2 The z Transform 2-1 INTRODUCTION A mathematical tool commonly used for the analysis and synthesis of discrete-time control systems is the z transform. The role of the z transform in discrete-time systems is similar to that of the Laplace transform in continuous-time systems. Ina linear discrete-time control system, a linear difference equation character- izes the dynamics of the system. To determine the system's response to a given input, such a difference equation must be solved. With the z transform method, the solu- tions to linear difference equations become algebraic in nature. (Just as the Laplace transformation transforms linear time-invariant differential equations into algebraic equations in s, the z transformation transforms linear time-invariant difference equations into algebraic equations in z.) ‘The main objective of this chapter is to present definitions of the z transform, basic theorems associated with the z transform, and methods for finding the inverse z transform. Solving difference equations by the z transform method is also dis- cussed. Discrete-Time Signals. Discrete-time signals arise if the system involves a sampling operation of continuous-time signals. The sampled signal is x(0),x(T), x(2T), ..., where T's the sampling period. Such a sequence of values arising from the sampling operation is usually written as.x(KT). Ifthe system involves an iterative ) process carried out by a digital computer, the signal involved is a number sequence x(0),x(1),x(2). ... The sequence of numbers is usually written as x(K), where the argument k indicates the order in which the number occurs in the sequence, for example, x(0), x(1),x(2).... Although x((c) is a number sequence, it can be con- sidered as a sampled signal of x(¢) when the sampling period T is 1 sec. ot lf ed we24 Thez Transform — Chap. 2 The z transform applies to the continuous-time signal x(1), sampled signal x(kT), and the number sequence x(k). In dealing with the z transform, if no confusion occurs in the discussion, we occasionally use x(KT) and x(k) interchange- ably. [That is, to simplify the presentation, we occasionally drop the explicit appear- ance of T and write x(kT) as x(k] Outline of the Chapter. Section 2-i has presented introductory remarks Section 2~2 presents the definition of the z transform and associated subjects Section 2-3 gives z transforms of elementary functions. Important properties and theorems of the z transform are presented in Section 2-4. Both analytical and computational methods for finding the inverse z transform are discussed in Section 2-5. Section 2-6 presents the solution of difference equations by the 2 transform method. Finally, Section 2-7 gives concluding comsents. 2-2 THE z TRANSFORM The z transform method is an operational method that is very powerful when working with discrete-time systems. In what follows we shall define the z transform of a time function or a number sequence. In considering the z transform of a time function x(t), we consider only the sampled values of x(t), thatis, x(0),x(T), (27), ..., where Tis the sampling period ‘Thez transform of a time function x(¢), where ris nonnegative, or ofa sequence of values x(KT), where k takes zero or positive integers and Tis the sampling period, is defined by the following equation: nn XG) = Ebeo] = Bteter] = Sxene" For a sequence of numbers x(k), the z transform is defined by Z[x() = 2x ‘The z transform defined by Equation (2-1) or (2-2) is referred to as the one-sided 2 transform 1 The symbol 2 denotes “‘the z transform of.” In the one-sided z transform, we assume x(t) = 0for! < Oorx(k) = Ofork < 0, Note that zisa complex variable. Note that, when dealiig with a time sequence x(kT) obtained by sampling a time signal x(:), the z transform X(z) involves T explicitly However, for a number sequence x(k), the z transform X(z) does not involve T explicitly, ‘The z transform of x(1), where ~ < ¢ < ®, or of x(k), where k takes integer values (k = 0, #1,#2,.-+), is defined by X(z) = XG@) == [0] = 264] = 3 rene @3) ) or X(z) = Z[x(k)] = 2 x(kje* (2-4)Sec. 2-3 2 Transforms of Elementary Functions 25 ‘The z transform defined by Equation (2-3) or (2-4) is referred to as the pvo-sided — z transform In the two-sided z transform, the time function x(¢) is assumed to be nonzero for ¢ <0 and the sequence x(k) is considered to have nonzero values for k <0. Both the one-sided and two-sided z transforms are series in powers of 2”! (The latter involves both positive and negative powers of 2~'.) In this book, only the yp one-sided z transform is considered in detail. 7 ~-—~For most engineering applications the one-sided 2 transform will have a con- venient closed form solution in its region of convergence. Note that whenever X(2), an infinite series in 2“, converges outside the circle |z| ~ R, where R is called the bsolute convergence, in using the z transform method for solving discrete- problems itis not necessary each time to specify the values of z over which X(z) is convergent. Notice that expansion of the right-hand X(z) = x(0) + x(T)z + x(QT)eF +e ARTZ AH (2-5) Equation (2-5) implies that the z transform of any continuous-time function x(¢) may be written in the series form by inspection. The z~*in this series indicates the position _in time at which the amplitude r(7) occurs. Conversely, if X(z) is given in the series orm as above, the inverse z transform can be obtained by inspection as a sequence of the function x(7) that corresponds to the values of x(¢) at the respective instants of time If the z transform is given as a ratio of two polynomials in z, then the inverse z transform may be obtained by several different methods, such as the dire method, the computational method, the partial-fraction-expansion method, and the inversion integral method (set Section 2-5 for details.) ie of Equation (2-1) gives 2.3 2 TRANSFORMS OF ELEMENTARY FUNCTIONS In the following we shall present z transforms of several elementary functions. It is noted that in one-sided z transform theory, in sampling a discontinuous function x(0), We assume that the function is continuous from the right; that is, if discontinuity ‘occurs at ¢ = 0, then we assume that x(0) is equal to.x(0+) rather than to the average at the discontinuity, [x(0—) + x(0+)}/2. Unit-Step Function. Let us find the z transform of the unit-step function WO, Ose x= {i 0, 1<0 As just noted, in sampling @ unit-step function we assume that this function is continuous from the right; that is, 1(0) = 1. Then, referring to Equation (2-1), we have zg) = Dark= Sz i ea Sltett2te tte 326 The z Transform — Chap. 2 videt gaeeaege Myer leh, 9 ao beh ad) Val, KG) SD (con ~ in finding fen (alah k Baek > VKrtice that the series converges il > {aot a5 4 duminy operator: WIE nOL navesiary to specify the region of 2 over which : X(z) is convergent. it suffices to know that such a region exists. The z transform ‘X(z) of a time function x(t) obtained in this way is valid throughout the z plane except at poles of X(z). It is noted that 1(k) as defined by . 1 ke v= fh k<0 a is commonly called a unit-step sequence Unit-Ramp Function, Consider the unit-ramp function Ost 2) fo 1<0 Notice that x(kT) = kT, k= 0,1,2, y Figure 2-1 depicts the sampled unit-ramp signal. The magnitudes of the sampled values are proportional to the sampling period -. The z transform of the unit-ramp function can be written as Derr = 7D ke Xx zid= Zens = Te 4227 + 37H) | fey Fol led 4 | fee fC) = 7, (FO) = z, Ta, Tee B18! eppeess red m ve fen wan \ ye fbb rr eles bay 2 1 Al) 272" te aTe yy ith D-@ali- FFA) = THY TE “7? Perr |petholy Lofh J ce ef ls) 2 “4 op rg?) Fla) 7 D nod <6 (5). (4) or oat ar ar At! Figurea Seo aoa 4 ~ gt A -F# niles (2b 4d Dre 27! (A-2" FQ) 27st } Tz Sle) 2 Be) 2 7h uu CE) 2-284 2) eeeSec. 2-3 _z Transforms of Elementary Functions 2 Note that it is a function of the sampling period 7. Polynomial Function at. Let us obtain the z transform of x(k) as defined by fk =0,1,2, xk) = {¢ k<0 where @ is a constant. Referring to the definition of the z transform given by Equation (2-2), we obtain X(z) = Zla'] = Dake = Sate : ie é sltarttazt+@z+- = 1 7 1-azt “F=a Exponential Function. Let us find the z transform of x)= {." Ose 1<0 Since x(kT) =e, k =4,1,2, we have X(z) = Zle“] = DalkTzt = Dez im es ar ae ele “ze Sinusoidal Function, Consider the sinusoidal function x(t) = {ine Ose 0, <0 Noting that eM = cos.ut + j sinat “ e = cos wt — j sin wt a we have sin at = yen ~ ey28 The z Transform — Chap. 2 Since the z transform of the exponential function is we have X(z) = 2 [sina] = at (em ~ | 7 i 1 1 B= ete ee 7 (eT — eva Bae teeta et P= 22 coswT $1 son{e 155 If we proceed in a manner similar to the way we treated the z transform of the X(z) = Z [cos wt) = 4 Ze + ev) 4 1 —_ Dre Te 12 = (eh + ote" 2i-@ te eet YD =z cosol “EES vA Tie eos +2 =z coswT Fe coal 41 1 the! gtrane puns of t)s at — Example 2-2 E ain the z transform of ever’, Obtain he = waster LF (2 oe 1 2 "Sy s(s + 1) ot Whenever a function in 5 is given, one approach. for finding the corresponding z transform is to convert X(s) into x(t) and then find the z transform of x(f). Another approach is to expand X(s) into partial fractions and use a 2 transform table to find the = transforms of the expended terms Still other approzches will be discussed in Section 3-3Sec. 2-3 z Transforms of Elementary Functions, 29 ‘The inverse Laplace transform of X(3) is 4 xQei-e, Ose LO XG@) =Z01-e] => ae Tree 5 = nee @-D)G-e7) Comments. Just as in working with the Laplace transformation, a table of 2 transforms of commonly encountered functions is very useful for solving problems in the field of discrete-time systems. Table 2-1 is such a tab! 7 ve] 5 (4) / reine 2 €UE) ve SO Vets RUBY ‘TABLE 2-1 TABLE OF z TRANSFORMS mens o { XO) xt) HED or x6) xO) Kronecker delta &(k) i] = - k=O 1 oko a(n ~ k) 7 ok 2] = 7 nk x Su oO nek Ss i 10, 10) i 7 at slo los « 4 4 « ar ie 2 ers 6) oa . ory Tae “| § ° wry ee ire see a) wary ; etna seen j + = atye™ . Jer = (+ aljem | | Ge [eowe aoa tate ee)30 TABLE 2-1 (continued! The z Transform — Chap. 2 xe) xo HiT) or x8) x@) al gap ee | ane rea 3 wise | areives Geeeg eran 1 ia sine sin oh aa 15, coset ‘005 oT EES 16 larapra | sine | eso Sates Garrat | creme | eeToekr REC Rcaaeas 20. kat a Ratt 2 Ratt By Ka! an a cosa 2s 26 Zz 2 aren oer x() = 0, fore <0 (KT) = x(k) = 0, fork <0 Unless otherwise noted, & = 0.1,2,3,Sec. 2-4 Important Properties and Theorems of the z Transform at 2-4 IMPORTANT PROPERTIES AND THEOREMS OF THE z TRANSFORM ‘The use of the z transform method in the analysis of discrete-time control systems may be facilitated if theorems of the 7 transform are referred to. Jn this section we present important properties and useful theorems of the z transform. We assume that the time function x(¢) is z-transformable and that x(¢) is zero for ¢ < 0. Multiplication by a Constant, If X(z) is the z transform of x(t), then Z[ax()] = 4 Z[x(0)] = aX(2) where @ is a constant. To prove this, nate that by definition 7 a x(eT)* = aX(z) isa 2 [ax(e)] = Zane” Linearity of the z Transform. The z transform possesses an important prop- erty: linearity. This means that, if f(k) and g(&) are z-transformable and a and B are scalars, then x(t) formed by a linear combination x(k) = af(k) + Be(k) has the z transform X(z) = aF(z) + BG(z) where F(z) and G(z) are the z transforms of f(k) and g(k), respectively. ‘The linearity property can be proved by referring to Equation (2-2) as follows: X(2) = Z[x()] = Zloflk) + 6800] = Zleto + palo = aS fet + a3 ete = eZ iA) + BzLGC] = aF (2) + G(z) Multiplication by a‘. \f X(z) is the z transform of x(k), then the z transform of af x(k) can be given by X(a~'z): f ja x(k)] = X(a~tz) (2-6) This can be proved as follows: . Zfatx(k)] = Dare(kyz* = Dx(kyatzy*# Fees lady = X(a"'2) a Shifting/Theorem. The shifting theorem presented here is also referred to as the real translation theorem If.x(¢) = 0 for < 0 and x(t) has the z transform X(z), their Zs32 hime cb by. og (aglaler ff# Panto Chap. 2 Zix(t— i =2"X@) vt 2-7) i Time advance efi cht) — ZUx(c+ aT. |x) Sane ‘| ey ae eo where 1 is zero or a positive integer. To prove Equation (2-7), note that Z[x(t~ aT) = 3 2x(kT ~ nT)z7* vw ae Seer anes \/ (2-9) By defining m = k ~ n, Equation (2-9) can be written as follows: Z[x(t~ nT) = 27" Y xP)" S Since x(mT) = Ofor m <0, we may change the lower limit of the summation from m= —nto m = 0. Hence, Z[xe— nT = 27 DxmTyem = 2" Xz) (2410) , (hs, ‘multiplication of a 2 transform by 2™ has the effect of delaying the time ) > BY called function x(t) by time nT. (That is, move the function to the right by time nT.) iygente To prove Equation (2-8), we note that (Line acva.tce.) ete am) = Sater + ane +h ad pew] 2[Sx@ne- 3 are ache ve =efxey Shane] For the number sequence x(k), Equatian (2-8) can be written as follows: Zh +m) = 2x6) - Sewer] v From this last equation, we obtain 2 [x(k + 1) =2X(z}- 2x0) (2-11) Z [xk + 2)) = 22 [x(k + 1)) = 2x(1) = a - #40) ~ 2 = zx(1) (2-12) SL Kl)- ue-ng"\~ =P Xa)- fx) 2 ld)Sec. 2-4 Important Properties and Theorems of the z Transform 33, Similarly, Zlx(k + n)] "X(z) ~ 2"x(0) where n is a positive integer Remember that multiplication of the z transform X(z) by 2 has the effect of “1x(1) = 28 7x(2)--+--zx(n-1) 0 (213) _ _} advancing the signal x(KT) by one step (1 sampling period) and that multiplication 4 of the 2 transform X(z) by z~' has the effect of delaying the signal x(T) by one step (1 sampling period) 5 Example 2-3 Find the z transforms of unitstep functions that are delayed Sy { sampling period and 4 sampling periods, respectively, as shown in Figure 2-2(a) and (b) Using the shitting theorem given by Equation (2~7), we have Z[Me- N= ZO] = = Also, Ze - 47) Ol = (Note that 2 represents a delay of 1 sampling period 7, regardless of the value of 7.) Example 2~4 Obtain the 2 ansform of tg i ue-n spo a po ot a ar er er oF ar 0 ta af po bo OT ar ar aT SF er 778 TF — piguee-2 (a) Uninntep fueron delayed by 1 sampling period; (b) unit- step function delayed by 4 sampling wo petindsThe z Transform — Chap. 2 Referring to Equation (2-7), we have A Zixk~N)=27X@) > ikem The z transform of a* is zle)= and so — a i=a Z[f@)) = 2 la") = et where k = 1,2,3, Example 2-5 Consider the function y(X), which is a sum of functions x(h), where h = 0,1,2, such that yk) = Sat), k= 0,1,2, where y(Fe) = 0 for k <0 Obtain the z transform of y(k) First note that p(k) =2(0) + x() ++ eae Dee yk = 1) =x) Fx) t-te 48 Hence, vO) = yk = 1) = x(k), = 01,2, v Therefore, Zh) ~ yk -D1= Ze) or ¥@) ~ z'¥G@) = XG) which yields ¥(z) = 7X2) where X(z) = [2(K)] Complex Translation Theorem. If x(t) has the z transform X(z), then the z transform of e*x(1) can be given by X(ze""), This is known as the complex trans- lation theorem. To prove this theorem, note that Zle*x(o}= Dukes Zsuence = XG") 14) ‘Thus, we see that replacing z in X(z) by ze"™ gives the z transform of e~*x(1) — Example 2-6 L Given the z transforms of sin w and cos wt, obtain the z transforms of e" sin wt and ohem® _——¢*" cos wi, respectively, by using the ope translation theorem fe“) -(XG+0) ee = X(ee") ck [ Etat) 2 z, lene se , Let (24 (lobe) & ; : 5 Banat = Ka) =X) he / tT & ZzSec. 2-4 Important Properties and Theorems of the z Transform 35 Noting that 608 wo 4 i t tC oreT +E" yard the Comy.,{O * for z to obtain the z transform of e~ sin wt,{as follows: inate we substitute ze" 2Z[e™ sin at] T= Similarly, for the cosine function, we have 1-2" cosu Toeetl ~ te cose +r By substituting 22" for z in the z transform of cos wl, we obtain Z [cos wt] = 2 [e™ cost] Example 2-7 Obtain the 2 transform of re“*. Notice that zt 4 Thus, Initial Value Theorem. _ Yfx(¢) has the z wansform X(z) and iflim X(z) exists, then the initial value x(0) of x(¢) or x(k) is given by (0) = lim X(z) (2-15) To prove this theorem, note that X(z) = Dake" ia = x(0) + x(I)rt + xQ)eF ee Letting z+ in tis last equation, we obtain Equation (2-15) ‘The behavior of the signal in the neighborhood of ¢ = Oor & = Ocan thus be determined by the behavior of X(z) at z = = “The initial value theorem is convenient for checking z transform calculations for possible errors. Since x(0) is usually known, a check of the initial value by lim X(z) can easily spot errors in X(z), if any exist Example 2-8 aefo\s Determine the intial value +(0) if the z transform of x(t) i Biven by XQ) = aes = 2 y= ez) By using the initial value theorem, we find - (eee 10) = linG= Wa36 ‘The z Transform — Chap. 2 Referring to Example 2-2, notice that this X(2) was the z transform of ) x)= / and thus x(0) = 0, which agrees with the result obtained earlier Final Value Theorem. Suppose that x(k), where x(k) = 0 for k < 0, has the z transform X(z) and that all the poles of X(z) lie inside the unit circle, with the possible exception ofa simple pole at z = 1. [Thies the condition forthe stability of X(z), oF the condition for x(k) (k = 0, 1,2,...) to remain fiaite.] Then the final value of x(k), that is, the value of x(k) as approaches infinity, can be given by Timz(k) = fim {1 ~ 27) X(@)] (2-16) To prove the final value theorem, note that ZeI=xXe)=Tayrt (A) Zoe ~ D)=z1Xe)= Extk-e (2) Hence, Eolow.g, ay-(), Date = Sage - 2 fa ine = X(z) - 27 X(2) 7 ‘eking the limit as z approaches unity, we have tim |s (kz Because of the assumed stability condition and the condition that x(k) = 0 for k <0, the left-hand side of this last equation Dbegomes ~ Sate - ne] = tipi - xe) ry Zk) ~ x ~ 9) = 0) - 2H} + KO) - x0) a ke + [xQ) = x(1)] + --- = x(@) = lima(k) i ae ote Hence, Jim x(X) = tim [(1 ~ 2°) X(2)] which is Equation (2-16). The final value theorem is very useful in determining the behavior of x(k) as K+ © from its z transform X(z_ i East Yow need Bor fabs Example 2-9 Determine the final value x(%9) of 1 x@)=7 by using the final value theorem. By applying the final value theorem to the given X(z), we obtainSec. 2-6 The Inverse z Transform 7 (6) = lien ((1 = 2°) X@)] “glee = tin( - It is noted that the given X(z) is actually the z transform of a) =1-e* By substituting ¢ = cin this equation, we have (2) = lima — ep = 1 ‘Asa matter of course, the two results agree. Summary. In this section we have presented important properties and theo- rems of the z transform that will prove to be useful in solving many z transforma problems. For the purpose of convenient reference, these important properties and theorems are summarized in Table 2-2. (Many of the theorems presented in this table are discussed in this section, Those not discussed here but included in the table are derived or proved in Appendix B.) 2-6 THE INVERSE z TRANSFORM The z transformation serves the same role for discrete-time control systems that the Laplace transformation serves for continuous-time control systems. For the z trans- form to be useful, we must be familiar with methods for finding the inverse z transform. ‘The notation for the inverse z transform is Z~!. The inverse z transform of (yields the corresponding time sequence x(k). It should be noted that only the time sequence at the sampling instants is obtained from the inverse z transform. Thus, the inverse z trarisform of X(z) yields a unique x(k), but does not yield a unique x(¢). This means that the inverse z transform yields a time sequence that specifies the values of x(t) only at discrete instants of time, ¢ = 0, T,2T,..., and says nothing about the Values of x(t) at all other times. That is, many different time functions x(#) can have the same x(kT) See Figure 2-3. When X(z), the z transform of x(kT) or x(k), is given, the operation that determines the corresponding x(kT) or x(k) is called the inverse z transformation. ‘An obvious method for finding the inverse z transform is to refer to a z transform table. However, unless we refer to an extensive z transform table, we may not be able to find the inverse z transform of a complicated function of z. (If we use a less extensive table of z transforms, it is necessary to express a complex 2 transform as, a sum of simpler z transforms. Refer to the partial-fraction-expansion method presented in this section.) Other than referring to z transform tables, four methods for obtaining the inverse z transform are commonly available:38 Thez Transform Chap. 2 TABLE 2-2 IMPORTANT PROPERTIES ANO THEOREMS OF THE z TRANSFORM x(t) or x(k) Z [x] or ZEe(k)] 1 ax(0) aX(z) 2 axx(t) + br(0) aX, (2) + bXs(2) 3) x@#T) or x(k+1) 2X(@) — zx(0) 4 (C+ 27) PQ) — Fx) - (1) 5. xe +2) 2X) — Fx(0) = 2x(0) 6 x(t + AT) 2°X(2) ~ x(0) — 2 *x(T) == — 2x(kT = 1) 7 x — AD) Xe) 8. x(n +k) 2*X(z) ~ 2*x(0) — 2 x(1) — -- ~ ax(k = 1) 9. x(n ~ k) z*X(2) 10. a) - Te£x(2) aL cr) 2. oe) B ex) 4 atx(k) as a(R) 16. (0) dim X(2) ifthe limit exists lim (1 ~ 2") (@)] if 1 — = )X() is analytic ee ce 18.| ek) = x) — xR) 0-2 )x@) 1. | ax) == +1) — x) = DxX@) - 20) 2 2 jose) a zy a. para) Zx@.0) - ay 2 | kex(k) ( 4) x(2) zw] Sxenyinr ~ a7) XFL 24 Sat) x)Sec. 2-5 The Inverse z Transform 33 ° r ar ar ar t Figure 2-3 Two different continuous-time functions, x(#) and (¢), that have the same values at ¢ = 0, 7, 27, 1. Direct division method 2. Computational method 3, Partial-fraction-expansion method 4, Inversion integral method Jn obtaining the inverse z transform, we assume, as usual, that the time sequence x(kT) of x(k) is zero for k <0 Before we present the four methods, however, a few comments on poles and zeros of the pulse transfer function are in order. Poles and Zeros in thez Plane. In engineering applications of the z transform method, X(z) may have the form boz™ + Biz +t be 4G) ee ag ms) @47) or (e) = WE = ANE = 2) (2 (@ ~ pa = pa) ~ Pn) 1,2,...,m) are the poles of X(z) and the z's (j = 1,2,. .,m) where the p's ( the zeros of X(2) ‘The focations of the poles and zeros of X(z) determine the characteristics of (Fe), the sequence of values or numbers. As in the case of the s plane analysis of linear continuous-time control systems, We often use 2 graphical display in the 7 plane of the locations of the poles and zeros of X(z). Note that in control engineering and signal processing X(z) is frequently expressed as a ratio of polynomials in 2~', as follows: os ee ee X(2) = EO eye en tt bn (2-18) Ttazitag?t- ta,z40 ‘The z Transform — Chap. 2 where 2” is interpreted as the unit delay operator. In this chapter, where the basic properties and theorems of the z transform method are presented, X(z) may be ‘expressed in terms of powers of z, as given by Equation (2-17), or in terms of powers of 2”, as given by Equation (2-18), depending on the circumstances. In finding the poles and zeros of X(z), itis convenient to express X(z) as aratio of polynomials in z For example, 2+OS2 __2(¢ +05) P+3rt+2 @+HE+2 Clearly, X(z) has poles at z = ~1 and z = ~2 and zeros at z = 0 and z = -0.5. i X(z) is written as a ratio of polynomials in z“*, however, the preceding X(z) can be written as X(2) = 1+ 052 G+ 20+ 227) Although poles at 2 = ~1andz = ~2and a zero at z = —0.5 are clearly seen from the expression, a zero at z = Os not explicitly shown, and so the beginner may fail tosee the existence of azero atz = 0. Therefore, in dealing with the poles and zeros of X(z), it is preferable to express X(z) as a ratio of polynomials in z, rather than polynomials in z~!. In addition, in obtaining the inverse z transform by use of the version integral method, it is desirable to express X(z) as a ratio of polynomials “in z, rather than polynomials in 2~, to avoid any possible errors in determining the number of poles at in of function X(z)z* X() /\» Direct Division Method. In the direct division method we obtain the inverse z transform by expanding X(z) into an infinite power series in 2". This method is forn only the first several terms of x(k). The direct division method stems from the fact that if X(z) is expanded into a power series in z~, that is, if X(z) = D xe(kT)2* ima = (0) + x(T)z8 + xQT)rF + x(k) or X(z) = Dx(k)z* & = x(0) + x(t + xe tt eet then x(kT) or x(k) is the coefficient of the 2~* term. Hence, the values of r(kT) or x(k) for & = 0, 1,2,... can be determined by inspection IfX(z) is given in the form of a rational function, the expansion into an infinite power series in increasing powers of z~' can be accomplished by simply dividing the numerator by the denominator, where both the numerator and denominator of X(z) are written in increasing powers of 2”! If the resulting series is convergent, theSec. 2-5 The Inverse z Transform a coefficients of the z“* term in the series are the values x(&7) of the time sequence or the values of x(k) of the number sequence. Although the present method gives the values of x(0),x(T),x(27),... or the values of x(0), x(1),x(2),.... in a sequential manner, it is usually difficult to obtain ‘an expression for the general term from a set of values of x(&7) or x(&} -—~ Example 2-10 Find x(k) for & = 0,1,2,3,4 when X(z) is given by Woz +3 @= 0g =0R First, rewrite X(z) as a ratio of polynomials in 2°, a5 follows: Moz" + 528 X@) =a on X(z)= Dividing the numerator by the denominator, we have toe"! + 172"? + 18.427? + 18.6824 + 1 ~ 122" + 022° TF Sz Wz"? ~ 20.429 + 3.42~* : 18.427 = 3.42~ dz"? — 27,082"* + 3.682 18.682" ~ 3.68 18,682 ~ 22.4162" + 3.7362" i Theox(k)z*, X(2) = We"! + 172? + 18.42"? + 18.6824 + - By comparing this infinite series expansion of X(z) with X(z} we obtain x@=0 x)= 10 x)= 17 *@) = 18.4 (4) = 18.68 Asseen from this example, the direct division method may be carried out by hand calculations if only the first several terms of the sequence are desired. In general, the method does not yield a closed-form expression for =(k), except in special eases. Example 2-11 Find x(k) when X(2) is given by 1 XO 92a Tee By dividing the numerator by the denominatar, we obtain42 Thez Transform — Chap. 2 By comparing this infinite series expansion of X(z) with X(2) = Sieox(k)z~*, we obtain a =o x(1) here & x(2) = ak Dare J Foe Vv mo 0 aber du#) 6) CF CES Gre YOr x(4) “This is an alternating signal of 1 and ~1, which starts from k = 1 Figure 2-4 shows a plot of this signal. Example 2-12 Obtain the inverse z transform of Xe) Lb ae + Be? eae? ‘The transform X(z) is already in the form of a power series in 2°". Since X(z) jumber of terms, it corresponds to a signal of finite length. By inspection, x@=1 (1) =2 xQ)=3 x@)=4 All other x(k) values are zero. 2. Computational Method. In what follows, we present two computational ap- proaches to obtain the inverse z transform. 1, MATLAB approach 2, Difference equation approach Consider a system G(z) defined by 0.46732"! ~ 0.33932? O@) = TT saa7e + 066072 (2-19) In finding the inverse z transform, we utilize the Kronecker delta function &(kT), where Figure 2-4 Alternsting signal of 1 and. =T starting from k=Sec. 2-§ The inverse z Transform 8 BlkT)=1, fork =0 fork #0 Assume that x(k), the input to the system G(z), is the Kronecker delta input, or x(k)=1, fork =0 =0, fork #0 ‘The z transform of the Kronecker delta input is X@)=1 Using the Kronecker delta input, Equation (2-19) can be rewritten as ¥(z) __ 0.46732? — 0.33932"? X@) T= 1532727 + 0.66072 0.46732 — 0.3393 2 = 153072 + 0.6607 MATLAB Approach. MATLAB can be used for finding the inverse z transform. Referring to Equation (2-20), the input X(z) is the z transform of the Kronecker delta input. In MATLAB the Kronecker delta input is given by Ge) = (2-20) x= [1 zeros(1,N)] where N corresponds to the end of the discrete-time duration of the process consid- ered. Since the z transform of the Kronecker delta input X(z) is equal to unity, the response of the system to this input is = ole) a AST = 0339327 _ 0.46742 ~ 0.3993 Y@)= 6G) = TI s3a7e7 + 0.66072 1.5327z + 0.6607 Hence the inverse z transform of G(z) is given by y(0), (1), (2), . .. Let us obtain y(k) up to & = 40. To obtain the inverse z transform of G(z) with MATLAB, we proceed as follows: Enter the numerator and denominator as follows: {0 0.4673 ~0.3393) (1 -1,5327 0.6607) num den Enter the Kronecker delta input, x= [1 zeros(1,40}} Then enter the command ) 2 Ole XE y = filter(num,den,x) to obtain the response y(k) fromk =Otok=40. (2)“4 Thez Transform Chap. 2 Summarizing, the MATLAB program to obtain the inverse z transform or the response to the Kronecker delta input is as shown in MATLAB Program 2-1. x a ‘MATLAB Program 2-1 % - Finding inverse 2 transform -———- 1% ***** Finding the inverse z transform of Gla isthe same a8 ‘% finding the response ofthe system Yl2VXlz) = Gla) othe 4% Kronecker delta input ***** 1% ***9" Enter the numerator and denominator of Giz) ***** [0 0.4673. 0.3393]; ft -1.5327 0.6607); 4% ****" Enter the Kronecker delta input x and filter cominand 96 y= filterfnum,den9) " ett zerostt 40); y= filterinum.den,x) If this program is executed, the screen will show the output y(k) from k = 0 to 40 as follows: Columns 1 through 7 O 0.4673 0.3769 0.2690 0.1632 0.0725 0.0032 Columns 8 through 14 0.0429 -0.0679 ~0.0758 -0.0712 ~0.0591 0.0436 ~0.0277 Columns 15 through 21 -0.0137 -9.0027 0.0050 0.0094 0.0111 0.0108 00092 Columns 22 through 28 0.0070 0.0046 0.0025 0.0007 ~0.0005 -0.0013 -0.0016 Columns 29 through 35 0.0016 0.0014 0.0011 -0.0008 -0 0004 -0.0002 0.0000 Columns 36 through 41 0.0002 0.0002 0.0002 0.0002 0.0002 0.0001 (Note that MATLAB computations begin from column 1 and end at column 41, rather than from column 0 to column 40 ) These values give the inverse z transform of G(z), That is, yo) = 0 y(1) = 0.4673 y(2) = 03769 (3) = 0.2690Sec. 2-5 The Inverse z Transform 45 (40) = 0,001 ~ To plot the values of the inverse z transform of G(z), follow the procedure given in the following. Plotting Response to the Kronecker Delta Input, Consider the system given by Equation (2-20). A possible MATLAB program to obtain the response of this system to the Kronecker delta input is shown in MATLAB Program 2-2 The corresponding plot is shown in Figure 2-5, MATLAB Program 2-2 % ——~ Response to Kronecker delta input ——— um = [0 0.4673 -0.3393]; den= [1 -1.5327 0.6607]; x=[1 zeros(1,40)]; v=(0 40 1 th axisly; k= 0:40; y= fiterinumden.d; Blot 09 ari ttle Response to Kronecker Delta Input) label) ylabelt'yi Response to Kronecker Delta Input ye os 0 OSS GSCSS a k Figure 2-5 Response of the system defined by Equation (2-20) to the Kronecker delta inputYe | 46 The z Transform — Chap. 2 If we wish to connect consecutive points (open circles, o) by straight lines, we need to modify the plot command from plot(k,y,o) to plotik,y,"0', ky,’~). Difference Equation Approach. Noting that Equation (2~20) can be written as (2 ~ 1.53272 + 0.6607)¥(z) = (0.46732 ~ 0.3393)X(z)_ we can convert this equation into the difference equation as follows: y(k + 2) ~ 1.5327y(k + 1) + 0.6607y(k) where x(0)= 1 and x(k) = 0 for k #0, and y(k) = 0 for k <0. [x(k) is the Kronecker delta inpat.] v ‘The initial data y(0) and y(1) can be determined as follows: By substituting 2 into Equation (2-21), we find ch ¥O)-21 5321y(-1) + 0.607y(~2) = 0.46733(—1) — 0 3393x(—2) from which we get. © > S 5 yQ)=0 ~~ 1 into Equation (2-21), we obtain \, (1) — 1.5327y(0) + 0.6607y(—1) = 0.4673x(0) — 0.3393x(~-1) from which we get“ eo y(1) = 9.4673 k Next, by substituting k = Finding the inverse = transform of ¥(z) now becomes a matter of solving the following difference equation for y(k) yk + 2) — 1.5327 p(k + 1) + 0.6607p(k) = O.4673x(k + 1) ~ 0.3393x(k) (2-22) with the initial data y(0) = 0, y(1) = 0.4673, x(0) = 1, and x(k) = 0 for k # 0. +> Equation (2-22) can be solved easily by hand, or by use of BASIC, FORTRAN, or other. = - 2) Partial-Fraction-Expansion Method. The partial-fraction expansion method presented here, which is parallel to the partial-fraction-expansion method used in Laplace transformation, is widely used in routine problems involving z transforms. The method requires that all terms in the partial fraction expansion be easily recognizable in the table of z transform pairs. To find the inverse z transform, if X(z) has one or more zeros at the origin (z = 0), then X(z)/z or X(z) is expanded into a sum of simple first- or second-order terms by partial fraction expansion, and a z transform table is used to find the corresponding time function of each expanded term. It is noted that the only reason. that we expand X(z)/z into partial fractions is that each expanded term has a form that may easily be found from commonly available z transform tables = 0.4673x(k + 1) -0.3393x(k) (2-21)one . Sec. 2-5 The Inverse 2 Transform r Example 2~13 Before we discuss the partial-fraction-expansion method, we shall review the shifting theorem, Consider the following X(2): z iva xX@) = By writing 2X(z) as ¥(z), we obtain 2X(@) = ¥@) = po Referring to Table 2-1, the inverse 2 transform of ¥(z) can te obtained as follows: " 2-{¥(@)] = (= a" Hence, the inverse z transform of X(z) = z”' ¥(z) is given by 27K) =H) =D Since y(k) is assumed 10 be zero for all kK <0, we have == x) = {oe ed “e=1,2,3, k=0 Consider X(z) as given by bz" + bz! + az +. To expand X(z) into partial fractions, we first factor the denominator polynomial of X(z) and find the poles of X(z): Doz™ + byz™! + +--+ by iz +d, (zy = DZD A bg tt Betz + bee = PE PB) ‘We then expand X(z)/z into partial fractions so that each term is easily recognizable in a table of z transforms. If the shifting theorem is utilized in taking inverse = transforms, however, X(z), instead of X(z)/z, may be expanded into partial frac- tions. The inverse z transform of X(z) is obtained as the sum of the inverse z transforms of the partial fractions A commonly used procedure for the case where all the poles are of simple order and there is at least one zero at the origin (that is, By = 0) is to divide both sides of X(z) by z and then expand X(z)/z into partial fractions. Once (2}/zis expanded, it will be of the form Lt biz + be X@) = tg z + ay 2> Pr ‘The coefficient a, can be determined by multiplying both sides of this last equation byz — prand setting z = p,. This wil xesultin zero for all the terms on the right-hand side except the a, term, in which the multiplicative factor z ~ p, bas been canceled by the denominator, Hence, we have o-[e-0%,48 Thez Transform — Chap. 2 Note that such determination of a; is valid only for simple poles. If X(z)/z involves a multiple pole, for example, a double pole at z = p; and no other poles, then X(z)/z will have the form X(@) oy z @opy z-P The coefficients c; and cy are determined from Zz o- [shew Jeers It is noted that if X(z)/z involves a triple pole at z = p,, then the partial fractions must include a term (z + p;)/(z — p1)*. (See Problem A-2-8.) Example 2-14 Given the z transform aert Ge: Y! @-)Ere eee) where ais a constant and T'is the sampling period, determine the inverse 7 transform (KT) by use of the partial-fraction-expansion method. ‘The partial fraction expansion of X(z)/z is found to be x@. 13 G v X@)= Thus, X(z) From Table 2-1 we find et; = oral — Hence, the inverse z transform of X(2) is xe) a1 eT, k= 0,12, ¥ Example 2-15 ‘Let us obtain the inverse z transform of . te) oeet2 @=De-zey by use of the partial-fraction-expansion method. We may expand X(z) into partial fractions as follows: x(e)= Ae SEHR et oe teSec. 2-8 The Inverse z Transform 43 Noting that the «wo poles involved in the quadratic term of this last equation are complex conjugates, we cevrite X(z) as follows: Pe 2[e*T sinwkT] = 7 26 ET cos wT +e ='1 and cosw2 =} in this case, we have wP = /3 and sinwT = V3/2, Hence, we obtain by identifying « { Thus, we have (0) = 429 = 30) cos ASDF 5 1 ah sig >: ga) sin Rewriting, we have 1 =f 3M gal, ka123, at L- 9, kso 74 The first several values of x(k) are given by wats xo=0 fee es xQ)= Bue Oy x 20) =6 x) =7 x(5) =5 Note that the inverse z transform of X(z) can also be obtained as follows: Since50 Thez Transform Chap. 2 and 2 ay snk Jyh sink wwe have Sqnb Pt, ka 2.3,. ks0 Although this solution may look different from the one obtained earlier, both solutions are correct and yield the same values for x(k). Inversion Integral Method. This is a useful technique for obtaining the in- verse z transform. The inversion integral for the z transform X(z) is given by ZEK()] = X(T) = x(k) = Tyhxox'ae (2-23) where Cis a circle with its center at the origin of the z plane such that all poles of X(z)z*" are inside it. [For the derivation of Equation (2-23), see Appendix B.]~> %-- The equation for giving the inverse z transform in terms of residues canbe 7° derived by using theory of complex variables. It can be obtained as follows: x(KT) = x(K) = Ky + Ky to + Ky 7 = 3 residue of x(z)z!atpolez = 20fX(z)2" ¥ (2-24) a where Ky, K,,..., Kn denote the residues of X(z)z*“! at poles 21, 225. - , Zn» TESpece tively. (For the derivation of this equation, see Appendix B.) In evaluating residues, note that if the denominator of X(z)z*"' contains a simple pole z = z; then the corresponding residue K is given by K = lim[( = z)X(z)z*"'] ¥ (2-25) If X(z)z*“ contains a multiple pole z, of order g, then the residue K is given by Ble — 2) X(a)2"] 40-26) Note that the values of in Equations (2-24), (2-25), and (2-26) are nonnegative integer values. If X(z) has a zero of order r at the origin, then X(z)z‘~' in Equation (2~24) will involve a zero of order r+ k — 1 at the origin. Ifr = 1, thenr +k -120 for k = 0, and there is no pole at z = 0 in X(z)2""!. However, if r <0, then there will be a pole at z = 0 for one or more nonnegative values of k. In such a case, separate inversion of Equation (2-24) is necessary for each such value of k (See Problem A-2-9.) Ti should be noted that the inversion integral method, when evaluated by residues, is a very simple technique for obtaining the inverse z transform, provided that X(z)z*“ has no poles at the origin, z = 0. If, however, X(z)z*"! has a simple pole or a multiple pole at z = 0, then calculations may become cumbersome and theSeo. 2-5 The Invarse z Transform 51 partial-fraction-expansion method may prove to be simpler to apply. On the other hand, in certain problems the partial-fraction-expansion approach may become laborious. Then, the inversion integral method proves to be very convenient Example 2-16 Obtain x(KT) by using che inversion integral method when X(2) is given by Xt) = oes @- jee Note that, XQ! = Oa 5 DE = For k =0,1,2, . ,X(z)z*"" has two simple poles, z= 2 = Land 2 = 22= 2°" Honce, from Equation 2-24), we have x)= x residue of OS EE at pale 2 = 2| ‘ = Kit Ks where = [residue at simple pole 2 = 1] = tim in| - pg sees |= Jat 7 residue at simple pole z = ¢~*7 = teal eng gy] - Hence, . (kT) = Ki + Ki = ~ eT k= 0,12, Example 2-17 Obtain the inverse 7 transform of 10°C by using the inversion integral method Notice that er 2G)" = Gag Fork =0,1,2, .,X(z)2**' has a simple pole at z = 2, = e"*7 and a double pole at Hence, from Equation (2-24), we obtain 100 = 3 freien of Ey = Ky + Ke582 ‘The z Transform — Chap. 2 where y= [residue at simple pote = sin,[te =e ~ HET} K, = [residue at double pole z = 1) 7 fq tt - a [« Vee -l Jv v Hence, AD “Tae = 0,1,2,... 2-6 z TRANSFORM METHOD FOR SOLVING DIFFERENCE EQUATIONS Difference equations can be solved easily by use of a digital computer, provided the numerical values of all coefficients and parameters are given. However, closed-form expressions for x(k) cannot be obtained from the computer solution, except for very special cases. The usefulness of the z transform method js that it enables us to obtain the closed-form expression for x(k). Consider the linear time-invariant discrete-time system characterized by the following linear difference equation: x(k) + x(k = 1) +2 F ayx(ke =n) = boulk) + bulk 2) 4+ + Bulk —m) (2-27) where u(k) and x(k) are the system’s input and output, respectively, at the kth iteration. In describing such a difference equation in the z plane, we take the z transform of each term in the equation. Let us define Zpe(k)] = X(2) Then x(k + 1),x(k + 2),x(k + 3),... and x(k ~ 1),x(k ~ 2),x(k — 3), canbe expressed in terms of X(2) and the initial conditions. Theit exact z transforms were derived in Section 2-4 and are summarized in Table 2-3 for convenient reference. Next we present two example problems for solving difference equations by the z transform methodSec. 2-6 2 Transform Method for Solving Difference Equations TABLE 2-3 z TRANSFORMS OF x(k + m) AND x(k ~ m) Discrete function 2 Transform xe +4) 2X (2) — z4x(0) ~ Px(1) — 27x) — 2x3) x(k +3) PX(z) ~ x0) ~ Px) ~ 212 xk +2) PAGE) ~ Fx(0) ~ 2x(1) x(k +1) 2X(z) ~ 2x(0) x(6) Xz) x(k 1) zt X(z) x(k-2) 27X(@) x(k = 3) 2° X(z) xe-4) 2X) Example 2-18 Solve the following difference equation by use of the z transform method: x(k +2) + 3x(le +1) + 2e(k) = First note that the z transforms of x(k + 2), x(k + 1), and x(k) are given, respectively, by Belle +] = 22X(e) ~ Ax(0) - 2x(1) (0) = 0, Zhe(e + 1) = 2X) - (0) 2ix(k)] = X@) Taking the z transforms of both sides of the given difference equation, we obtain xQ)s1 2.X(2) ~ 2x0) ~ 2x(1) + 32X(z) ~ 3ex(0) + 2X2) = 0 Substituting the initial data and simplifying gives XG) = 1 1 Fat Noting that cay, we have x(k) = (HD = (3, Example 2-19 ‘Obtain the solution of the following difference equation in terms of x(0) and x(1): x(k #2) + (@ + bpe(k + 1) + abx(k) = 0 Where a and b are constants and k= 0, 1,2, ee Feats EtDE+ Fei k= 0,1,2, =. F4254 The z Transform — Chap. 2 The z transform of this difference equation can be given by [2° X(z) ~ 22x(0) ~ ze(2)] + (@ + b)lzX(e) — zx(0)] + abX(Z) = 0 or [2+ (@ + bz + ab]X(e) Solving this last equation for X(z) gives, [2 + (a + b)z)x(0) + 2x(1) XG) =" Fe (@+ be tab [z+ (a + b)z}e(0) + ze(1) Notice that constants a and b are the negatives of the two roots of the characteristic ‘equation. We shall now consider separately two cases: (a) a # b and (b) a = b. (a) Forthe case where a + b, expanding X(z)/z into partial fractions, we obtain X(e) _ be) +xQ)_1, ax(O) +20) 1 a-b 245" ate z boa zta from which we get -2O+x0) 1 ee +x) boa ita a-b Ttbr ‘The inverse z transform of X(2) gives j= ADHD gy , (4x0) ‘X(z) x(k (-b), a tb where k= 0,1,2,.... (b) For the case where a = b, the z transform X(z) becomes x) -<& $ dany(0) + 220) (0) , a0) + 20) ata @+ay 20), fax) + x0) Tea? Otay ‘The inverse z transform of X(z) gives x(k) = x(0)(-a)f + [ax(0) + x(I)]k(-a)h, where k = 0,1,2, 2-7 CONCLUDING COMMENTS In this chapter the basic theory of the z transform method has been presented. The 2 transform serves the same purpose for linear time-invariant discrete-time systems asthe Laplace transform provides for linear time-invariant continuous-time systems The computer method of analyzing data in discrete time results in difference equations With the z transform method, linear time-invariant difference equations can be transformed into algebraic equations. This facilitates the transient response analysis of the digital control system. Also, the 2 transform method allows us to useChap.2 Example Problems and Solutions 55 conventional analysis and design techniques available to analog (continuous-time) control systems, such as the root-locus technique. Frequency-response analysis and design can be carried out by converting the z plane into the w plane. Also, the z-transfarmed characteristic equation allows us to apply a simple stability test, such as the Jury stability criterion. These subjects will be discussed in detail in Chapters 3and 4 EXAMPLE PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS Problem A-2-1 ‘Obtain the = transform of G*, where G is an n X m constant matrix. Solution By definition, the 2 transform of G* is, 2164 = Zee Tt Get 422427 + dace = (1-62 Note that G* can be obtained by taking the inverse z transform of (I - G2” or (21 ~ G)"'z. Thatis, Ge = 270 - Gz) 2-21 - G)"z] Problem A-2-2 Obtain the z transform of k?. Solution By definition, the z transform of k’ is Zils Bee = ML + YL + Be GF + 102? + Se dat 927 + 16 Here we have used the closed-form expression (1 ~ z~')~? for the infinite series involved in the problem. (See Appendix B ) Problem A-2-3 Obtain the z transform of ka‘ by two methods. Solution Method 1. By definition, the z transform of ke" is given by oS here 2 [kat g's 2ar t+ jate tage + = 4 az! 4 Bate $date +)56 The z Transform — Chap. 2 Method2. ‘The summation expression for the z transform of kat” can also be written ; 3.(2)" Ft aaa) aha x09 7 lim X(2) (2-28) [Exm]-cafo-Zne] ean where 1 Sisk ~-1, so that (0) = x(0) ¥Q) = x(0) +e) (2) = x(0) + x(1) + x(2) Vasko a} Then, clearly yk) ~ yk = = xk) By writing the z transforms of x(k) and y(k) as X(z) and ¥(z), respectively, and by taking the z transform of this last equation, we have ¥(z) = X(z) Hence, X(2)Chap. 2 Example Froblems and Solutions, 57 [Bw (k)] = ¥(z) = and 7 Sa] = 2k - Di =2T¥e By using the final value theorem, we find i sr S00] ae or San = Be im X(z) Next, to prove Equation (2-28), fist define 5) = 3x09) = 20) x4) 0) where 1 <1. k ~ 1, Define also H(z) = Qe xh DOP aE Then, noting that Xz) [e(] = Swe = (0) + x(I)z"? + x(Q)r2t wwe obtain Ke) = X(e) > Zine Since 50) = 7-H), ke the z transform of this last equation becomes. ¥(@) - 21 P@) = te) [Note that the z transform of x(k), which begins with k ~ i, is ¥(z), not X(z) ] Thus, 2| Sw = ¥@) [xe - Samer] Problem A-2-5 ‘Obtain the z transform of the curve x(¢) shown in Figure 2~6, Assume that the sampling period Tis I sec. Solution From Figure 2-6 we obtain *@)=0 x(1) = 025 (2) = 0.50 x) =075 HO=1 k= 4, nit Li +2,58 ‘The z Transform — Chap. 2 2 3. 4 5 6 7 8 F Figure2-6 Curve x(e) ‘Then the 2 transform of x(k) can be given by D x(k)z* = 0.252" + 0.5027 +0 15279 + et HZ ah = 0.25(2"" + 22°? +32) + 27 gttete est 4g = 2") wigdestest+eya-2) 4 ary wiz) aq-7) Notice that the curve x(#) can be written as x(0) = ht Hr = 4)l(e - 4) where 1(f — 4) is the unit-step function occurring at t = 4. Since the sampling period T = 1 sec, the z transform of (1) can also be obtained as follows: XQ} = Ze] 1) - TE - ae ~ 4) le 1_gtet Problem A-2-6 Consider X(z), where ‘Obtain the inverse z transform of X(2) Solution We shall expand X(z)z into partial fractions as follows: XG 241 9Chap. 2 Example Problems and Solutions 59 ‘Then 92" 1 ey ime ‘The inverse z transforms of the individual terms give k= 01,2, k= 0,1,2, and therefore x(k) = 9K(2") = 2843, k= 0,1,2, Problem A-2-7 Obtain the inverse z transform of 2+2 @=aF Solution Expending X(z) into partial fractions, we obtain X(z) = x2) [Note that in this example X(z) involves a double pole at z = 0. Hence the partial fraction expansion must include the term: 1/(z*) and /z.] By referring to Table 2-1, we find the inverse z transform of each term of this last equation. ‘That is, feel a 0, kz epye{h ke 2 eri {e ke? cig ket ze kal 3.4.5, To verify this result, the direct division method may be applied to this problem Noting that60 ‘The z Transform — Chap. 2 Bue + NES eNO we find 0, k x(k) = 1, k 2k Problem A-2-8 ‘Obtain the inverse 2 transform of XO) - Gey z Solution The inverse 2 wansform of 27%(1 — 2 transform tables. Itis possible, however, to write the given X(z) as. sum of z transforms that are commonly available in z transform tables. Since the denominator of X(2) is (1 ~ 2°) and the z transform of Mis "(1 + 2° ~ 27"), let us rewrite X(z) as or from which we obtain the following partial fraction expansion: aa [: a+ wifztate) eal waaay a2} ‘The z transforms of the two terms on the right-hand side of this last equation can be found from Table 2-1 Thus, x(k) Kk = 1), k= 0,1,2, lage der-k It is noted that if the given X(c) is expanded into other partial fractions then the inverse z transform may not be obtained Asan alternative approach, the inverse = transform of X(z) may be obtained by use of the inversion integral method First, note that Xeni = a5 Hence, fork = 91,2. X( (2-24), we have has a triple pole at z = 1 Referring to EquationChap.2 Example Problems and Solutions 6? = Fim lee - 2 a = = ake, k= 0,1,2, Problem A-2-9 Using the inversion integral methed, obtain the inverse z transform of = 10 X= GIE-9 Solution Note that wt Oe 2G NE=D For =, notice that X(z)z** becomes Xe = 1 kao @-DE-De’ Hence, for k = 0, X(z):*™ has three simple poles, z = 21 = 1, z= 22 = 2, and 2 2) = 0. Fork = 1,2,3,-.., however, X(z)2*" has only two simple poles, z = 2 and z = 2, = 2, Therefore, we must consider x(0) and x(k) (Where k = 1,2,3,. separately, Fork = 0. For this case, referring to Equation (2-24), we have x0) = 3 [eae 1G at pole z = :| = Kitt Ks where Ky = [residue at simple pole z = 1] : 10 tele —mgaieam| Kz = [residue at simple pole z = 2} 10 8 ale - IE=HE= =r = [residue at simple pole > ~ 0] 10. "lal EG watics |: caiez Thez Transform — Chap. 2 Hence, x) = Ky + K+ Ky=-10454+5=0 Fork = 1,2,3, For this case, Equation (2-24) becomes af 5 248) = & |esidue ot at pote z= 2] = Kitke where K, = [residue at simple pole z = 1} 1027" : ale ~ ogee) Ka = [residue at simple pole z = 2] 7 7 we] es 7 in| = DE> 5 a Thus, a(k) = Ky + Ke -10 +102) = 100, k= 1,2,3, Hence, the inverse z transform of the given X(z) can be written 0, keo x= [S YI), k= 1,23, ‘An alternative way to write x(k) for k = Ois x(E) = 58(k) + 10-1), k= 0,1,2, where (ie) is the Kronecker delta function and is given by: 4h fork =0 aur {e SETS Problem A-2-10 Obtain the inverse z transform of He42) xe z 2: = Gay @30) by use of the four methods presented in Section 2-5. Solution Method 1” Direct division method We first rewrite X(z) 8 a ratio of two polynomials cde ier MO" STS eet Dividing the numerator by the denominator, we get X(z)= 14 4a te et + Or? + Hence, x)= 1Chap. 2 Example Problems and Solutions 63 x(=4 xQ)°7 (3) = 10 Method 2° Computational method (MATLAB approach). X(z) can be written as $22 4)" Bott Hence, the inverse z transform of X(z) can be obtained with MATLAB as follows: Define num = (1 2 0] den=(1 -2 1] Ite values of x(k) for k = 0,1,2, ...,30 are desired, then enter the Kronecker delta input as follows: w= (1 zeros(1,30)] Then enter the command x = filter(num,den,u) See MATLAB Program 2-3. {The screen will show the ourput x(k) from k = 0 to ke = 30,] (MATLAB computations begin from columa 7 and end at column 31, rather MATLA® Program 2-3 rum=lt 2 ol; den=f) 2.1; 1 zerostt 301; terfnum,den,u) ‘Columns 1 through 12 104 7 0 13 16 19 22 25 2% 31 34 Cotumns 13 through 24 37-40 434549 SZ SS SBC 70 Columns 25 through 31 73 76 79. e2 8 88 91‘The z Transform — Chap. 2 than from column Oto column 30.} The values x(k) give the inverse z transform of X(2) That is, xO =1 xay=4 xQ)=7 (30) = 91 Method 3: Partial-fraction-expansion method We expand X(z) into the following partial fractions: XG) ‘Then, noting that wwe obtain x) =1 x(k) =3k 41, k= 1,23, which can be combined into one equation as follows: x0) 23k41, k= 0,12, Note that if we expand X(z) into the following partial fractions 4 3 4 et i*@-H then the inverse z transform of X(z) becomes x)= ak) = 443-31, Xz) s+ = 1,23, x) 33k +1, €=0,1,2, which is the same as the result obtained by expanding X(z) into the other partial fractions. [Remember that X(z) can be expanded into different partial fractions, but the final result for the inverse z transform is the same Method 4 Inversion integral method. First, note that X22 =Chap. 2 Example Problems and Solutions 65 Fork = 0,1,2, . ,X(z}e*"has adouble pole atz = 1 Hence, referring to Equation (2-24), we have x(k) = |rsue of ate at double pole z = ‘| Thus, 7 [yet ae x)= Galina [« wee 2] 7 PAG +224] =3k+1, k=0,1,2, Problem A-2-11 Solve the following difference equation: 2x(k) — 2e(k = 1) + x(k - 2) = w(K) where x(k) = 0 for k <0 and afl = 01,2, won| Eg Solution By taking the 2 transform of the given difference equation, 2X (2) ~ 22" X(z) + 27 X(z) = Solving this last equation for X(z), we obtain Expanding X(z) into partial fractions, we get afi: +o x@)= Wh ei Notice that the two poles involved in the quadratic termin this last equation are complex conjugates, Hence, we rewrite X(z) 2s follows: 11-05" 1 ose T2in 2+ Ode 2m e 4 Ose Xz) By referring to the formulas for the z transforms of damped cosine and damped sine functions, we identify e~™7 = 0.5 and cos wT = 1/V2 for this problem. Hence, we get wl = mi4, sin wT = WV2, and e~*? = V2. Then the inverse z transform of X(z) can be written as alk) = = $e cos wk + be“ sinwkT ) sot, =0,1,2, from which we obtsin x0 x(lThez Transform Chap. 2 x(Q) = 125 x) = 125 x(4) = 1.125 Problem A-2-12 Consider the difference equation x(k + 2) ~ 1.3679s(& + 1) + 0.3679x(k) = 0 3679u(k + 1) + 0 2642u(K) where x(k) is the output and x(k) = 0 for k = 0 and where u(k) is the input and is given by uk) =0, k<0 4(0) = 1 u(1) = 0.2142 (2) = ~0.2142 uk) = 0, k= 34,5). Determine the output x(k) Solution Taking the z transform of the given difference equation, we obtain [2° X(2) ~ 2*x(0) ~ 2x(1)] ~ 1.3679[2X(2) ~ 2x(0)) + 03679K(2) = 0 3679{2U(2) ~ zu(0}] + 0.2642U(2) (2-31) By substituting k = ~1 into the given difference equation, we find x(1) ~ 1 3679%(0) + 0 3679x(—1) = 0.36794(0) + 0 2642u(-1) Since x(0) ~ x(—1) = Oand since u(—1) = 0 and u(0) = 1, we obtain x(1) = 0 3679u(0) = 0.3679 By substituting the initial data x0) =0, x1) = 0.3679, (0) =1 into Equation (2~31), we get 2X(z) ~ 0 36792 ~ 1.2679:X(2) + 0.3679X(2) = 0 36792U(z) ~ 0.36792 + 0.2642U(z) Solving for X(z), we find 0.3679: + 0.264; XG) = 1.36792 + 03679 UG) The = transform of the input u(k) is U(z) = > [u(k)] = 1 +0 21422-* — 0.214:‘Chap. 2 Example Problems and Solutions 67 Hence, 0.38792 + 02680 = 1367 + 03605 36792"! + 0.34302 = 1.367927 + 0.36792 = 0367927 + 0.846327? + 27H aE TE 1+ 0.21422"" ~ 02142279) Thus, the inverse z transform of X(z) gives (0) =0 (1) = 0.3679 (2) = 0.8463 a1 k= 34,5, Problem A-2-13 Consider the difference equ: x(k +2) = x(k #1) + 2(6) where x(0) = 0 and x(1) = 1. Note that x(2) = 1,x(3) = 2,x(4) The series 0,1,1,2,3,5,8,13,... is known as the Fibonacci series. Obtain the general solution -x(&) in a closed form. Show thatthe limiting value of x(k + T)ix(k) as & approaches infinity is (1 + V3)/2, or approximately 1.6180 Solution By taking the z transform of this difference equation, we obtain 2X(z) ~ 2 x(0) - z4(1) = 2X(z) ~ 2x0) + X@) Solving for X(2) gives x() = 224 2M) = 20 Par-i By substituting the initial data x(0) = and x(1) = 1 into this last equation, we have X() ‘The inverse z transform of X(z) is x)= Sey - @ 4) k=0,1,2, ‘Note that although this last equation involves V5 the square rootsin the right-hand side Of this last equation cancel out, and the values of x(k) for k = 0,1,2,... turn out to be positive integers68 Thez Transform Chap. 2 ‘The limiting value of x(k + 1)/x() as kapproaches infinity is obtained as follows: aay x) Ee ( way _( ( Yy- ° Since |(1 - V5)/2| <1, Hence, Problem A-2-14 Referring to Problem A-2-13, write 2 MATLAB program to generate the Fibonacci | series. Carry out the Fibonacci series to k = 30. | Solution The transform of the difference equation He +2 = 2k +) +4) ' is given by : FX() ~ Px(0) = xQ) = 2X2) - 0) + X@) Solving this equation for X(z) and substituting the initial data r(0) = 0 and x(1) = 1, we get ‘The inverse z transform of X(z) will give the Fibonacci series, To get the inverse 2 transform of X(z), obtain the response of this system to the Kronecker delta input. MATLAB Program 2-4 will yielé the Fibonacci series. MATLAB Program 2-4 1% ~~ Fibonacci series. ‘5 000" The Fibonacci series can be generated as the + response of X(z) to the Kronecker ceita input, where. % Xa) = 2lah2- 2-1) fum={0 1}; den= [1 lll [1 zerostt 30); x= fiterinum,den,u)Chap. 2 Example Problems and Solutions 69 The filtered output y shown next gives the Fibonacci series Columns 1 through 6 0 1 Columns 7 through 12 8 3 Columns 13 through 18 144233 Columnas 19 through 24 25844181 6765 10946 Columns 25 through 30 46368 © 75025 121393 «196418317811 574229 Column 31 832040 Note that column 1 corresponds to k = 0 and columa 21 corresponds to k = 30. The Fibonacci series is given by x) =0 a(l)=i xQ)=1 2G) =2 x33 x(5)=5 (29) = 514,229 (G0) = 832,040 Problem A-2-15 Consider the difference equation x(k +2) + ax(k +1) + Ax(k) = 0 (2-32)70 ‘The z Transform — Chap. 2 2 a /f espe) al pet Figure 2-7. R ‘which the solution series of Equation (2-32), subjected to initial conditions, is finite Find the conditions on a and for which the solution series x(k) for k = 0,1,2,.. 5 subjected to initial conditions, is finite. Solution Let us define asatb, prab ‘Then, referring to Example 2-19, the solution x({) for k = 0,1,2,... ean be given by bx(0) +20) ne , ax) + x0) x)= 1B (ay + 20420 oy, aeb x(0)(-a)* + [ax(0) + x()Jk(-a)™ The solution series x(k) for k = 0,1,2,..., subjected to initial conditions x(0) and 1x(1) is finite if the absolute values of a and b are less than unity ‘Thus, on the aff plane, three critical points can be located: a=b 2 psi a=-2, pal @=0, peat ‘The interior of the region bounded by lines connecting these poinis satisfies the con- dition {al <1, [6] <1. The boundary lines can be given by B = 1, a@~f =1, and a+ B= —1. See Figure 2-7 If point (a, ) lies inside the shaded triangular region, then the solution series x(k) for k = 0,1,2,..., subjected to initial conditions x(0) and (1), is finite PROBLEMS Problem B-2-1 ‘Obtain the = transform of x= tone where a is a constant.Chap.2 Problems n Problem B-2-2 Obtain the z transform of &?. Problem B-2-3, Obtain the z transform of e"™. Problem B-2-4 Obtain the z transform of the following x(k): (KE) = 9K) = 243, =O, Assume that x(k) = 0 for k <0 Problem B-2-5 ind the z transform of x(k) = 2; a where a is a constant, Pevtem B26 zt = 90] = StH = (eh Ne = Obtain the z transform of the curve x(t) shown in Figure 2-8 x0 10 os Figure 2-8 Curve x(¢) Problem B-2-8 ‘Obtain the inverse z transform of Le 2e +322 442? + Set z A(z)2 ‘The z Transform — Chap. 2 Problem B-2-9 Find the inverse 2 transform of X(z) Use (1) the partia-fraction-expansion method and (2) the MATLAB method Write 2 MATLAB program for finding x(k), the inverse z transform of X(z) Problem B-2-10 Given the z transform X@)= PVG ise + Oe) determine the initial and final values of x(k), Also find x(k), the inverse z transform of X(2), in a closed form Problem B-2~11 Obtain the inverse z transform of Use (1) the inversion integral method and (2) the MATLAB method Problem B-2-12 Obtain the inverse z transform of 2) 8 eee 40)" GIF y0 0} in a closed form Problem B-2-13 By using the inversion integral method, obtain the inverse z transform of Lt 624 27 x() Problem B~2-14 Find the inverse 2 transform of Use (1) the direct division method and (2) the MATLAB method Problem B-2-15 Obtain the inverse z transform of by use of the inversion integral methodChap. 2 Problems n Problem B-2-16 Find the solution of the following difference equation: x(k +2) ~ L3e(k + 1) + O.4x(K) = UCR) where x(0) = x(1) * 0 and x(k) = 0 for k <0 For the input function u(k), consider the following two cases: af k=0,1,2, wey = { k<0 and (= uk) =0, #0 Solve this problem both analytically and computationally with MATLAB Problem B-2-17 Solve the following difference equation: x(k +2) = x(k + 1) + 0.25x(k) = u(k + 2) where (0) = 1 and x(1) = 2. The input function u(k) is given by WRAL k= 01,2, Solve this problem both analytically and computationally with MATLAB. Problem B-2-18 Consider the difference equation: x(k + 2) — 1.3679x(K + 1) + 0.3679x(k) = 0.3679u(k + 1) + 0.2642u(K) where x(k) = 0 for k <0. The input u(k) is given by ak) =0, k<0 (0) = 1.5820 s(t) = ~0.5820 uk) =0, k= 2,3,4, Determine the output x(k). Solve this problem both analytically and computationally with MATLABof Discrete-Time 3 z-Plane Analysis Control Systems ryt « ar inrropuction —2-tr Tggoo! for Sis0 & Th agin The z transform method is particularly usefu! for analyzing and designing single- input-single-output linear time-invariant discrete-time control systems. This chapter presents background material necessary for the analysis and design of discrete-time, control systems in the 7 plaié. The it enables the engineer to apply conventio discrete-time systems that may be partly discrete time and partly continuous timé ‘Throughout this book we assume that the sampling operation is uniform; that is, only one sampling r ( i éon sm involves two or more samplers in assume that all samplers are synchronized and have the same sampling rate or sampling frequency. Outline of the Chapter. The outline of this chapter is as follows. Section 3~1 gives introductory remarks. Section 3-2 presents a method to treat the sampling operation as a mathematical representation of the operation of taking samples x(k) from a continuous-time signal x(1) by impulse modulation. This section includes derivations of the transfer functions of the zero-order hold and first-order hold Section 3-3 deals with the convolution integral method for obtaining the z transform Reconstructing the original continuous-time signal from the sampled signal is the main subject matter of Section 3-4 Based on the fact that the Laplace transform of the sampled signal is periodic, we present the sampling theorem. Section 3-5 discusses the pulse transfer function. Mathematical modeling of digital controllers in terms of pulse transfer functions is discussed. Section 3~6 treats the realization of digital controllers and digital filters. 74