48 Reference data 442 Capacity, K Most valve manufacturers and damper manufacturers {quote the performance of their components in terms of ‘capacity, K; defined in the following relationship = KVEB (413) ‘This implies that K has units, usually of m*-h-Lbar-*S for liquids, or m*-s"LPa- for gases, Some manufacturers may quote values of K with different units so care is needed. ‘There is a relation between Kand &, but it is not really necessary {0 convert one to the other. Pressure drops are ‘more simply calculated separately for those components Tor which Kis given, Kis also useful when dealing with the authority of a valve, and in the prediction of flows in complex circus, Further {information can be obtained from Appendix 4.43. 45 Water flow in pipes 4.5.1 Pipe sizing: desirable velocities There are no rules concerning pipe sizing. The most cost effective will be the design based on life-cycle costing including the pumping costs. The smaller the pipework, the greater the pumping power and energy consumption. Increasing the pipe diameter by one size can have a large effect in decreasing pumping power: smaller friction pressure drops of the basic circuit will require smaller pressure drops through control valves, forthe same value of valve authority. The optimum sizing from the point of view of life-cycle costing must consider the length of the system, the capital cost, the mean pressure drop, the running time at full and partial flow, the efficiency of the pump-motor combination, and anticipated electrical tariffs (Le ‘on-peak’ or ‘off-peak’ operation) “To give a starting point in selecting pipe sizes, rule of thumb water velocities are reproduced from BSRIA) (1995) in Table 46. An alternative starting point might be to consider a typical pressure drop per unit length of 360 Pam) or 250 Pam, but this is arbitrary. Ultimately sizing ought to be based on life-cycle costing, “Table 46 ‘ypical water velocities for pipework BSRIA Velocity Thal presse me seop kPa Srallboe =i = Diam. > 50 mm 125.20 - eatingleooing coils 8 452 Noise ‘With small pipes, excessive velocities can lead to noise generation where, with hot water, cavitation may occur at elbows, valves, pumps and especially orifice plates. Some information has been provided by Ball and Webster") and Rogers!™, In this respect larger pipes should be able to tolerate higher velocities without a noise problem, Similarly higher velocities are possible with polymer piping due to the noise absorption effet of such piping. Noise problems are more likely to occur if entrained air is not separated and vented. Arrangements should be made so that this is achieved easily. An upstand and air vent at the top of each vertical run of pipe is recommended, during pump-off periods, entrained air will separate out into the higher position. This will simultaneously reduce corrasion by eliminating oxygen as soon as possible. 45.3 Allowances for ageing Corrosion and scaling of the internal diameter of pipework ‘will occur with age depending on the chemical composi tion of the water. This will increase the surface roughness of the pipe and decrease the internal diameter, both of which Will increase the friction pressure drop. No firm recommendation can be made on the allowance to be made. A large allowance is more justifiable with small diameter pipes. Open systems will suffer more than closed systems. ASHRAE" reports others finding an increase of 15 to 20% in the friction factor 4, compared with new pipework. This was for closed systems, For open systems, there could be a 75% increase. ASHRAE also reports that ‘work of the Plastic Plastic Pipe Institute (1971) shows that there is little corrosion with plastic pipe. 45.4 Water hammer Large pressures can arise when the fluid flow és stopped abruptly by the sudden closure of a valve. This pressure wave then reverberates within the pipework. The magnitude of the pressure wave is in proportion to the ‘momentum of the flowing fluid and thus to its velocity. 45.5 Water expansion Between a heating system being cold (usually under the fill’ situation), and warm under the design running condition, the water contained in the system will expand ‘The expansion, as a percentage, has been calculated with reference to a cold situation of 4°C using ay) The volumetric expansion of the pipework may be deduced from the volumetric expansion of the water, if desired. Values of the density of water are given in Table 47. Pre-calculated values for the expansion of water are given in Table 48, 45.6 Buoyancy; thermosyphon In any closed system, when one vertical section of the pipework is at a different temperature from another, a pressure difference will exist and create a driving pressure difference so as to cause a natural thermosyphon. Using equation 49, some pre-calculated values for hot water are given in ‘Table 49.