal safe limit, without special measures, for discrete concrete panel facings Linso Normal safe limit for : semi-elliptical steel face | elements. Discrete concrete panels may suffer closed joints if special measures not included 1in <0 Soft facings may suffer distortion affecting their retaining ability WOT, Thc no tended firm Umit between tenors ‘Ths s preliminary pulde ony 6.5.4.5 Staged construction Staged construction may be used in order to allow consolidation of the foundation and an increase in shear strength prior to the subsequent construction Stages. When major settlements are anticipated sith reinforced soil abutments, stage construction may be appropriate and arrangements for the subsequent jacking of the deck should be considered, ‘Stage construction and consolidation of the Toundations can affect construction. The placing of discrete panels in a high structure may be difficult following consolidation settlement of an earlier stage. The influence of consolidation should be considered in the decailing of the facings. 6.5.5 External slip sarfaces All potential slip surfaces should be considered, including those passing chrough the structure, See figure 26. In the case of a failure plane passing through the structure the resistance to failure provided by the reinforcement crossing the failure plane should be considered. [f residual shear Surfaces are present then appropriate soil parameters should be used. The appropriate analysis method and the factors of safety used Should conform to 8S 6021 or BS 8002.BS 8006 : 1995 6.6 Internal stability 6.6.1 Genera! Stability within 2 reinforced structure is achieved by the reinforcing elements carrying tensile forces and transferring them by frietion. frictic™ and Adlesion, of friction and bearing In aédivon forces tan be Transferred through fill wapped br the Clements. The fil is then able to support the associated shear and compressive forces, In the Case of anchored earch, stability within a structure SS achieved by the anchor elements carrying tensile forces and transferring these by incon along the anchor shaft or anchor loop and bearing of Lie ‘anchor to the surrounding fil Interna! stability is concerned with the integrity of the reinforced volume, The structure has the potential to fail by the rupture or loss of bond of the reinforcements. Consideration should be given to the local stability of individual layers of lements, sliding on horizontal planes and the stability of wedges. ‘Tne design recommendations below are generally applicable wo all fils conforming to 2.1.2 except that speci) consideration should be given to amending the design equations where it is Anticipesed that pore Water pressures will affect the shor: term soil properves of conesive frictional fil. ‘The arrangement and layout of reinforcing elements should be chosen to provide stability ané to suit the size, shape and detail of the facing. For Simplicity @ uniform distribution of identical reinforeing elements may be used throughout the height of the Wall. However, it may be economical to divide the height of the wall into 2 number of zones and to dengn appropiate reinforcing ‘elements for each zone. 6.6.2 Collapse mechanisms 6.6.2.1 General ‘The following potential collapse mechanisms should bbe considered ~ stability of individual ‘elements: = resistance to sliding of upper poruons of the seructure; = stability of wedges in the reinforced fil, ‘The folowing factors which influence stability should be included in the design check: = the capacity to transfer shear between the reinforcing elements; the tensile capaciry of the reinforcing elements: = the capacity of the fill w support compression. ‘The ultimate limit state is modelled with the follownng assumptions 12) The sol shear scrength is based upon 6", using the appropriace parual macerial factor contzined sn able 16. bj Partial load factors are applied to the characteristic loads in accordance with 6.3.6 fusing the values contained in table 17 or 18 for walls and abutments respecoivels to mode! collapse ©) Loads are distributed throughovt the reinforced soil block in accordance with the Meverhof distribution, see figure 27 4) Partia) reinforcement material factors fm for the limit states and selected design life, ae applied to the materials base strength i accordance with table 16. . @) The economic ramifications of collapse are consideres by applying a parual factor Jy in accordance with table 3 1) The tensions in the reinforcement are based on the scresses assumed to occur in the soil at & Shon distance from the face of the wall 6.6.2.2 Fonoard sliding of any portion of @ wall on any horizontal plane ‘The ability against this mode of failure should be considered at the following interfaces where applicable: 2) fi) on fi within any layer; >) sheet reinforcement on any layer of fil 6) reinforcement elements and fill on any layer of fa. 6.6.8 Construction tolerances and servicesbility Limits 6.6.3.1 General Reinforced soil structures deform during construction. Consideration should be given to provide the necessary clearances to permit the Frructure to attain a stable configuration and also tb ensure that construction and post-construction movements are within acceptable limits. The Serviceability of 2 srucuure will usually depend tupon the deformations which evolve during its service life, These deformations are due normally to the creep of the reinforcement material under Service Joad, The creep in metals is very smal! ané insignificant for the load levels found in these strucuures, however for polymene reinforcements the valve of the strains during the creep phase should be assessed. Creep can also be evident When soils with a high fines content are used particularly when saturated. The design and testing recommendations relaved to strain and creep of reinforcements are given in section 4 Deformations in the face and top surface of the suucture should be kept within acceptable bitsconstruction Wlerances weuuncw weave ‘Table 23. Usually accepted tolerances for faces | of retaining walls and aburments =e of plave of Tolerance # 50 mm Verticality 23 mm per mene | height (ie. £ 40 mun per 8 m) Bulging (vertical) and | £ 20 mm in 4.5m [bowing (horizontal) | templace | Steps at Joines £lomm | Alignment along top | * 1 mm from | fhorzontal) reference alignment 6.6.3.2 Serviceability Units Posc-construction movements of reinforced Soil seruccures result from: ~ foundation serements (6.5.4.2); “internal compression of A (6.5.4.9); ~ incernal ereep strain of reinforcement; = uniform or differential settlements resulting from mining or closure of voids beneath the seructure (6.5.4. '); = creep strain of soils enth a high fines conten. Post-construction internal strain should be Him:tad to the values in table 24 [Thble 24. Serviceability Lmita on | post-construction internal strains for bridge [abutments and retaining walls Seraerare [seu Bridge abucments: Tos Retaining walls luo } | | WY gg = bgt tg ge where Tyy, Tyj, Ty and Ty are derived as follows. 2) Vertical loading due to self weight of fl plus any surcharge and bending moment caused by external loading acting on the wall as shown in gure 28, Tyg» Kary where Try ‘8 he tensite force pet metre ‘run’; Kq_ is the coefficient of earth pressure srthin the reinforced volume, tj the faccored vertical sess acting on the jth level of reinforcements according to the Meyerhof distribution (see figure 25b); Suy is the vertical spacing of reinforcements av che jth level inthe wall. oy = Ba 5-% where Ry 3s the resultant factored vertical load acting on the jth layer of reinforcements; Ty is 278 length of the reinforcements at che 7t\ level in the wall, fs the eccentncity of resultant vertical load at the jt& level in the wallBS 8006 : Section 6 For cohesive frictions) A Typ = OS reSy [hy = where faus md ye is the unit weight of water; hy is the depth of the elements below the top of the structure; Jig is the partial load factor applied to surcharge dead loads, table 16; we is the surcharge dead load; v S$ the unit weight of the soil, see figure 28. For a uniform surcharge the expression for Tps ‘becomes (see figure 28) he Kar Fars fy + Fart 'Suj Kea Urey + Youd (F i] 1) Sin Se were fg ant fare partial load factors talen for the approptaie load combination and given in tables 17 and 18 ») Vericl strip loading S, applied to strip contact area of width b of top of the wall, see figure 28. For the purpose of deriving the magnitude only of the tensile force Jy dispersal of the vertical load S) from the contact area on top of the wall, may be taken ara slope of 2 wericlly 1 horizontally as shown in figure 29. i> Kas BE where Dj = (y+ Dif hy < (2d - B) + y= 2+ dithy > Qd - 8) Jy is the partial Joas factor for external concentrated dead loads, table 16 ‘The tensile force obtained from the equation above should be taken as not Jess than that derived from the bending moment caused by the vertical Joading S, alone acting on the wall” treaced as a rigid body. ¢) Horizontal shear Fi, applied to a strip contact area of width b on top of the wall, see figure 20. For the purpose of deriving the magnitude only of the tensile force Ty dispersal of the load Fi, from the contact area on top of the wall may be taken as shown in figure 30. Ty - 2Soft FLO ~ by) where tanl$5* ~ 09/2) a land fy is the partial load factor for external concentrated dead loads, see table 16. ‘The vensile force abtained from the equation above should be taken. as not less than that Gerived from the bending moment caused by the horizontal loading Fi, alone acting on the wal ‘treated as a rigid body. 4 = 5 Ts ~ JE where cis the cohesion under effective stress conditions;, is the partial material factor applied vo c! see table 16, Sins NOTE. Care shoulé be taken that c' ean be reieé upan in ‘esign. For granular calls the value devermined can be affected be the fice ef fiaang linens failure envelopes to Mah? tires Por eonesve soi, the valve can be affected by faulure 6 ‘Sialie pore pressures 7 the lhorator of the long term evelopment of fasunng In the Hele wees u sty see re ag aan Paina rT eee a) Rupture, The tensile strength of the jth layer aaa eee ge ; Bes wn Ty is the maximum value from 6.6.4.2.1; Tp is the design strength of the reinforcement calculated in accordance with 6.3.3; Jn is the partial factor for economic ramifications of failure, see table 3 b) Adherence. The perimeter Pi, of the jth laver of reinforcing elements needed to satisty loca! stability considerations is: 5 © aCe = Joa) + Soe Lei Son Smsleln| Section 6 BS 8006 : 1995 where Bj is the total horizontal width of the top and bottom faces of the reinforcing element at the jth layer, per metre “run’ 1, is the maximum value from 6.64.21; is the partial load factor applied to soll self weight taken from the same load combination as T;, see table 16; 1s the partial load factor applied to surcharge dead loads taken from the same ‘oad combination as T;, see table 16; is the coefficient of friction between the fill and reinforcing elements; te Ley is the length of reinforcement in the resistant zone oucside failure wedge, at the jth layer of reinforcements, see figure 31; uy is the surcharge due to dead loads only; Jp iS the partial factor for reinforcement pull-out resistance, see table 16; Jn the partis: factor applied to economic ramifications of failure, see cable 3: aye! 18 the adhesion coefficient berween the soll and the reinforcement; is the cohesion of the soll measured under effective stress conditions; {5 the partial material factor applied to ¢’, see table 16. Se For convenience it may be assumed @ is the interaction coefficient relating soil/reinforcement bond angle with an o'p: is the partial material fact tan 9%, cable 16. Sons for applied to 6.6.4.2.3 Anchored earch ‘There are a variety of different anchored earth systems (see figure 32). The tensile forces generated in the anchor should be calculated in accordance with 6.6.4.2.1. Local stability in terms of rupture shoulé Se considered in accordance with 6.6.4.2.2 or 6.6.5.2.5. The pull-out capacity of anchor reinforeing elements to satisfy local stability consideradions is: ". Sin where Paj_is the ultimate pull-out resistance of the anchor; Jp is the partial factor for reinforcement pull-out resistance, see table 16; jn is the partial factor applied to economic ramifications of failure, see table 3; Ty is the maximum value of the jth level of reinforcements from 6.6.4.2. ‘The ultimate pull-out resistance of an anchor element of the jth layer may be determined from: Pum Pay = Pay Py = 2 UB, ove ~ 4 KyBates is the shaft or loop resistance developed by friction beyond the potential failure plane, at the jth layer of anchors; is the bearing resistance at the jth layer ‘of anchors: 4 is the coefficient of soil/reinforcement friction and is determined according to the relaconship given is: 6.6.4.2.2; is the long term horizontal projection area of shaft oF loop; By Xs the horizontal passive earth pressure coefficient; By is the long term Width of anchor head; 4, is the long term height of anchor head; oy; is the vertical applied pressure at the jth layer of anchors; Ley is che length of the anchor shalt beyond the potential failure plane. NOTE. When dnresded ond cennecons are used, the erase “actor ares of the chor shat anold be Baca upon che Grouted anchor elements should be treated as ground anchors, and the ulomaze pull-out resistance should be determined from the relations siven in BS S081.BS 8006 : 199: Section 6 ——————————— 6.6.4.2.4 Wedge stab: it: ‘Wedges are assumed 10 behave as rigid bodies and may be of any size and shape. Stability of any wedge is maintained when friction forces acting on the potential failure plane in conjuncuon with the tensile resistance/oond of the group of reinforcements or anchors embedded in the fill beyond the plane is ak ‘ending to cause movernent, see figure 23. The folowing joads, factored in accordance with ‘combinations in table 16, and forces should be to resist the applied loads 6.6,4.2.5 Wedge stability check ‘The resistance provided by an individual layer of reinforcing elements lesser of elther: yuld be taken to be the 2} the frictional resistance of that part of the layer embedded in the fi! bevond the potential failure plane of, in the case of anchored earth, the pull-out resistance of the pan of the anchors embedded in the fil beyond the potential failure plane (which should be neglected when the distance between the potential failure plane and considered: = self weight of the fil: in the wedge; = uniformity diswbuted surcharge loads, wy = vertical strip loading. S.; ‘the stare of the anchorage is Jess than ] m); or ) the tensile resistance of the layer of elements, For reinforced soil the total resistance of the layers of eiements anchoring the wedge is satisfied by’ ~ porizoneal sheay, F: "tT, (cdonal and conesve forces acing slong the Sy |] = Tor potential failure plane, A = the norma) reaction o: the failure plane [Piles (ute + sh - one) A selection of potential fatlure planes should be YEE (wes + wien - SEE) er investigated for each of the typical points om 2, b,c, ete, shown in figure 33b). The forces acting on each wedge should be resolved into two where mutually perpendicular directions. Since te forces are assumed to be in eqi:librium the two equations may be solved simultaneously to yield the value of the gross tensile force T to be resisted reinforcing elements or anchors. For each of the ‘typical points the maximum value of T should be established by analysing the forces acting on a number of different wedges, The maximum value of Tand the corresponding value of f° are used to Lay _is the length of reinforcement in the caleulate the {rctional/ensile capacity of the eroup resistant zone outside potential failure of elements anchoring the wedge, see 6.6.4.2.6 and wedge, see figure 33; Baure 34 Jy 'Sthe partial factor for reinforcement For the case ofa wall witha level top containing pull-out resistance, see table 16, rictional fll and which supports uniform surcharge is the surcharge due to dead loads on only the inclination of the potential failure plane ws is the surcharge due to dead loads only nay be taken as f" = (43° 9/2) aye’ is the adhesion coefficient relating soi! However in the more complex general case it is not cohesion to soll/reinforcement bond; possible to give any guidance on either the angle of {is soil cohesion measured under effective the potential failure plane which produces the ‘sress conditions: ‘maximum valve of Tor on the number of points fn i the ‘material factor applied to c’, which should be checked. These should be Fe eee 1a, Nene factor applied vo © determined for each struccure, It may be assumed ‘that no potential failure plane will pass Ovough the The lesser value for each laver should be used in strip contact area representing a bridge bank scat. re summation When the facing consists of a structural element 6.6.4.8 Serviceability limit state formed in one piece the shear resistance offered by the rupture of the facing may be considered. ‘The potential mechanism of post-constraction internal movements should be considered, see figure 230, Toys the design strength of the reinforcements, at jth level in wall, see 5.3.3; Jo's the pardal factor applied to economic ramifications of failure, see table 3; is the tova) horizontal width of the top and bottom faces of the reinforcing element;Section 6 BS 8006 : 1995 ——— ‘The following factors which can influence serviceability should be included in the design cheek where appropriate: a) post-construction internal creep strain of polymeric reinforcements; ») post-construction internal creep strain of saturated fine grained soils used with reinforced soil For a polymeric reinforcement where the short erm axdal tensile stiffness decreases with time through the agency of creep, the strain occurring hepween the end of construction and the end of the selected design life can be estimated (rom isochronous load strain curves for these two times. Figure 35 demonstrates this procedure, where Tay; is the average tensile load along the length of the reinforcement at the jth level in the wall. To conform to the serviceability limit state the post-construction strain should not exceed the values given in table 24, 6.6.5 Coherent gravity method 6.6.5.1 Coefficient of earth pressure within the structure For both the ultimate limit state and the serviceability limit state the coeéficient of earth pressure should be taken as KG at the top of the ‘wall reducing linearly with depth to a value of A at a depth of 8 m below the top of the structure as, set out below and as shown on figure 36. K- Kl ~ oz.) + (yale) for 2 s 2 = 6m K= Ky lors > % where = is the depth measured from the upper level of “he mechanical height 6.6.5.2 Ultimate Limit state 6.6.5.2.1 Local stabitity of @ layer of reinforcing elements ‘The maximum tensile force T; to be resisted by the jth layer of elements at a depth hy below the top of ‘the wall may be obtained from the summation of the appropriate forces as follows: Ty = Toy + Ty + Ty for frictional £1 Ty = Typ + Ty + Ty ~ Te for cohesive ineuona, A where Tay, Try Ty an€ Try are derived as follows and meaZared in erms of ‘oad per metre ‘run ‘Tne force in each reinforcement layer may be Gerwved by calculation of the component due to the ‘arious load effecrs as shown on figure 27. These Should be summed to give the total load to be resisted. 1) Vertical loading due to self weight pius any surcharge and bending moment caused by Sxremal lading acing on the wall, see figure 28 Tos = K 0683 where Ks the coefficient of earth pressure within reinforced volume, see 6.8.5.1; oy is the vertical stress on the jth level of reinforcements; Suy_ 1s the vertical spacing of reinforcements at the jth level in the wall; and vy oo where Ry is =he resultant factored vertical load excluding external strip loads acting on ‘he jth layer of reinforcements; is the length of the reinforcements at jth ‘evel in che wall; is the eccentricity of resultant vertical load at jth level of the wall ‘The bending moment arising from self weight, surcharge and external loading should inelude the effeets of the external senip loads a8 Sil and Fi hy, see Migures 97 and 98. 2) Vertical loading Si, applied to a strip contact, area, see figure 37 Tas = Baa yd’) Soy whereBS 8006 : 1995 Section 6 6.8.4 Metallic connections 6.8.4.1 General When caleviaung the load capacity of 2 steel metalic connection allowance should de made for corrosion except where corrosion protection is assured for the full design life of the connection as follows. 2) A sacrificial thickness in accordance with table 7 should be deducted from each external surface of all component parts of the connection in contact with the sol ») A sacrificial thickness af 0.5 times the value in table 7 should be deducted from each internal surface of all component parcs in close metal-to-metal contact or wholly enclosed within the connection. ‘All section properties for the component paris of the connecton should be based upon the dimensions obcained after deducing the sacrificial thicknesses. 6.8.4.2 Spacing of holes 6.8.4.2.1 Minimum pitch ‘The distance between centres of fasteners or other components passing through the stee) metallic member should not be less than 2.5 times the nominal diameter of the shank of the fastener or other component passing Gurough the member. 6.8.4.2.2 Maszimum pitch ‘The recommenéations for maximum pitch are as follows a) In any direction. Except as noted in 6.8.4.2. the distance between centres of two adjacent fasteners should not exceed 321 or 300 mm, whichever is the lesser, where 1 is nominal thickness of the thinner part joined. ) In the direction of stress. Except 2s noted in 6.8.4.2. 8 the distance between centres of two consecutive fasteners in a line lving in the direction of stress and sharing the applied load should not be greater than 16t or 200 sn, whichever is the lesser, if the parts are joined in tension or shear. ©) Adjacent to an edge. Except as noted in 6.8.4.2.3 the distance between centres of two adjacent fasteners in a line adiacent to and parallel to an edge of an outside connected pan. should not be greater than (100 = 41) or 200 mm, whichever is the lesser 6.8.4.2.8 Staggered spacing Where fasteners are staggered at equal intervals. and the gauge is not greater than 75 mm, the ‘maximus distance between centres of fasteners as given in 6.8.4.2.2b and 6.8.4.2.2c should be increased by 50 %. The gauge being defined as the minimum latora) distance between centre lines of holes in adjacent rows. 6.8.4.2.4 Bdge and end distance The distance from the cenre of @ fasvener to the edge of a par: should not be less than 1.2¢. or such Jarger distance as may be needed to meet the prowsions of 6.8.4.8.5, where d is the nomina) Glameter of the fastener. or other component passing through the member 6.8.4.3 Strength of steel camponents in the connection 6.8.4.3.1 General Stee! connections should be designed for long term rupture at the ultimate limit state. 6.8.4.8.2 Strength of components subjected to oxia! tension In & component subjected to applied axial tension, the tensile stress, ce: 7; is the applied maximum tensile load on the ‘componen ac is the tensile stress area calculated in accordance with 6.8.4; oy is the appropriate ultimate tensile strength from cables 6, 10 and 11; Jn is the appropriate partial mazerial factor calculated in accordance with 5.3.3 and annex A, is the partial factor for economic ramufications of failure. 6.8.4.3.8 Strength of components subjected to shear only In a component subjected to shear, the average shear stress te: rer He Sa ty * Seah Vis the applied maximum load on the ‘component, cq is the sectional area of the shear plane resisting the applied shear calculated in accordance with 6.8.4; n is the number of shear planes resisting the applied shear; cq iS the appropriate shear strength for the component given in tables 6, 10 and 11: fm is the appropriate partial material factor calculated in accoréance with 5.3.3 and annex Asection 6 1d OW : A999 6.8.4.3.4 Strength of components subjected to tension and shear Components subjected co combined tensile and shear forces should be in accordance with 6.8.4.9. and 6.8.4.3.3 and the tensile stress and the shear Stress in combination should be sueh that: eS Fas? 8 1 eV" 22 [Els Ved oz where -¢ and gq are defined in 6.8.4.3.2 and 6.8.4.3; Jon is the appropriate partial material factor calculated in accordance with 5.9.9 and annex A. 6.8.4.9.5 Strength of components in bearing ‘The maximum bearing pressure oy between connected parts: veg Hythe % ~ aes * Tal where is the maximum load transmitted to each connected part; coy ig the area resisting the applied Joad, calculated in accordance with 6.8.4; is 4.00 when the end distance = 3d, and 1.92 when the end distance is 1.2de (values for for end distances becween these values may be linearly interpolated); de is the nominal diameter of the fastener passing through the member; 1s the appropriate bearing strength from tables 6, 10 and 11; Jm ‘6 the appropriate partial material factor calculated in accordance with 5.3.3 and annex A For components adjacent to an edge (in the aixection of stress) where the edge disance is less than dz the reduced capacity applies only to components adjacent to the edge. Subject to the 6.8.4.3.6 Long connections Where the distance L between centres of the end fasteners of a connection, measured in the direction of the load transmitted and sharing the applied load, is more that 15d, the strength of all the components determined in accordance with » ,6,8.4.3.2 to 6.8.4.9.5 should be reduced by a. maluiplying factor, i ky = 1 = (L ~ 15d,)/200, but by & 0.75 6.8.4.4 Components in bending 6.8.4.4.1 General Connection components subjected to applied forces chat result in bending stresses may be assumed to be fully restrained against lateral buckling when wholly enciosed by soil provided the soil is considered co provide full lateral restraint. ‘The section modulus and second moment of area for 3 component subjected to bending stresses should be calculated in accordance with 6.8.4 aking due account of any holes or other reductions in component size 6.8.4.4.2 Strength of components in uniarial bending In a component subjected to uniaxial bending the bending resistance My of the componene. Ma 22 =e M is the macmum bending moment in the component; ois she appropriate tensile strength from tables 6, 10 and 11; Z isthe section modulus calculared in accordance with 6.8.4.4 Jn 18 the appropriate partial material factor calculated :n accordance with 5.2.3 and annex A; is the partial factor for economic ramifications of failure provisions of 6.8.4.2.6 the cocal bearing capacity of ‘the components should be che sum of the ful pearing capacity of components away from the edge and the ceduced capacity of chase adjacent She edgeBS 8006 : 1995 Section 6 ee 6.8.4.4. Strength ¢° components in biexial bending Where a component is subjected 10 bending about Max 6 where May My are the co-incident maximum bending moments about the X-X and J-Yaxes respecuvely’ Mgx. Mex ate the corresponding bendine resistances calewated ir accordance with 6.8.4.4.2 6.8.4.5 Components in combined bending and tial tension ‘At any section: Te Me at Ze where « Te and a, are defined in 6.8.4.3.2; Wi, My ate the coincident maxamum bending moments about the KA and VY axes respectively 2, Z,are the section modull of te componer. bout the XX and VY axes calculated tn accordance with 6.8.4.4 2; i the appropriate tensile strength from tables 6, 10 and 1: Jim is the appropriate partial material factor Gicalated tn accordance with 8.3.3 and annex A fn 6.8.4.6 Components in combined bending and shear Sroka . vehere Cex Gee are the extreme fibre maximum bending stresses for tension and compression; 1 is the maximum co-sxistent shear stress, o is the appropriate tensile strength from tables 6, 10 and 11: Jn is the appropriate partial material factor calculated in accordance with 3.3.8 and annex A. 6.8.4.7 Components in combined bending, bearing and shear At any $203 where Ge. Gacy are the co-existent maximum bending. op and? bearing and shear scresses; o is the appropriate tensile strength from tables 6, Gand 11; Sin is the appropriate partial material factor calculated in accordance with 5.9.3 and annex A; Sn is the partial factor for economic ramifications of failure. 6.8.4.8 Determination of strength of steel components in the connection and load tests ‘The load capacity of components in connections ray be determined by load testing and stsaistica analysis of an adequate number of samples. 6.9 Soil nailing for walls Soil nailing is widely used in continental Europe and the United States for the construction of either temporary or permanent walls. At present the technique is not widely used in the United Kingdom, Soil nailing is commonly used for stabilizing wal formed in cut. Constructing 2 soil nailed wall involves reinforcing an exposed excavated face as work proceeds, see 9.3.7. The reinforcing consists of introducing a pattern of passive bars chat essentially work in tension; these are usually installed normal to the face or inelined slighty downward) Using this method and working from the top down, a mass of reinforced soi) is gradually created. In. ‘order to avoid the soil between the points of reinforcement becoming unstable, some form of facing needs to be instalied; this is generally achieved with reinforced showcrete. The facing ca" be vervical or battered and can include benches, see figure 44.Section 6 BS 8006 : 1995, Once it has been constructed, a soil nailed wall shows a certain similarity with a reinforced fill wall. Howevec the fact that a soil nailed wall will have been built downward by progressive excavation and nailing with the sol being reuvforeed in situ and a reinforced fill wall is Constructed by placing successive layers of fill ané reinforcement, constitutes an essential difference By its definition, a soll nailed wall is difficult wo build under a water table. In these circumstances, special procedures will need to be introduced, such {a5 pumping operations to lower groundwater levels, drainage, etc. ‘Nails can be installed in two principal ways: a) by dnilling and then grouting with cement, ‘gout or mortar in a pre-drilled hole; »b) by percussive methods, vibro-drilling or ballisuc techniques. Nauls are generally made of stel although other materials have been used. In the case of reinforced Shoterete the facing wall is constructed to 8 calculated thicieness thar mainly depends on the {id layout of che nails but the actual Volume of Shotcrete, because of over excavation of the planned cross section used, is often higher Untixe ‘ther techniques such as reinforeed fl. the building of 2 sou nailed wall invoives a critical phase with respect to local or overall stability. The Tacter can be lower during the building phase than omen the wall is finally built. Local exeavacion Stability during the earthworic phase depends directly on the height of soul excavated. ‘Soil nailing techniques are well suited to retaining wall strengthening and repair State-of-the-art techniques and design methods are reviewed elsewhere, [Od] (35), 136], Decals of Feld performance are given in the French national research project ‘Clouterre’. [3 63BS 8006 : 1995 Mechanical height ‘acing height ota! height arctan 03 {einforcement length mbedment depth Le 07H + | — | ° 4) Rectangular eross section efits sm ; NOTE 1. No reinforcements to end within { shaded zone } NOTE 2. Harizonial steps al to be < 0.154 $—.—] 4) Wale with parapens Figure 20. Sizing of walls with various geometries | ©) Stepped cross section 65