@ Operational Procedures (CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION nnn ‘Tue Lecat Srwucrune coe “Tie AiwOrenaton's Cemex (AOC). = 2 ‘Tir OVERALL Rishon TY oF Me Ortaavon 3 Desctnies AND Matas = os 3 (CHAPTER 2 - FLIGHT OPERATIONS PERSONNEL AND TRAINING veel ‘The Rue sara Orin = ‘Tur coxrosmon oF Fio Cai amas Onvtx Phe nnn iti Evans Some Fulan Navieston = = B ‘Monte Fic Cn fo RO Na OnE ° ‘Muli-Pilt Operation Sale Pir Oporto. cconvensionTrananasb Cite ‘Orta Tons Convinson Couns, = ‘The Base Ceox = ‘he Line Chee SEP Trans ano Gwin : Gui Rasounce Maser a ee (Grown avo Renta THANG “Aeroplane oF Fgh Sito Train io RECINCY ee = Dipte ns = io EMG Sire owes. 10 MXPS AEP, ——— Mm onghial Separation Se Vera Sparaton 2 YS Aim Epp = a Lateral Separron =) ‘Nas EipmentRuiromons For Une NDPS Operation te ‘Route Urabe Arca Miho Too LN Sytem i “erfnt Approved for MNPS. 4 “Tip Oxousen Track Sesran OT3). = a astound NAT OTS rack esa: 16 ‘ent NAT OTS rock mera ” Decoding. a NAT Tack Mesage 7 Prefer oats Meswage PRD, 18 (O18 Chagas Por is Random routings rings praia fhe NAT Organic Tack Sem Random rungs oie the peat time ofthe NAT OTS ” ‘hit Octane ATE Rue Peas = 20 Na? racks, 2 20 Random Renting. ——— 20 MNPS Contant ~ “a cnn Clara 2 TE Como ea VAP Comms. 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Information Gv te Fig Ge ser Amer Axe lenG EQUIMENT — “Tunno-Pror Avice aN Delco BUNT : PPston Event AIRCRAFT ASTICNG AND DescinG EgUPMNT nn [CHAPTER 12- CONTAMINATED RUNWAY OPERATIONS eonvennenn Ta Taxi-or = : ‘Dynamic Horning Rotating Tre Neca re evened kber Hapa = =a iow “nin MOTNESNOWTAM COON (CHAPTER 13~ CABIN DECOMPRESSION AND OXYGEN SYSTEMS wenn ‘Ssmproms. Domed Acti. a 2 boot. SAR OND UREN a (CHAPTER 14- FIRE AND SMOKE AvromaricSystes, so o ‘Siate Detectors, a Fe Dession er Engine Zanes. ‘ry Power Unis het Bop. Contents Tess S Operational Procedures@ won Devic Sees oo Mon Deetion Stan. Optical sens ‘ext Sos Portion . light Cres 2 Cabin Crew rae Dericnon Svea Capoctance Fire Detcion ‘Suro Donner Fie Decne omen ton [FIXED IRE EXTINGUISHERS WIT SUIS = ‘Sra Sub et ‘ver Presa. ‘Master Fre Warning nn Dela ire Warning = 2 ENGINE Fie EXTIOUSIER Onan a APU Pine Porecion ‘Pron enn CARBURETOR FRE Cuassncanon on Finis ara Fontine ocr aNDCADN PRES nnn (Cabin Sot Fring ie. (Coot Fres Toate (CHAPTER 15 FUEL JETTISON AND EMERGENCY LANDINGS, Fura ernso - 1 ‘Precautionary Landings. ~ _ ~ m2 mergeny Landings: 2 Dich : 4 CHAPTER 16 DANGEROUS GOODS wren Chastaron eed Gasemesmon = = = q mogeny Lighting y 1 TAROPS RrculaTios 3 MAR OPS SUBPART R- TRANSPORT OF DANGEROUS GOODS BY ait 3 TAR-OPS 1.1130 Termin — 3 Bae lot pat gs Cd 3 SAR-OPS 1.1165 Linton on te Transport of Dangrous Goods vnc TARPS 1.1170 Clasieation : > “ators 1.1175 Pacing - 7 SUR-OPS 1.1180 Labeling nd Marking 7 "UROPS 1.1185 Dangers Goods Trapor Docemet : 7 CROPS 1195 dzcsptnce of Dangerous Goods 2 TAR-OPS 11200 inspection or Damage Lage bv Conanaron 3 TAROPS 1.1203 Removal of Cononnaion 2 a ‘Operational Procedures ——~—~—Cissue 5 ‘Contents 7JAR-OPS 1.1210 Long Reston. ’ “t-0Ps 11215 Proton of orm. ° “at 0PS 11220 Training programmes eed = in ‘at-OPs 11225 Dangerous Goods Ice and Scien Report on ‘Contents 8eA0 Amex 6 scheduled & non transport ‘Tne logat ‘authority Is with uthonty Chapter 1 — Introduction his section describes the regulations under which air ‘transport aireraft are operated, We shall extmine the legal structure of the regulatory authorities, the rules under which an air transport company operates and the requirements placed on the crew. Later_on the subject broadens to include normal and abnormal operating procedures and hazards such as turbulence, icing and wind shear, ‘The Legal Structure ‘The International Civil Aviation Organisation (ICAG) sets out standards, practices. and recommendations for air transport operation in the 1944 Chicago Convention and its Annexes ‘The regulations dealing with scheduled and non-scheduled international commercial air transport are set out in ICAO) ‘Annex 6, Individual states or groups of states align their regulations ‘with ICAO practices but are able to deviate from them by Sling ' variation with ICAO. The ICAO procedures should be seen as ‘background set of rules over which national regulctons have primacy, Im the forty European states which form the Joint Aviation Authority the National Authorities are committed to hharmonining their regulations with the Joint A Regulations (WARS). The legal’ authority “remains with the "National Authority, itis the regulations which are harmonisee. YJAR-OPS Part 1 containe the rules and regulations for ‘commercial ir transportation operations. These regulations fare applicable to the operation of any civil aeroplene for the purpose of commercial air transportation by anj operator ‘whose principal place of business is in a JAR Member State. 1JARs specify how an alr transport operator can be approved for commercial operations either inside or outside national boundaries by issue of an Air Operators Certificate (AOC). The operator must produce and publish a set of operating practices fand then work to those standards ‘The operating procedures are based on JAR. Operations regulations (JAR Ops), which are in turn based on Annex 6 to the Chicago Convention with variations and additions. JAR Ops allow variations from the standard in certain crucial areas by negotiation wth snd with the spproval ot the National Authorities Im the end, then, it becomes @ matter of conformity in the main fand negotiation of the detail. The operstor sets out how it Intends to operate alzeraft basing its procedures on JAR Ops. ‘Where JAR Ops allows for variations the operator will submit procedures that it considers commercially viable and sale Where the Authority agrees approval will be given, where it does not it wil impose more stringent standards. The Air Operator's Certificate (AOC) ‘The AOC is a certificate issued by the State in which the operator is registered which authorises it to carry out specific ‘commercial ar transport operations, It specifies the type of operation that the operator is licensed to perform and sets out. the conditions under which the futhorised operations will be performed ‘The AOC identifies certain key members of the operator's senior management, known as AOC Postholders and contains the following minimum basic information: ‘The operator’ identification and location ‘The date of iste of the AOC and period of validity The description of the types of operation authorise. “The types of aircraft authorised and registration markings ‘The authorised area of operation or route structure ‘Special limitations authorisations approvals (CAT 1/1 Including minima, MNPS, ETOPS, RNAV, RVSM, Dangerous goods) cry Operational Proceduressmut ensure the conversant wth ‘Tho operators reapons! fight safety ‘The Operations Manat may be it nto parts ‘The Overall Responsibility of the Operator ICAO Annex 6 states that the operator is responsible to the State for the control of the operation and that the responsibility may be delegated to a designated representative, In turn, JAR OPS Part 1 parallels ICAO, stating clezrly that it fs the Operator who is responsible for the control of operations, under the terms of his AOC and in accordance with JAR OPS, part 1 It places a general responsibilty on the operator to ensure that ite plots and flight crew are familiar with the laws, regulations, land procedures that relate to the performance of their duties, ‘with Fegard to the areas in which they operate, the aerodromes, {and the air navigation facilities to be used, ‘The operator must also ensure that its pilots in command have available on board the aeroplane all the essential information, ‘concerning the Search and Rescue services in those areas over Which the aeroplane will be flown. ‘The operator mist establish and maintain an accident prevention and fight safety programme, which may be Integrated with the Quality System, including: + Aisle awareness programme ‘© An occurrence reporting scheme +A system of evaluation of incidents, promclgation of related information, but not atribution of blame ‘+ An accountable manager fr the programme ‘The overall responsibilty of the operator is so brocd that we will assume that the operator is always responsible unless otherwise stated, Documents and Manuals ‘The primary document produced by the operator to qualify for fan AOC is the Aircraft Operations Manual (AON, usually {ferred to a8 the Operations Manual. The Operations Manual Contains detailed instructions on ‘Organisational structure Nominated post holders, individual responsi ‘Operational control and supervision Accident prevention and flight safety programme Quality system Crew composition and qualification requirements Fatigue, health and flight time limitationsOperating procedures Route guides and charts Minimum flight altitudes ‘Aerodrome operating minima Dangerous goods Security Handling of accidents and occurrences Rules of the air Aeroplane operating matters (type related) Route and aerodrome instructions and information ‘Training syllabi and checking YAR OPS actually specifies precisely how an Operations Manual should be structured, this will be looked at in detail Tater 1m addition to the Operations Manual the operator will produce The Aeroplane Flight Manual for each airerat type, This is usually based on light anual the manufacturers Right manual and contains all the essential contains normal information for normal and abnormal operations of the aircraft and abnormal steel Indeed, applicable parts of the aireraft flight manual can procedures form sections of the operations manual; the two documents are closely related “The Maintenance Control Manual contains all the information and procedures for aireraft maintenance. 14 "Operational ProceduresChapter 2 - Flight Operations Personnel and Training the flight and cabin erew on the aeroplane and the fight he Flight Operations department is made up of both ‘operations personnel on the ground. Ground Personnel ‘Those that work on the ground are usually grouped together under the collective name of ‘operations’. The principle units ‘+ Flight Operations Management - Pilot Management and Ground Staff Management. Flight Operations or Flight Dispatch Oficers, Operations Controllers Crew Rostering and Scheduling Controllers ‘Aeroplane Performance Engineers and Performance Ofticers Route Planning and Navigation Services Staff ‘+ Operations Manual Preparation and Beitorial Staff All personnel assigned to, or directly involved in, ground and ‘hight operations must be properly instructed, have ‘demonstrated their abilities in their particular duties and are aware of their responsibilities and the relationship of their ‘duties tothe operation as a whole. ‘The Flight Dispatch Officer ‘The ‘Operations’ or ‘light Dispatch’ Officer is responsible for providing supporting paperwork and information te the fight ‘crew and for monitoring the progress of the Might from the ground. Specifically, a fight dispatcher, when employed 10 Provide fight planning, route and weather information, traffic ‘Operational Procedures issuoS Ba | | | |Joad and other relevant operational detail required in accordance with the AOC, must “+ Assist the pilot-in-command in light preparation and provide the relevant information required. ‘+ Assist the pilot in-command in preparing the ‘operational and ATS flight plans. Sign, when applicable, fand file the ATS flight plan with the appropriate ATS ‘+ Furnish the plot in-command while in fight, by fnpprepein rannrn, with tnfermntinn, hich many be ‘necessary forthe safe conduct ofthe ight, + And, in the event of an emergency, initiate such procedures as may be outlined in the operations manual. ‘The fight dispatch officer must also be careful not to take any ‘action that would conflict with the procedures established by ‘air traffic control, the meteorological service or the ‘The Crew Members ‘The Composition of Flight Crew Flight crew are pilots, systems operators and, where carried, navigators. The composition ofthe Might crew and the number of flight crew members at designated crew stations must comply with the Aeroplane Flight Manual (AFM) and Operations Manual. When a particular operation needs extra crew members they must be carried All ight crew members must hold an applicable and valid licence acceptable to the Authority and be suitably qualified tnd competent to conduct the duties assigned to them. ‘An operator must ensure that flight erew members who are self-employed and/or working on a freelance or part-time basis comply with the regulations. In particular the operator must ‘make sure the erew member is not operating too many public transport types. One pilot amongst the flight crew, qualified as a pilotin- command in accordance with JAR-FCL, is designated as the commander who may delegate the conduct of the fight to another suitably qualified pilot. In multi-crew operations the commander must complete the prescribed command course and hold an ATPL. ‘A CPL holder can operate as commander of an aeroplane certificated for single pilot operations provided: 2a Flight ispatchor ‘confit with ATC,‘only need a CPL Flight Engineers are carried when ‘the Fight Manual for that type ‘+ When operating under VFR outside a radius of 30am, from an aerodrome of departure the pilot has « ‘minimum of SOOhre flight time or holds valid IR + When operating on a multi-engine type under IFR, the pilot has a minimuim of TOOhr® flight time inchading A00bra as PIC of which 10Ohes have been under FR ‘The Captain may allow the assigned first officer to operate one for more sectors ofthe fight under his supervision. Irthere are ‘more than two pilots required then the third pilot, a second ‘officer, may fy the aeroplane above F1200.. In these situations the first officer must hold a valid ATPL and the third pilot, alzo referred to asa relief pilot or second officer must hold at least a valid CPL. There is also a scenario where a suitably qualified First Officer could relieve the Commander during the fight; this would only occur above L200, and the First Officer requires an ATPL. There are also other competency. requirements; these would be detailed in the Operations Manual, ‘Apart from the differing licence requirements all three pilots ‘must be trained and type rated on the aeroplane caregory and ‘ype. This includes an instrument rating, recurreney training land competence checks. ‘The exception is that only the captain and first officer need be qualified in take-offs and landings. All type rated pilots can taxy the aircraft, as indeed can any other personnel provided they have been fully trained and briefedon aerodrome layout, signs, markings and ATC Flight Engineers When a dedicated System Panel Operator is required by the APM, the fight crew must include one crew member who holds ight Engineer's (FE) licence or is otherwise a suitably qualified fight crew member and acceptable to the Authority ‘This allows second officers or Pas to occupy the FE's seat, Ia Flight Engineer is required he can only be relieved in Night, by another qualified Might engineer. If @ third pllt, second officer or systems panel operator is carried in place of a Specialised Might engineer then this crew member can. be relieved by either someone similarly qualified or by a fight engineer. ‘Operational Procedures }Flight Navigator The flight crew must include at least one member who holds 2 flight navigator licence in all operations where, as determined by the State of the operator, navigation necessary for the safe Conduct of the fight cannot be adequately accomplished by the pilots from the pilot station. This is rarely the case. Minimum Flight Grew for IFR or Night Operations ‘Multi-Pilot Operation For operations under IFR or at night an operator shall ensure ‘that all jet aircraft and turboprops with more than 9 passenger seats have a minimus Might erew of two pilots ‘Single Pilot Operation - Figure 1024 Piston engined sireraft sind small turbo-props fin other words, feroplanes other than those described in the paragraph above) can be operated by a single pilot provided that the following requirements are satisfied: ‘The Operations Manual must include a pilot's conversion and recurrent training programme which includes any additional requirements for a single pilot operation. In particular the cockpit procedures must include aa Toes Operational ProceduresEngine management and emergency handling: ‘The use of normal, abnormal and emergency cxeckist; ATC communications procedures Departure and approach procedures; Autopilot management procedures ‘The tise of simplified in-flight documentation; Recurrent checks for single pilot operation are speciied in the Operations Manual (AOM) approved by the Authority and wall specify: Ground and reftesher training Simulator training by a Type Rating Instructor Emergency and Safety training (Crew Resource Management (CRM) training allo be conducted by sultably qualified and trained staff ‘There are also minimum hours and recency requirements, specifically ‘+ a minimum of 50 hours Might time on the specific type fr class of aeroplane under IFR of which 10 hcurs is as pilot in command, ‘+ atleast 5 IFR flights, including 3 instrument ‘approaches, carried out during the preceding 90 days on. the type or class of aeroplane in the single-pilot role. ‘This requirement may be replaced by an IRR instrument approach checic on the type or class of aeroplane. Conversion Training and Checking Whenever a fight crew member first joins an operator or changes alreraft type or role in the cockpit they cemplete an lperator's conversion course If converting to a new aircraft type or class a Type Rating course is completed to JAR standards as part of the conversion, sf Might crew member is recruited with & Type ‘Rating this ean be omitted from the training ‘The minimum standards of qualification and experience required uf fight crew sueibers before uinder aking conversions ‘taining are specified in the Operations Manual. The amount of ‘raining required by the operator's conversion course takes account of any previous training as recorded in hs ‘raining records. All training must be conducted by suitably qualified personnel acceptable to the authority ‘Operational Procedures 28Operators Conversion Course ‘An operator's conversion course must include, in order: ‘+ Ground training and checking including aeroplane systems, normal, abnormal and emergency procedures © Emergency and safety equipment training and checking ‘which must be completed before aeroplane training + Crew Resource Management training ‘+ Aeroplane or fight simulator training and checking ‘© Line lying under supervision and line check. If it is the first conversion course the flight erew member is taking for the operator they also need general fist ald training and, if applicable, ditching procedures training using the equipment in water. Each flight crew member undergoes a base check or, to use the proper term an Operator Proficiency check, and Emergency fand Safety Equipment Training and Checking before starting Tine training On jet aircraft @ frst officer undertaking a first conversion course must do a minimum of 100 hours or 40 sectors of line training. A first officer upgrading to captain requires @“The validity of = Beginning of the ‘minimum of 20 sectors for a new aeroplane type or 10 sectors Hf already type rated on the aeroplane. After completing line flying under supervision a final line check is flown, Under JARs a erew member is considered to be inexperienced until either 100 hours or 10 sectors have been flown within 120 consecutive days or 150 hours or 20 sectors over an unlimited time period. Inexperienced fight crew members must not be crewed together (Once an operator's conversion course has been started a flight crew member must not undertake fying duties on another 1Ype fof class until the course is either completed or terminated Each flight erew member must undergo recurrent training and checking relevant to the type oF variant of aeroplane on which the fight crew member operates. Details of recurrent traning ‘and checking requirements are outlined in JAR OPS Ptt; from these requirements an Operator would create far'more ‘detailed programme of training and checking, approved by the ‘Authority, and detailed inthe Training’ section of the Operations Manual ‘The validity period of checks and training requirements varies but always starts from the beginning of the month after the check. Provided a check is completed within the last three ‘months of validity of a previous check the validity & taken to fin from the expiry of the previous check, Thus a base check, Which is valid for six months, may be completed in December ‘Operational Procedures 27‘and be valid until the end of June the following year. A second base check completed in Apri is now valid until December Recurrent training in the aeroplane or fight simulator must be conducted by a Type Rating Instructor (FRI) or, in the case of the flight simulator content, a Synthetic Flight Instructor (SF), must include: Aeroplane Systems Operational Procedures (including ground de/ant icing), Pilot ineapacitation, Accident/Incident Occurrence Review. [A base check (operator proficiency check) must be conducted by a Type Rating Examiner (TRE) or, ifthe check is carried out in an approved fight simulator, a Synthetic Flight Examiner (Fe) Line proficiency checks (LPCs) can be carried out by Line ‘Training Captains (suitably qualified commanders) nominated by the operator and acceptable to the Authority ‘The Base Check Otherwise known as the Operator Proficiency Check (OPC), An operator must ensure that: + Bach fight crewmember undergoes operator proficiency checks to demonstrate his or her competence in carying out normal, abnormal and emergency procedures; + The check is conducted without external visual reference when the fight crewmember will be required to operate under IPR +The base check is carried out as part of a normal flight crew complement. ‘The period of validity is 6 calendar months in addition to the remainder of the month of issue, If issued within the final 3 months of validity of a previous check, the period of validity sshall extend until 6 calendar months from the expiry date of the previons ehecle ‘The Line Check. A line check is conducted annwally in the aircraft to demonstrate a erew member's competence in normal line ‘operations. A line check is valid for 12 months ze sss 5 Operational Procedures Lesually called the ‘comploted twiceSEP Training and Checking. Each flight crew member requires annual training and checking on the location and use of all the emergency and Safety equipment carried on the aircraft. The SEF check is valid for 12 "months, ‘Crew Resource Management. (CRM training is part of recurrent training. JAR OFS is quite specific on the topics to be covered, and atleast the following riust be covered on a 3 year rolling basis: Human error, prevention and detection ‘Company safety culture, SOPs ‘Stress, fatigue and vigilance Information processing, workload managemen: Decision making ‘Communication Leadership and team behaviour ‘Automation (philosophy of use) if relevant to type Specific type-elated differences (Other areas (identified by the Right safety programme} Ground and Refresher Training. Each flight crew member must complete ground and refresher training at least every 12 calendar months. Refresher training is often combined with CRM and SBP as an annual event ‘Operational ProceduresAeroplane or Flight Simulator Training. Acroplane or flight simulator training takes place at least every 12 months. The simulator training is usually combined in the ‘same sim detail as the IR, another anmual event. ‘An operator shall ensure that: A pilot is not assigned to operate an aeroplane as part of the minimum certificated crew, either as pilot fying ar pilot non flying, unless he has carried out three take-offs and three landings in the previous 90 days as pilot flying in an ‘seroplane, or in a fight simulator, ofthe same type/ lass, {A pilot who does not hold valid instrament rating is not ‘assigned to operate an aeroplane at night as commander ‘unless he has carried out at least one landing at night in the preceding 90 days as pilot flying in an aeroplane, or in a flight Simulator, ofthe same type/class. ‘The 90-day period above may be extended up to @ maximum of 120 day’ by line Mying under the supervision of a TRI or TRE. For periods beyond 120 days, the recency requirement is satisfied by @ taining Might or use of an approved fight simulator. a0 Operational ProceduresComplex routes require i Might Route and Aerodrome Competence Qualification [Refore acting as operating pilot a pilot must acquire adequate knowledge of the route to be flown and of the acrodromes, including alternates, facilities and procedures to be used. Route competence Route competence training should include knowledge of + Terrain and minimum safe altitudes; + Seasonal meteorological conditions; + Meteorological, communication and air traffic facilities, services and procedures; Search And Rescue (SAR) procedures; and + Navigational facilities associated with the route along ‘which the flight is to take place. For the less complex routes, familiarisation by self-briefing With route documentation, ‘or by means of programmed Instruction isan adequate way of satisfying these requirements. For the more complex routes the piot should receive in-fight familiarsation as a commander, co-pilot oF observer under supervision. A simulator may be usee Aerodrome Competence ‘The Operations Manual should specify a method of categorisation of aerodrames and specify the requirements necessary for each of these categories, The least demanding ‘erodromes are classed as Category A. Category B and C would, bbe applied to progressively more demanding aerodromes. ‘The Operations Manual should specify the parameters that qualify an aerodrome to be considered Category A-and then Provide alist of those aerodrames categorised as 13 or C Category A Aerodromes Cat A aerodromes should have the following: + At Teast one runway with no. performance limited procedure for take-off and/or landing; + Published circling minima not higher than 1000 feet “above aerodrome level; and ‘ight operations capability. ‘Operational Procedures Ivsun 5 zatCategory B Acrodromes Category B aerodomes are considered more dificult to operate from. An aerodrome that does not satisfy the Category. A requirements or which has extra problems like non-standard ‘approach aids or approach patterns, unusual local weather conditions, unusual characteristics or performance limitations or obstructions would be classed as Category B. Before operating to a Category B aerodrome the commander should be briefed or self-briel by means. of programmed instruction on the aerodrome concerned. He must certify that he has carried out the briefing. Category € Aerodromes ‘An aerodrome which is considered to be more difficult to operate from than a Category B aerodrome would be classified fa Category C Before operating to a Category C aerodrome the commander should be briefed and visit the aerodrome as an observer land/or undertake instruction in a flight simulator approved by the Authority for that purpose. The operator should certify this instruction,Validity Period ‘The period of validity of the route and aerodrome oxmpetence qualification is 12 calendar months in additen to. the remainder of the month of qualification or the month of the atest operation on the route orto the aerodrome. Route and aerodrome competence qualification is revalidated by operating on the route or tothe aerodrome within the period of validity. If revalidated within the final 3 calendar months of validity of, previous route and aerodrome competence qualification, the period of validity extends from the date of revalidation until 12 Calendar months from the expiry date of that previous route ‘and aerodrome competence qualification Cabin Crew Training ‘The operator must also set down procedures for the training of, ccabin crew which must inchude training on +The arming and disarming of slides +The operation of cabin lights, including emergency lighting +The prevention and detection of cabin, oven and toilet fires ‘© Aetion to be taken when turbulence is encoun:ered ‘+ Actions to be taken in the event of an emergency and or ‘an evacuation, Training of Additional Crew Members CCrewmembers are often positioned in company aireraft in Uniform and on duty but not as part of the opersting crew. ‘They are listed on the manifest as additional crewmembers, ‘The operator must ensure that crewmembers who are not required flight or cabin crew members, have also been trained in, and are proficient to perform, their assigned dutics Training records ‘An operator must maintain records of all training, checking, ‘and’ qualifcation undertaken by a Might crewmember. The ‘operator should certiy this instruction 1 must also make the records of all conversion ccurses and recurrent training and checking available, on request, t0 the Might crewmember concerned. ‘Operational ProceduresIntentionally Blank. Baa ‘Operational ProceduresChapter 3 - JAR OPS his chapter looks in more detail at the AOC and at the ‘general obligations concerning the operation of public {ransport aireraft placed on the operator by JAR Ops, ‘The regulations below are produced in fal ‘The AOC ‘The AOC is the certificate that permits an operator to run a ‘commercial air transport operation. We have already considered it in outline, now we need to look at it in detail. AR Ops states: (a) An operator must not operate an aeroplare for the purpose of commercial air transportation othe-wise than tinder, and. in accordance with, the terms and conditions of an Air Operator Certificate (AOC), (©) An applicant for an AOC, or variation of an AOC, must allow the Authority to examine all safety aspects’ of the proposed operation, (0 An applicant for an AOC must: (Not hold an AOC issued by another Authority unless specifially approved by the Authorities ‘concerned (i) Have his principal place of business aad, if any, his registered. office located in the State responsible for issuing the AOC (Gi) Have registered the aeroplanes which are to be ‘operated under the AOC in the State rsponsible {or issuing the AOC and (is) Satisfy the Authority that he is able to conduct safe operations. () Notwithstanding sub-paragraph e) ii) above, an operator ‘may operate, with the mutual agreement of the Authority issuing the AOC and another Authority, feroplanes registered on the national register of the second-named Authority ‘Operational Procedures 3athy a o ty 0 (eo ) ‘An operator must grant the Authority access 10 his ‘organisation and aeroplanes and sball ensure that, with respect to maintenance, access is granted to any ‘associated JAR-145 maintenance organisation; (0 ‘determine continued compliance with JAR-OPS. An AOC will be varied, suspended or revoked if the Authority is no longer satisfied that the operator can ‘maintain safe operations, ‘The operator must sststy the authority tat: (i) Its organisation and management are properly ‘matched to the scale and scope of the operation; and (i) Procedures for the supervision of operations have been defined ‘The operator must have nominated an_ accountable ‘manager, acceptable to the Authority, who has corporate authority for ensuring that all operations’ and ‘maintenance activities ean be financed and carried out to the standard required by the Authority ‘The operator must have nominated post holders, acceptable tothe Authority, who are responsible for (2, Plight operations; (i) The maintenance system; (a) Crew training: and liv) Ground operations, AA person may hold more than one of the nominated posts if acceptable to the Authority but, for operators who employ 21 of more full time staff, a minimum of two persons are required to cover the four areas of responsibility For operators who employ 20 or less fulltime staff, one for more of the nominated posts may be filled by the Accountable manager iF acceptable to the Authority ‘The operator must ensure that every flight is conducted in accordance with the provisions of the Operations Manual. ‘The operator must arrange appropriate ground handling facilities to ensure the safe handling of ts Nights, ‘The operator must ensure that ite aeroplanes are equipped and its crews are qualified, as required for the area and type of operation, ©S Operational Procedures© o ‘The operator must comply with the msintenance requirements, in accordance with Subpart M, for all aeroplanes operated under the terms of its AOC. ‘The operator must provide the Authority with a copy of the Operations Manual, as specified in Subpart P and all, ‘amendments or revisions to ‘The operator must maintain operational support facilities at the main operating base, appropriate for the ‘area and type of operation. Issue, variation and continued validity of an AOC [An operator will not be granted an AOC, or a variation to an ‘AOC, and that AOC will not remain valid Unless: fa) % ic ‘Aeroplanes operated have a standard Cerificate of ‘Airworthiness issued in accordance with ICAO Annex 8 by a JAA Member State. Standard Certificates of Airworthiness issued by a JAA Member State other than the State responsible for issuing the AOC, will be ‘accepted without further showing when issued in ‘accordance with JAR rules; ‘The maintenance system has been approved by the Authority in accordance with JAR-OPS maintenance requirements; and ‘The Authority is ability te: tisfied that the operator has the (@) Establish and maintain an adequate organisation Establish and maintain @ quality system in ‘accordance with JAR-OPS. (Gi) Comply with required training programmes; (iv) Comply with maintenance requirements, consistent with the nature and extent of the ‘operations specified, including the relevant items [prescribed in the requirements to hold and AOC (2) Comply with the eanditions af the ADC Notification of a Change of AOC Postholder Notwithstanding the provisions of JAR-OPS, the operator must notify the Authority as soon as practicable of any changes to the information submitted in the original AOC application, and, ‘Operational Procedures losus S 33regarding a change of AOC postholder, the Authority must be given at least 10 days prior notice of a proposed change If the Authority is not satisfied that these requirements above hhave been met, the Authority may require the conduct of ane for more demonstration fights operated as if they were ‘commercial ar transport fights Operational Control and Supervision ‘An operator must establish and maintain a method, of ‘exercising operational control approved by the Authority. The ‘operator exercises operational control over any flight under the terms of his AOC. Power to inspect ‘An operator must ensure that any person authorised by the ‘Authority is permitted at any time to board and fly in any rcroplane operated in accordance with an AOC issued by that ‘Authority. Such a person (or persons) must be permitted to enter and remain’ on the flight deck provided that the commander may refuse access to the Might deck if, in his pinion, the safety of the aeroplane would thereby be endangered, Quality Control ‘An operator must establish one Quality System and designate fone Quality Manager to monitor compliance with and. the adequacy of procedures required to ensure safe operational practice and airworthy aeroplanes. Compliance monitoring ‘must include a feedback aystem to the Accountable Manager to ensure corrective action as necessary. The person nominated for the post of Accountable Manager must be one who is acceptable to the Authority. He or she must have corporate fauthority for ensuring that all Operations and Maintenance Activities can be financed and carried out to the required standards of the Authority. ‘The Quality System must include a Quality Assurance Programme that contains procedures designed to verify that all operations are being conducted in accordance with all applicable requirements, standards and procedures. The (Quality System and the Quality Manager must be acceptable to the Authority. The Quality System must be described in relevant documentation. The Authority may. accept the ‘omination of two Quality Managers, one for Operations and fone for Maintenance, provided that the operator hi designated one Quality’ Management Unit to ensure that the Quality aystem is applied uniformly throughout the entire operation a Operational Procedures ‘The operator bperational control ever sy ‘ight under themust bo by an proved ‘organisation Maintenance Operators must either be approved to maintain their own aircraft in accordance with JAR-145 or contract an approved ‘organisation to do their maintenance for them. The operator's AOC depends on following JAR maintenance requirenients “There must be a Nominated AOC Postholder for Maintenance. I the operator is using a contractor for maintenance the Postholder should not, unless approved by the Autherity, be an employee of the contractor. ‘The Operator's quality system must atleast do the flowing + Monitor thatthe activities of JAR-OFS 1.890 are being performed in accordance with the accepted procedures; + Monitor that all contracted maintenance is carried out in accordance with the contract, and + Monitor the continued compliance with the requirements of JAR OPS. An_ operator must provide an operator's Maintenance Management exposition which must be approved by. the Authority. It contains details of the organisation structure including the nominated postholder responsible for the ‘maintenance system and the procedures that must be followed to satisfy the maintenance responsibility and the quality functions of JAR-OPS, Operational Procedures aIf the operator is JAR-145 approved the quality aystem and ‘exposition will bein the JAR‘145 documentation and need not be repeated, ‘An operator must ensure that the aeroplane is maintained in ‘accordance with the operator's aeroplane maintenance programme. The programme must contain details, including frequency, of all maintenance required to be carried out. The programme may be required to include a reliability prograsmme fof the maintenance system I an operator wishes to vary procedures trom the JAR standard requirements it must establish a need and present a ‘case proving an equivalent level of safety. This must be ‘approved by the Authority and supported by JAA Member Authorities Manuals, Logs, Records and Maintenance ICAO Annex 6 and JAR OPS specify several manuals that the operator must create in support ofits AOC application. In most cases these manuals will have been prepared by the operator land will contain information compiled from manuals provided by the state of the operator, or the aircraft and engine rianulacturer. ‘The Flight Manual ‘The Flight Manual is usually based on manuals issued by the aireraft manufacturer and contains the information needed for ‘normal and abnormal operation ofthe aircraft ‘The Maintenance Control Manual ‘The Maintenance Control Manual will include the Maintenance Exposition and the Maintenance Programme. It contains the Information required to properly maintain and service the aeroplane in accordance with ICAO, the State, and the aireraft and engine manufacturers! regulations and will include: +A description of the administrative arrangements between the operator and the approved maintenance organisation ifthe maintenance is not being done by the operator itself +A description of the maintenance procedures and the procedures for completing and signing a maintenance Felease where the maintenance is being done by the operator. ‘36 tesueS Operational Procedures+Other regulatory information including the names and uties of specific persons, maintenance programmes, completion and. retention of maintenance. records, ‘monitoring, assessing and reporting of maintenance and operational “experiences and a description of the procedures for assessing airworthiness information and {implementing any required actions. ‘The Operations Manual By far the most important manual the Operator produces is, ‘the Operations Manual. The operations manual must be amended or revised as is necessary to ensure that itis kept up todate. All such amendments or revisions must be issued fo all personnel that are required to use this manual. ‘The State of the Operator must establish a requirement for the operator to provide a copy of the operations manual together with all amendments and/or revisions, for review and ‘acceptance and, where required, approval. ‘The operator must incorporate in the operations manual such mandatory material a the State of the operator may require, JAR OPS is quite specific on how the Operatiors Manual should be structured: PART A General / Basle Administration and control ‘Organisation and Responsibilities Operational control (including Flight Safety Programme) Quality System Crew composition Qualification requirements Crew Health Flight time limitations Operating Procedures Dangerous goods and weapons Security Handling of Accidents and occurrences Rules ofthe Air PART B Aeroplane Operating Matters - Type Related General information Limitations Normal Procedures ‘Abnormal and Emergency Procedures Performance ‘Operational Procedures sus a7Flight Planning ‘Maas and Balance Loading Configuration Deviation List Minimum Equipment List Survival and Emergency Equipment Emergency Evacuation Procedures ‘Aeroplane Systems PART C Route and Aerodrome Instructions PART D Training ‘Training Programmes - General ‘Training Syllabi and Checking Procedures Documentation and Storage ‘The Operations Manual contains under these headings a The MELis Minimum Equipment List (MEL) that specifies which aircraft equipment is required for the flight and a Configuration by the Deviation List which lists the performance or operating based ana limitations eatised by changes from the standard aircraft Master MEL configuration, perhaps because of unserviceability, Part B of (MMEL) produced the ‘Operations Manual can be supplemented with or by the substituted by parts of the Aircraft Flight Manual, Also in Part sanufacturer C, operator produced material ean be eubstituted with route guide material produced by specialized companies (eg Jeppesen) ‘The Journey Log ‘The aeroplane journey or voyage log, which is sometimes The journey tog is stored in the front of the aeroplane technical log, but ‘usually a single plece of ‘single page form completed by the Commander at Paper completed tach fight should contain the following items: bythe “The aeroplane nationality and registration, ‘the end ofeach ‘The date ‘ign ‘The names of crewmembers. ‘The duty assignment of crewmembers. Place of arrival ‘Time of departure ‘Time of arrival Hours of fight. Nature of Hight (private, arial work, scheduled or non- scheduled) Incidents, observations, if any. Signature of person in charge.‘Tho captain sions the Tech tog ‘The Technical Log Bach aeroplane has ite own Technical Log which is used to ‘wack maintenance carried out on the aircraft Pilots enter technical problems in the Technical Log after Flight. The maintenance section either rectiies the problem or fit as an Acceptable Deferred Defect (ADD) for a certain number of fights and records an entry in the Tech log cancelling the previous entry by the pilot. ‘The Tech log entry by the engineer after rectification is called @ Maintenance Release or Release To Service. It must include ‘+ basic details of the maintenance carried out; ‘© date such maintenance was complete; + when applicable, the identity of the approved maintenance organisation; and “+ the identity of the person oF persons signing the release. In order to accept an aeroplane for service the captain checks the Maintenance Release is complete and has been signed by the engineer and the signs the Technical Log Book in turn. Documents which must be carried in flight ‘Those parts of the operations manual which are required for the conduct of the flight must be carried on board. The following are carried as part of the aircraft documentation: Certificate of Registration Centfcste of Airworthiness Noise Certiticat (if applicable) Air Operator Certificate Aircraft Radio Licence Certification of Maintenance Release Acroplane Technical Log Book ‘Third party lability insurance certificates In addition the crew should have in their possession: Valid fight crew licenses with appropriate 1 ‘The Operational Flight Plan Details ofthe Filed ATS Flight Plan ‘The Journey Log Appropriate NOTAM/AIS and Meteorological Irformation Mass and Balance Documentation ‘Notification of Special Categories of Passenger such as ‘security personnel, not considered as crew, ines ‘Operational Procedures eS SSSOSC~*~«Shandicapped persons, inadmissible passengers, deportees and persons in custody. ‘+ Notification of Special Loads/Dangerous Goods in writing + Other documentation that may be required by the States, ‘concerned stich as ~ Crew Manifest, Passenger Manifest, Cargo Manifest etc ‘+ Forms to comply with the reporting requirements ofthe Authority and the Operator. ‘The eaptain must alsa enanice that enrrent map and charts ‘and associated documentation are available to cover the intended operation of the aeroplane, including any diversion which may reasonably be expected. Information Retained on the Ground Certain key flight documents must be kept behind after the flight departs retained on file for a specified minimum period of ‘An operator must ensure therefore that, at least for the uration of each flight or series of fight information relevant to the flight and appropriate for the type of operation is preserved on the grotind. The same information is carried in & Sreproof container in the aeroplane. ‘The following need to be kept: ‘+ A-copy of the operational fight plan where appropriate; ‘+ Copies ofthe relevant part(s) of the technical lg; ‘+ Route specific NOTAM documentation if specifically edited by the operator; ‘+ Mass and balance documentation ‘+ Special louds notification. ‘The information is retained until it has been duplicated at the place at which it willbe store. a0 TSaue5 Operational ProceduresLong Term Storage of Documents JAR OPS requires the following data to be stored for these specific times, even after ceasing to operate the airerft Flight Preparation docs are kept for 3 monte Infomation uot rparaton an xeon of | cnn tn Ste secon cic tomers, | | a a Byinoeperter ent tape oe a uray 3 ere Sengan’, | sum gna" on Figure 103.2 ‘Operational Procedures osssSSSS~*~*~«S[oe a Raw ‘shoe [sme TSR | | ra Chan Si [eae sang ese ae | [eames ma So [RERE a ce eine oon Terargaseo a ear Go Tana Te Figure 10:33 Fit ay ante ‘stone Figure 10:34 ‘B42 ~*~*~*”CeS—~*«pevational Procedures@ “Traning/ unten records of her Exgtometcteenen raease Figure 10:35, nt 2 manne ater te new Records on cosmic and star | Unt 2rante air the rey, ‘eaten aosage 4 empy Cunt sstemvecoes | 5 Years FOR 60 days ator Fight aaa rcoregs ‘50.008 eran scisent | i | Figure 10:36 i F ‘Operational Procedures [ocvo 5 33Aircraft and Crew Leasing Alreraft and crews are frequently leased between operators. ‘The operator that provides the aircraft is called the lessor and the one that receives the aircraft is called the lessee Aircraft may be provided and operated under the AOC of the or, this is called a wet lease, and would include crew. Ifthe aeroplane is operated under the AOC of the lessee it would be referred to as a dry lease, this would not normally include crew. A third, colloquial term that you may come across 18 & ‘damp lease’ where an aircraft and flight erew are provided but not a cabin crew. Ian aircraft is wet leased out it remains under the lessor’s AOC, ‘under any other circumstances it is operated as a variation on the lessec's AOC provided that both operators are JAR operators and provided that the lessee's Authority has ‘approved the variation, Dry leasing aircraft out to non-JAR operators is more complex. Itcan be done, provided that the foreign authority accepts, in writing, responsibility for overseeing the maintenance and operation of the aircraft, the aircraft is removed from the lessor’s AOC and it is still maintained under an approved maintenance schedule, Dry leasing aircraft in fom non-JAR operators is relatively simple provided approval is obtained, Wet leasing in from non- JAR operators must also be approved and the lessee must ‘ensure that +The safety standards ofthe lessor are equivalent to JARS +The lessor holds an AOC from an ICAO contracting state + The aircraft has a C ofA issued in accordance with ICAO Annex 8 ‘+ Any JAA requirement imposed by the lessee's Authority is complied with Flight Operations Establishment of Procedures ‘An. operator is required to establish procedures and instructions for each aeroplane type. There must be available ‘to and must cover ground staff and crew members’ duties for all types of operation on the ground andl in Mh. uaa ‘Operational ProceduresChecklists ‘An operator must establish a check list system to be used by ‘crew members for all phases of operation of the aeroplane lunder normal, abnormal and emergency conditions applicable, to ensure that the operating procedures in the Operations Manual are followed. Usually these are based on the manufacturer's checklists with local modifications approved by the National Authority, ‘The normal procedures and duties sssigned to the crew, the appropriate checklists, the system for use of the check lists fand a statement covering the necessary coordination, procedures between flight and cabin crew. The following normal procedures and duties must be included: Pre-fight; Pre-departure; Altimeter seting and checking: Taxy, Take-Off and Climb; Noise abatement; Cruise and descent; Approach, Landing preparation and briefing VER Approach; Instrument approach; Visual Approach and eircling: ‘Missed Approach; [Normal Landing; Post Landing; and Operation on wet and contaminated runways. ‘There will be a similar requirement for abnormal and ‘emergency procedures. Again, duties assigned to the crew, checlelists, use of check-lista and co-ordination procedures ‘will all. be detailed, The checklist should also. include Instructions to cabin crew for: ‘+ Briefing of cabin crew by senior cabin crew member + Check of safety equipment and security checks ‘+ Supervision of passenger embarkation and disembarkation + Security of passenger cabin, galleys and equipment + Safety brings ‘Cabin secure’ report to commander ‘© Cabin crew at stations for take-off and landing Surveillance of passenger cabin Reporting of any deficiencies, unserviceabilites of equipment and/or any incidentSecurity ICAO Annex 6 sets out the requirements for aircraft security wwe need to be familiar with the regulations about flight deck security and the actions to be taken in the event of unlawful interference with a ight. Training Programmes An operator must establish and maintain a tenining. programme that enables crewmembers to act in the most [ppropriate manner to minimise the consequences of acts of “unlawful interference ‘An operator must also establish and maintain a training programme to acquaint appropriate employees — with preventative measures and. techniques in” relation to passengers, baggage, cargo, mail, equipment, stores and supplies intended for carriage on an aeroplane. This is designed to enable them to contribute to the prevention of acts of sabotage or other forms of unlawful interference, Carriage of Passenger's Weapons Although not mandatory it is recommended that, where an operator accepts the carriage of weapons removed from passengers, they should be stowed where they cannot be Accessed in fight ‘Security of the Flight Crew Compartment Im all aeroplanes that are equipped with a flight crew compartment door, this door must be capable of being locked. rom 1 November 2003, all passenger-carrying aeroplanes of a raxiinum certificated take-off mass in excess of 45 S00 kg or with a Maximum Approved Passenger Seating Configuration treater than 60, shall be equipped with an approved Might crew compartment door that ia capable of being locked and unlocked from each pilot's station and designed to meet the requirements of JAR 26.260. ‘This door shall be closed prior to engine start for take-off and will be locked when required by security procedure or the Commander until engine shut down after landing, except when deemed necessary for authorised persons to access or egress in ‘compliance with National Aviation Security Programme. Means shall be provided for monitoring from either pilot's station the area outside the flight crew compartment to the extent necessary to identify persons requesting entry to the ‘Operational Procedures Passongors weapons must hot be accessible night Flight deck doors‘without delay Aight crew compartment and to detect suspicious behaviour oF potential threat, ‘Aeroplane Search Procedure Checklist An operator must ensure that there is, on board, a checklist of the procedures to be followed in searching for a bomb in ease of suspected sabotage. Guidance on the course of astion to be faken and. information on the “least-riske bomb location specific to the aeroplane must support this checklist. In the event that a bomb or suspicious object is found, this, Information should be readily available to the crew Reporting Acts of Unlawful Interference Following an act of unlawfal interference the pilotin- ‘command, or in his absence the Operator, must submit a report as'soon as practicable to the local Authoriy and the Authority in the State of the Operator. The Responsibilities of The Crew [A crew member is responsible for the proper execution of his duties that are related to the safety of the aeroplane and its ‘occupants and are specified in the instructions and procedures, laid down in the Operations Manual, [A crew member must report to the commander ary’ incident that has endangered, or may have endangered, safety and make use of the operator's incident reporting schemes in Accordance with JAR requirements. If the operators incident reporting scheme is used a copy of the report must be given to ‘the commander concerned, [Acrew member must not perform duties on an aeroplane: + While under the influence of any drug that may affect his or er faculties in a manner contrary to safety; + Until a reasonable period has elapsed after deep water aiving + Following blood donation except when a reasonable time period has elapsed + Ihe or she is in any doubt of being able to accomplish his or her assigned duties; + Ihe or she knows or suspects that he or she i suffering from fatigue, or feels unfit to the extent that the fight may be endangered. [A crewmember must not ‘Operational Procedures loses 3a?+ Consume alcohol less than 8 hours prior to the specified reporting time for fight duty or the commencement of standby; + Commence a fight duty period with @ blood alcohol level, Jn excess of 0.2 promille: + Consume alcohol dusing the flight duty period or whilst fon standby. An operator must take all reasonable measures to ensure that all persons carried in the aeroplane obey all lawful commands fiven by the commander for the purpoze of securing the aafety Of the aeroplane and of persons or property carried therein, Duties during critical stages of flight ‘An operator must not require a crewmember to perform any activities during eritical phases of the flight other than those required forthe safe operation ofthe aeroplane. The critical phases of light are the take-off run, the take-of! flight path, ‘the final approach, the landing including the landing roll, and any other phase of ight at the discretion of, the commander, During take-off and landing each fight crew member required 1 be on Might deck duty must be at his or her station. During all other phases of fight each Might crew member required to be on fight deck duty must remain at his or her Station unless absence is necessary for the performance of duties in connection with the operation, or for physiological needs. Such absences can only be permilted provided at least fone suitably qualified pilot remains at the controls of the ‘aeroplane at all times, (On all the decks of the aeroplane that are occupied by passengers, required cabin erew members must be seated at heir assigned stations during take-off and landing, and whenever deemed necessary by the commander in the interest of safety When determining cabin crew seating positions, the operator ‘should ensure that they are {in order of priority) + Close to floor level exit; + Provided with a good view of the area(s) of the passenger ‘cabin for which the cabin crew member is responsible; + Bvenly distributed throughout the cabin Eery Tose Operational Procedures AR OPS imposes ‘slcohel level Fight deck crew must stay at their be at thorCrew Seat Belts Crew members are required to wear seat belts and harnesses, uring take-off and landing and whenever the commander requires it in the interest of safety. During other phases of the flight each fight erew member on. the fight decte must Keep his safety belt fastened while at his station Duties of the Aircraft Commander ‘The commander shall Be responsible for the safe operation of the aeroplane and safety ofits occupants during fight tims which is Considered to begin when the aeroplane frst starts to move away from the boarding area and ends when the fengines are shut down atthe end ofthe flight. Have the authority to give all commands he or she deems necessary 0 secure the safety of the aeroplane ‘and of the persons or property It earries, Have authority to disembark any person, or any part of the cargo, which, in his or her opinion, may represent ‘a potential hazard to the safety ofthe aeroplane or its ‘occupants; Not allow a person to be carried in the aeroplane who appears to be tinder the influence of alcohel or drags to the extent that the safety of the aeroplane or its ‘occupants is likely to be endangered; Have the right to refuse transportation of inadmissible passengers, deportees or persons in custoly if their farriage poses any risk to the safety of the aeroplane or is occupants; Ensure that all passengers are briefed on the location of emergency exits and the location and use of relevant safety and emergency equipment; Ensure that all operational procedures and check lists are complied with in accordance with the AOM. Not permit any crew member to perform aay activity uring take-off, initial climb, ‘final approach and landing except’ those duties ‘required for the safe operation of the aeroplane; ‘Operational Procedures loses 39[Not permit a flight data recorder to be disabled, ‘switched off or erased during fight nor permit recorded data to be erased after ight in the event of an accident fr an ineident subject to mandatory reporting: [Not permit a cockpit voice recorder to be disabled or ‘switched off during fight unless he or she believes that the recorded data, which otherwise would be erased ‘automatically, should be preserved for incident or ‘accident investigation. He or she must not permit recorded data to be manually erased during oF after Might in the event of an accident or an ineldent subject to mandatory reporting. Decide whether or not to accept an aeroplane with uunserviceabilities allowed by the CDL or MEL; and [Ensure that the pre‘Might inspection has been carried ‘The commander or another pilot acting under his supervision must take any action considered necessary in an emergency situation. In such cases the pilot may deviate fom rules, ‘operational procedures and methods in the interest of safety. I local regulations or procedures are violated the pilotin- command must notify the appropriate local authority without delay and the Authority in the state of registration within ten days ‘The commander shall be responsible for: 320 Notifying the operator of any accident or serious incident involving the aeroplane, resulting in serious injury or death of any person or substantial damage to the aeroplane or property. ‘The operator shall ensure the Authority of the State fof the operator, the nearest appropriate authority fand any other organisation required, are notified by the quickest means available of any accident or serious incident. Reporting all known or suspected defects in. the ‘aeroplane to the operator at the termination of the Might (complete the tecnica! log Completion of the Journey Log or the general declaration containing the information regarding: ‘© Aeroplane nationality and registration © Date of fight ‘+ Names of each crewmember and position 330 tesus 5 Operational Procedures ‘The captain is Feporting techChapter 16 Places of departure and arrival ‘Scheduled time of departure Schedtuled en-route block and arrival time Nature of fight Signature of pilot-in-command. +The commander will also complete any additional reports regarding incidents that occurred curing the Aight (aie traffic, TCAS, bied strikes and 0 on Cargo Handling Stowage of Baggage and Cargo ‘The only baggage allowed in the cabin is hand baggage that can be adequately and securely stowed. All baggage and cargo fon board which might cause injury or damage, 0: obstruct aisles and exits if displaced, must be placed in stowage fesigned to prevent movement. Figure 107 Dangerous Air Cargo Dangerous goods or Dangerous Air Cargo (DAC) are articles oF stances which are capable of causing a significant risk to th safety or property. ICAO’ publish TECHNICAL INSTRUCTIONS which detail the requirements for packing, labeling, eazriage and documentation of dangerous goods. An operator may not carry DAC unless the Authority specifically ‘Operational Procedures 3apermits it in the AOC or if @ temporary approval is given, Certain items of DAC may only be earried on cargo aircraft Passengers must be informed which dangerous goods are not allowed to be carvied in their baggage, this usually takes the {orm of notices at check-in and instructions on the tickets. Certain articles which would otherwise be prohibited as DAC ‘can be carried provided they are required to be aboard for ‘operating reasons, carried as catering or cabin service supplies for are carried by passengers or crew members, Procedures for handling and documenting DAC must be laid ‘out in the Operations Manual and operators must run DAC training courses to familiarise their staf with the procedures, ‘The shipper is responsible for ensuring that no forbidden items fare offered for air transport and that all DAC is. properly ppacked, labeled and documented, the documentation that ‘sccompanies the DAC is called a shipping document. ‘The operator is also responsible for ensuring that DAC carried, packed and loaded in accordance with ICA\ TECHNICAL INSTRUCTIONS. The DAC must be handled ‘according to a checklist detailed in the Operations Manual called an ‘acceptance checklist’ and the captain -must be informed in writing of the DAC that he or she is carrying. ‘The final requirement is that states are required to set up Incident reporting procedures for international fights, Passenger Handling Passenger Seating Areas ‘An operator must establish procedures to ensure that passengers are seated where, in the event that an emergency evacuation is required, they may best assist and not hinder ‘evacuation from the aeroplane. People with Reduced Mobility ‘When carrying people with reduced mobility (PRMs) every effort must be made to make sure they are not seated so. as to ‘obstruct an emergency exit. A facility must be provided for the rapid evacuation of such passengers in case of emergency Operational Procedures traning DAC. “The captain must bbe informed in writingPassenger Seats, Safety Belts and Hamesses Before take-off and landing, and during taxing, and whenever deemed necessary in the interest of safety, the ommander ‘must ensure that each passenger on board occupies a seat or berth with his safety belt, or harness where provided, properly secured. An operator must make provision for, and the commander ‘must ensure that multiple occupancy of aeroplane seats may nly be allowed on specified seats and does not oscur other than by one adult and one infant who fs properly sesured by supplementary loop belt or other restraint deviee Restricted Access to other Areas: No person is allowed in any part of an aeroplane in Might that is not a designed to accommodate people unless temporary faccess has been granted by the commander: + For the safety of the aeroplane or of any person, animal for goods carried in it. Examples would be a1 engineer traveling a5 a passenger, a medical doctor or vet, or a passenger with particular skill + Toa section where cargo or stores are carried which is signed for access in fight. ‘Socuring of the Passenger Cabin and Galley Before taxiing, take-off and landing all exits and escape paths ‘must be unobstructed. ‘The Captain must make sure that before take-off and landing, and whenever required in the interest of safety all galley ‘equipment is properiy secured. Carriage of inadmissible Passengers, Deportes or Persons in Custody {An operator holding an AOC for passenger operations may find itself trom time to time requested or directed by the State to ccarry unusual passengers. ‘An operator must establish procedures for the transportation of inadmissible passengers, deportees or persons in custody to fensure the safety of the aeroplane and its occupants. The ‘commander must be notified when such people are to be ‘carried on board ‘Operational Procedures‘Smoking ‘Many fights are now non-smoking throughout. Where smoking is allowed the commander must ensure that no person om board is allowed to smoke: + Whenever deemed necessary in the interest of safety; + While the aeroplane is on the ground unless specifically permitted in the Operations Manual; + Outside designated smoking areas, in the aisles and in = In-cargo compartments and/or other areas where cargo is carried which is not stored in flame resistant containers or covered by flame resistant canvas Im those areas of the cabin where oxygen is being supplied, Portable Electronic Devices No person is allowed to use any portable electronic device on board an aeroplane that can adversely affect the performance of the aeroplane’s systems and equipment. Passenger Briefing ‘An operator must ensure that passengers are given a verbal briefing about safety matters. Parts or all of the briefing may be provided by an audio-visual presentation Passengers must be provided with a safety-briefing card on whieh picture type instructions indicate the operation of emergency equipment and exits likely to be used. by passengers, Before take-off: Passengers must be briefed on the following items if applicable: + The smoking regulations; ‘+ That the back of the seat be in the upright position and the tray table stowed; “+The location of emergency exits; ‘The location nd use of Hloor proximity escape path markings +The correct stowage of hand baggage ‘©The restrictions on the use of portable electronic devices; and ‘+ The location and the contents of the safety briefing card, Baa Tee ‘Operational Procedures ‘The operator afoty briefing Is completedFigure 1038 Passengers must receive a demonstration of the following: +The use of safety belts and/or safety hamesses, including how to fasten and unfasten the sifety belts ‘and/or safety harnesses; +The location and use of oxygen equipment. including instructions to extinguish all smoking mate-ials when ‘oxygen is being used; and + The location and use of life jackets if required. After take-off Passengers must be reminded of the following + Smoking regulations; and + Use of safety belts and/or safety hamesses. Before landing Passengers must be reminded of + Smoking regulations + Use of safety belts andor safety harnesses; + That the back of the seat isto be in the upright position and the tray table stowed; +The re-stowage of hand baggage; and + Restrictions on the use of portable electronic cevicesAfter landing Passengers must be reminded of, © Smoking regulations; and = Use of safety belts and/or safety harnesses, I an emergency occurs during the flight passengers must be Instructed in such emergency action as may be appropriate to the circumstances, Refueling or Defueling with Passengers Embarking, On Board or Disembarking YAR OPS allows refueling with passengers on board under ‘An operator must ensure that no aeroplane is refueled/defueled with Avgas or wide cut type fuel (eg Jet Dut not with wide fr equivalent) or when @ mixture of these types of fuel might Oye pet fccur, when passengers are embarking, on board of disembarking. Figure 10:39 Im all other cases the following necessary precautions must be taken One qualified person must remain at a specified location, This person must be capable of handling emergency procedures concerning fire protection and ae [cuss Operational Proceduresfire fighting, handling communications and initiating ‘and directing an evacuation, Crew, staff and passengers must be warned that refuelling wil take place ‘The Yasten seat belt signs must be of ‘NO SMOKING? signs and interior lighting must be on, Passengers must be instructed to unfasten their seat belts and refrain from smoking Sufficient qualified personnel must be on board and be prepared for an immediate emergency evacuation If the presence of fuel vapour is detected inside the aeroplane fuelling must be stopped immediatly. ‘The ground beneath the exits intended for =mergency evacuation and slide deployment areas must be kept Clear and provision must be made for a safe and rapid ‘two-way communication shall be established and shall remain available by the aeroplane's inter- ‘communication system or other suitable means between the ground crew supervising the refuelling and the qualified personnel on board the aeroplane ‘Operational Procedures issue 5 327Intentionally blankChapter 4 - Minimum Aircraft Equipment ‘aircraft has ta have the correct level of equipment to tenable it to be used for commercial operations in different situations such as IFR and VFR. Might ‘Although this might seem obvious the minimum equipment levels are specified to stop tunserupuloue operators froding into safety standards. Once again the background ‘authority is ICAO Annex 6 refined by JAR OPS. The MEL Part of the operations manual is the Minimum Equipment List (MEL) which echoes the requirements here and enables the captain to make sure of the legality of the flight if equipment is missing or inoperative. Al items related to the airworthiness of the airerafl and not included in the list are auomatically required tobe serviceable. ‘The MBL lists aircraft components and systems alphabetically Next to each entry is @ statement which clariies if the equipment is needed or not for the flight. Because many systems and components are duplicated failure of one system does not always mean the flight cannot go. The MEL also considers possible multiple failures, system A may be inoperative, for instance, provided systems Band © are functioning. ‘The MEL is not meant to allow continuous operation with deferred defects and should be used to. allow short term continued operation until maintenance can be carried out. Some items in the MEL will specify that they canbe “unserviceable only for a certain number of Might ‘The MBL is produced by the Operator and approved by the National Authority; it is based onthe Master Minimum ‘Operational Procedures Issue 5 aEquipment List (MMEL} which is produced by the aircraft manlifacturer and approved in turn by either the Air Transport ‘Association of America (ATA) or the JAA. The MEL will always, be more restrictive than the MMEL, and it is used on the ground prior to take-of To make sure that related systems information is accessible the operator must provide operations staff and flight crew with fan Areraft Operations Manual, foreach aireraft type operated, containing the normal, abnormal and emergency procedures relating t0 the operation of the aircraft. The manual must Include detals of the aircraft systems and of the checklists to be used. Flight Data Recorders Flight Data Recorders record, usually digitally, certain operating parameters so that, in the event ofan accident or Incident, the fying attitude and condition of the aeroplane and its engines in the seconds before the incident can be identiied Flom Dee naceter ‘An operator must ensure, as far as possible, that, in the event fof the aeroplane becoming involved in an accident or incident, fll related fight recorder data, and, if necessary, the associated fight recorders, are preserved and retained in safe custody. ‘The recorder isto be installed so that the probability of damage to the recorder is minimised. To meet this requirement it should ‘be located as far to the rear of the aircraft 2 ——~—~”C smu S~«Operational Procedures‘switched of fight practicable. In the case of pressurised aeroplanes it should be located in the vicinity ofthe rear pressure bulkhead, ‘The FOR must be painted a distinctive orange or yellow colour, cary reflective material to facilitate its location and have securely attached to it an automatically activated tunderwater locating device. It should receive its electrical power from a power bus supply ‘that provides the maximum reliability for operation ef the FDR without jeopardising any services to essential or smergency tlectrcal longs. ‘There must also be an ral or visual teas {or checking that the recorder is operating properly uring the ‘course of the pre-flight check, ‘The FDR can often be switched on of off in the cockpit or the switch may have a ‘normal’ selection activating the FDR when ‘power is applied to the aircraft. The FDR must star: to record {data prior to the aeroplane moving under its own power, and continue until the aircraft is incapable of moving under its own power, it must not be switched off during the Might. To preserve Might recorder data, Might recorders must be de- ‘Activated following an accident or incident JAR Ops requirements for installation of Flight Data Recorders (FDRs) depends on three variables, these are: + Date of first issue of C of A Max certificated take-off mass + Max approved pax seating Exactly which parameters need to be recorded depends on, these variables, but in essence, the more modern and larger the aeroplane is, the more detailed the information required All FDRs must record information with reference toa timescale, and all must be equipped with a device to assist location in water, JAR Ops lists situations where FDRs are require: FOR4 An operator shall not operate any aeroplane first issued with a Cof Aon orafter 1 April 1998 whieh: ‘+ Is multiengine turbine powered and has a max pax seating of more than 9 OR + has a max certificated take-off mass over S700kgs unless itis equipped with a FDR a3‘The FDR must record at least 25hrs (10hrs if take-off mass 5700kgs oF less) ‘There are extra recording parameter requirements for ‘acroplanes over 27000kg3 An operator shall not operate any aeroplane frst issued with a CofA on or after 1 June 1990 up to and including 31 March 1998 which: + has a max certifiated take-off mass over 700k¢s it is equipped with a FDR, ‘The FDR must record at least 2shrs. Once again there are cexira recording parameter requirements for aeroplanes over 27000kgs, FDR3 ‘An operator shall not operate any turbine engined aeroplane first iestied with a C of A before 1 June 1990 which: has a max certifeated take-off mass over S700kg ‘unless it is equipped with a FDR, ‘The FDR must record at least 25hrs, and there are extra recording parameter Fequirements for aeroplanes over 270k Cockpit Voice Recorders JAR Ops requirements for Cockpit Voice Recorders (CVRs) are The EVR records ‘very similar to those of FDR. The rules depend on the same the aurat variables, and once again they are listed in 3 sections. environment of ‘the cockpit fr at cvr4 Teast the tat 2 ‘An aeroplane which: + has a Cof A issued on or after 1 April 1998 ‘isa multi-engine turbine with more than 9 seats OR has a max take-off mass over 5700kgs ‘must have a CVR which records at least the last 2hrs of the ‘cockpit aural environment (30 minutes if 5700kgs oF less)100-499 seats 2 more than 300 cvr2 ‘A multi-engine turbine aeroplane which: © has a C of A issued on or after 1 January 1990 up to ‘and including 31 March 1998 + has a max take-off mass 5700kgs or less AND ‘© has more than 9 passenger seats ‘must have a CVR which records atleast the last 30 minutes of the cockpit aural environment cvrs An aeroplane which, + Ihas.a.C of A issued before 1Apsil 1998 + Max take-off mass over $700kgs ‘must have a CVR which records at least the last 30 ninutes of, the cockpit aural environment ‘The CVRs must record whilst the aeroplane is moving under its fown power, and must have a device to assist location under water First-Aid Kits ‘An aeroplane must be equipped with accessible and adequate first-aid supplies appropriate to the number of passengers the aeroplane is authorised to carry. For 0 to 99 passengers this is fone first-aid lit, for 100 to 199 two, for 200'%0 299 three and {or more than 200, four kits Emergency Medical Kit ‘An operator shall not operate an aeroplane with a maximum ‘approved passenger seating of more than 30 seats unless itis ‘equipped with an Emergency Medical kit if any paint on the planned route is more than 60 minutes flying time (at normal ‘ruising speed) from an aerodrome where qualified medical fsistance could be expected. Amongst the cantento will be Some fly powerful pain killers (controlled drugs); these should only be administered by suitably qualified medical personel ‘Operational Procedures eww SSSC«Fire Extinguishers {An aeroplane must carry portable fire extinguishers of a type which, "when discharged, will not cause dangerous, Contamination of the air within the aeroplane. co} a At least one hand fire extinguisher, containing Halon 1211 (bromochlorodifluoro-methane, CBrCIF2), or equivalent as the extinguishing agent, rmust be conveniently located on the flight deck for use by the Aight crew; At least one hand fire extinguisher must be located in, for readily accessible for use in, each galley not located ‘on the main passenger deck; At least one readily accessible hand fire extinguisher rust be available for use in each Class A or Class B ‘cargo or baggage compartment and in each Class E ‘cargo compartment that is accessible to crew members in fight; and Atleast the following number of hand fire extinguishers must be conveniently located in the passenger compartments} 71030 ait060 6110200, 204 10.300, 30110 400, “401 to 500 50110600 60 or More Figure 10-42 When two or more extinguishers are required, they must bbe evenly distributed in the passenger compartment. Tous 5 Operational Procedures {ire extinguisher fon the Might deckAt leat one of the required fire extinguishers located in the Passenger compartment of an aeroplane with maximum, Approved passenger seating configuration of at least 31, and hot more than 60, and at least two of the fire extinguishers located in the passenger compartment of an aeroplane with ‘maximum approved passenger seating configuration of 61 oF ‘ore must contain Halon 1211 (bromochlorodi-fluommethane, CBICIF}), oF equivalent as the extinguishing agent. Crash axes or crowbars ‘A crash axe with an insulated handle or erowbar is required on. the Might deck of aircraft with more than 9 seats or a MTOM. greater than 5700kg. If more than 200 seats are fitted there must be a second, not visible to passengers, in o° near the ‘most rearward galley area. The main purpose of the fire axe is ta give access to fires in areas that are hidden behind panels or fixed equipment, Crew portable Protective Breathing Equipment (PBE) is required in all pressurized aeroplanes and unpressurised feroplanes with a maximum certifeated takeof! mass exceeding $700kg or having a maximum approved seating configuration of more than 19 seats, ‘Operational Procedures love azThe equipment should protect the eyes, nose and mouth, and should be available for one fight erew member (when the Dight crew is more than one and no cabin crew is carried) and each required cabin crew member. The equipment should be located by crew duty stations, ready for immediate use and provide at least 15 minutes supply. Additional portable PBE should be located adjacent to the hand held fire extinguishers required in each galley hot located on the main passenger feck and by those required in each Class A, Class B or accessible Class EE cargo or baggage compartment. ‘Seats and Harnesses ‘A seat and seat belt must be provided for each person over an ‘age to be determined by the State of the operator, normally two years of age. Figure 10-45, Each crew seat needs a safety harness. The safety harness for the pilots” seats must have an. inertia reel device to ‘automatically restrain the occupants torso in the event of rapid deceleration. a ‘Operational ProceduresCrew members are required to wear seat belts and harnesses during take-off and landing and whenever the commander requires it in the interest of safety. During other phases of the flight each flight crew member on the fight deck must keep his safety belt fastened while at his station Passengers are required to wear seat belts and harnesses before take-off and landing and during taxying, and whenever the commander requires itin the interest of safety. Notices and Signs ‘The aircraft must have ‘Yasten seat belts’ and ‘ne smoking’ signs, There must be notices informing the passengers + When and how oxygen equipment is to be used ifthe carriage of oxygen is required + On the location and use of life jackets or equivalent individual floatation devices where their carriage is required + Of the location and method of opening emergency exits Breakin Points If areas ofthe fuselage on an aeroplane are suitable ‘or outside brealcin by the Airport Rescue Services, these areas should be ‘marked in either red or yellow. rFrars i ice" 8 i “in 8 ' had L = J Figure 10.46 If necessary the markings should be outlined in white as @ contrasting background. I the corner markings are more than, ‘2 metres apart, intermediate lines Sem by Sem must be ‘Operational Procedures iowa ainserted 0 that there are no more than 2 metres between ‘adjacent markings. Emergency and Survival Equipment When flying over water life jackets and minimal survival equipment must be carried. Life jackets may be replaced by ‘individual flotation devices’ and must have an electric light, usually powered by a battery activated by seawater, for Tocation Unless separate floating lights are also provided. Figure 10-47 “The life jacket or flotation device must be stowed in a position casily accessible from the seat or berth of the person for whose use itis provided, Seaplanes All ights on s planes must carry + one life jacket, or equivalent individual Moatation ‘device, foreach person on board © equipment for making the sound signals prescribed in the International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea, where applicable; and + one sea anchor or drogue. a0 Teme ‘Operational ProceduresCone Mejacket for Sucton toratts persons on board ‘suming the fe {aft ofthe largest ‘capacity fas to Landplanes Landplanes must carry one life jacket or equivalent individual Toatation device for each person on board when fying more ‘than SOnm or 93kam from the shore ‘The State of the operator may also consider that hie jackets are required when talsing-off and landing over water. Life Rafts and Emergency Locator Transmitters (ELT) Life Rafts to carry all on board, are required in the following, + For aircraft capable of continuing flight to an ‘serodrome witha critical engine inoperative when either 120 mimutes (at cruising speed) or 400nm, whichever is lesser, from land, ‘+ Forall other aeroplanes, when either 30 minutes at cruising apeed or 100nm, whichever is lesser from Tana. Liferaft capacity must be able to cope with the Bie raft of largest capacity failing to inflate or there must be a spare IMeraft ofthe largest capacity. ‘The life-rafts shall be equipped with + A survivor locator light + Life saving equipment including means of sustaining life as appropriate to the Might to be undertaken + A total ofat least two survival Emergency Locator ‘Transmitters (ELT(S) capable of transmitting on the distress frequencies prescribed in ICAO Annex 10, I an exit door sill is more than 1.83m from ground level when, the gear is extended or collapsed it must have an escape slide or slide raf, which must inflate in 10 seconds and into a 25kt wind, Slides and Slide Rafts are located at doors and wing exits When the doors are armed (rom before take off to after landing) opening them from the inside will automatically initiate the deployment of the slides, ‘The slides are inflated by COs, Occasionally the slide deploys ‘but automatic inflation fails, In this case the slice may be Inflated by attempting to manually discharge the CO, bottle. ‘Operational ProceduresMost narrow body aircraft used in continental flights use slides, most wide body aircraft use slide rafts, Slide rafts act {5 “lifeboats” when detached from the aircraft but carry less ‘equipment than purpose built life rats ‘an evacuation side which doubles ata a8 Figure 10-48, I life rafts are used rather than slide rafts they must be stowed to be easily used in emergency and be provided with appropriate life-saving equipment and supplies. Survival Equipment for Flights Over Land When aircraft are operated across land areas which have been designated by the State concerned as areas in which search land rescue would be especially dificult, they must be equipped with at least one ELT, pyrotechnic signaling devices and ‘dditional survival equipment overtaking. into account the umber of persons onboard, except that the additional survival equipment need no be carried when the aeroplane either: (0) Remains within a distance from an area where search fand rescue is not especially dificult corresponding t: (i) 120 minutes atthe one engine inoperative cruising speed for aeroplanes capable of continuing the fight toan aerodrome with the eritical power unit(s) becoming inoperative or a ie = Operational Procedures(i) 30 minutes at cruising speed for all other aeroplanes, (2) Por aeroplanes certificated to JAR-25 or equivalent, no greater distance than that corresponding to 90 minutes at Cruising speed from an area suitable for making af femergeney landing, } ‘Supplemental Oxygen Requirements ICAO describe the oxygen requirements by reference to the cabin pressure in hPa and the equivalent altitude in metres and feet. For simplicity we will list the rules referring only to the cabin altitude in feet. Questions may use any of the units, the equivalent values are Pressure Metres Peet 700hPx 3,000 10,000 / 620hPa «4,000 13,000 S76hPa 7,600 25,000 | Unpressurised Aircraft A flight to be operated above 10,000 feet must carry sufficient stored breathing oxygen to supply ‘+ Alllight crew for entire time above 10,0008. rery ‘Operational+All required cabin crew members and 10 per cent of the passengers for any period longer 30 minutes spent between 10,0008 and 13,0008 Cabin Al, ‘+All the crew and passengers for any time spent above 33,0008 Cabin At Pressurised Aircraft AA pressurised aircraft needs to carry stored breathing oxygen ‘when operated above 10060R. The amount af breathing oxygen required is determined on the basis of cabin pressure altitude ‘and an assumption that depressurization will occur at the ‘most eritieal point, The amount of oxygen shall be sulficient for: ‘All ight crew for entire time above 13,000 and any Period longer 30 minutes spent between 10,0008 and 13,000 Cabin Alt. 30 minutes supply is required if the aeroplane. Is certifeated fly at’ altitudes. not ‘exceeding 25000R,, 2 hours supply is required if the aeroplane is certificated to fly. above 25000R. In ‘addition, above 25000R, crew require a quick donning fonygen masks, ‘+All required cabin crew members entire fight time above 150008 and any period longer 30 minutes spent between 10,000R and 13,000% ‘Cabin Alt. (at least + 100% of the passengers entire flight time above 150008 (minizauim 10minutes supply). + 30% of the passengers entire fight time exceeds 14000R but does not exceed 150008 + 10% of the passengers entire flight time exceeds 10000f but does not exceed 14000K after the frst 30 ‘minutes at these altitudes. If operating above 25,000R or unable to descend to 13,0008 within 4 minutes the oxygen. equipment. must deploy ‘automatically by @ cabin altitude of 15000ft and there must be 1% more rmnalen than there are Reats to ensure availablity Pressurised aircraft require a warning system that wars the fight crew when the cabin pressure altitude exceeds 10,0001 (8,000m) aa Tous Operational Procedures ‘crow oxygen IsFirst-Aid Oxygen Requirements, When operating a pressurized aeroplane above 250008 « supply of frst aid oxygen is required for passengers who, for physiblogcal reasons, might require oxygen following cabin Aepressuristin. The amount carried shall be sufient for at Teast 2% of passengers carried fn no case less than one for the remainder of the fight after Gepresurization when cabin fltiude exceeds 8000R but doesnot exceed 15000. At leat 2 dispensing units are required. Instruments. ‘An aeroplane must be equipped with instruments which will enable the fight crew to control the Aight pah of the aeroplane, carry out any required procedural maneuvers and observe the operating limitations of the aeroplane in the expected operating conditions, ‘An operator must ensure that a fight does not commence unless the communication and navigation equipment required lunder JAR OPS is as follows! + Approved and installed in accordance with the requirements applicable to them, including the ‘minimum performance standard and the eperational ‘and airwarthinese requirements + Installed such that the failure of any single unit required for either communication or navigation, purposes, or both, will not result in the failure of fanother "unit required for communications or navigation purposes. This is known as “systems redundancies ‘+ Im operable condition for the kind of operation being conducted except as provided in the MEL; + So arranged that if equipment is to be used by one Aight crewmember at his station during Aight ie must be readily operable from his station. When a single item of equipment is required to be operated by more than one fight crew member it must be installed 20 that the equipment is readily operable from eny station, fat which the equipment is required to be operated. ‘The minimum performance standards referred to above are ‘contained in Joint Technical Standard Orders (JTS03) ‘Gperational Procedures owes —~S~SC~*~*~*~*~«S | | | | | | |‘Communications Equipment ‘An operator must not operate an aeroplane under VFR over routes that can be navigated by reference to visual landmarks, lunless it is equipped with the radio equipment necessary “under normal operating conditions to fulfil the following: * Communicate with appropriate ground stations; facilities from any point in controlled airspace within which fights are intended; + Receive meteorological information; and + Reply to SSR interrogations as required for the route being flown, If operating IFR or VFR but not navigating visually the aircraft needs two independent radio communication systems in Addition to SSR transponder equipment as above Navigation Equipment ‘The regulations concerning navigation equipment refer to Required Navigation Performance (RNP) standards. These are ‘minimum standards agreed by states or groups of states for certain sections of airspace. The current standard in the airspace of the member countries of the European Cisil ‘Aviation Conference (ECAC) is RNPS. Also known as Basic RNav or BRNav this means that fights must be able to navigate for at least 95% of the total time within plus or minus 5 natitical miles oftheir correct track ‘The general ICAO requirement is that an aeroplane must be provided with navigation equipment that will enable it to proceed: + in accordance with its operational fight plan; + Im accordance with prescribed Required Navigation Performance types; and. + Im accordance with the requirements of air traffic ‘And that the failure of any single item of equipment will not prejudice that ability.Navigation Equipment Lists, IFR An aircraft must not be operated IFR or VFR where visual navigation is not possible unless its navigation equipment ‘meets the standard af the Required Navigation Performance (RNP) for operation in the airspace concemed or that it ‘comprises not less than: + One VOR receiving system, one ADF aystem, ane DME; ‘approach navigation purposes; + One Marker Beacon receiving system where a Marker ‘Beacon le required for approach navigation purposes; + An Area Navigation System when area navigation is required for the route being low; + An additional DME system on any route, or part thereof, where navigation is based only on DME, signals; ‘+ An additional VOR receiving system on any route, or part thereof, where navigation is based only on VOR signals; and! + An additional ADF system on any route, or part thereof, where navigation is based only on NDB. signals ‘An operator may operate outside these limits provided that itis equipped with alternative and adequate navigation equipment Approved forthe route being flown, Instruments ‘The JAR OPS minimum equipment lists under VFR and IFR are as follows: ‘Visual Flight Rules (VFR) Al aeroplanes, when operated as VFR fights, must be equipped with: + amagnetic compass + an accurate timepiece indicating the time in hours, ‘minutes and seconds + a sensitive pressure altimeter; ‘Operational Procedures issue aayan airspeed indicator vertical speed indicator, a turn and slip indicator, an attitude indicator 1 stabilized direction indicator 4 means of indicating in the Aight crew compartment, the outside air temperature ‘headset and boom microphone for each flight crew member ‘8 means indicating when power is not supplied to the required fight instruments for fights under VFR this list can vary depending a number of factors {or local fights, operating within SOnm of an ‘serodrome some items are not required for aeroplanes with a maximum certificated take-off ‘mass in excess of 5700kg or having a maximum ‘approved passenger seating configuration of more than 9, or whenever two pilots are required there are additional requirements., Instrument Flight Rules (IFR) All aeroplanes, when operated in accordance with IFR, or by hight in accordance with VER must be equipped with: ‘a magnetic compass ‘an accurate timepiece indicating the time in hours, ‘minutes and seconds two sensitive pressure altimeters with counter drum pointer or equivalent presentation fan airspeed indicating aystem with means of preventing malfunctioning due to either condensation or icing a vertical speed indicator Operational Procedures+ atu and slip indicator + an attitude indicator (artificial herizon) + a stabilized direction indicator (directional gyroscope) a means of indicating in the fight crew compartment, the outside air temperature ‘+a means indicating when power is not supplied to the required fight instruments +a headset and boom microphone for each ‘ight crew ‘member Whenever two pilots are required the second pilets station requires separate instruments apart from the compass and the clock. ‘Those aeroplanes with a maximum certificated take-off mass in excess of 5700kg oF having a more than 9 passenger seats require an additional standby Attitude Indicator (A). The standby AI must be useable ftom either seat, must he powered, fom a source independent of the normal electrical system, be capable of 30 minutes reliable operation following ‘otal electrical failure, and be appropriately illuminated. Additional Equipment Single Pilot Operation under IFR. For single pilot operations under IFR an aeroplane must be equipped with an autopilot with at least altitude hold and heading mode. Altitude alerting system All turbo-prop aeroplanes with @ maximum certificated take-off ‘mass in excess of 5700 kg or a maximum appoved passenger seatig of more than 9 seats or a turbojet powered aeroplane rmuist be equipped with an altitude alerting system cepable of ‘+ alerting the fight erew upon approaching a preselected atude “© alerting the flight crew by at least an aural signal, ‘when deviating from a preselected altitude ‘Operational Procedures loses aa9Airborne Weather Radar Weather radar is required for pressurised aircraft and for lunpressurised airerat over 5700kg or with more than 9 seats, ‘when itis being operated at night or in IMC in areas where thunderstorms may be expected, Propeller driven pressurised aircraft of less than 5700kg with Jess than 9 seats may use other equipment such as a stormscope subject to approval by the Authority Radiation Indicator All aeroplanes, intended to be operated above 15000 metres (49000 eet), need equipment to measure and continuously indicate the dose rate of total cosmic radiation being received ‘and the cumulative dase on each fight. The display unit of the ‘equipment must be readily visible toa flight crewmember. Machmeter All aeroplanes with speed limitations expressed in terms of Mach number “must be equipped with a Mach number indicator. This device is required in airspace where the Longitudinal Separation of aeroplanes in that airspace is based ‘upon the Mach Numbers of each aeroplane as advised to Air ‘Trafic Control. Ground Proximity Warning System (GPWS) All turbine powered aeroplanes with a maximum certificated take-off mass in excess of 5,700 kg or authorised to carry more than nine passengers are required to have GPWS installed. Its recommended for similar piston aircraft A GPWS must, automatically, provide as a minimum, warnings ofthe folowing circumstances! excessive sink rate ‘ground proximity altitude loss after take-off or go-around incorrect landing configuration and downward glideslope deviation, ‘The warning GPWS provides must be aural and may be supplemented with visual indications. 330 Timing speed 1s Mack number‘Terrain Awareness Waming System (TAWS) ‘The TAWS is an addition 10 GPWS that provides a forward looking terrain avoidance function, usually based en satelite position referenced toa terrain database JAR OPS requires the introduction of TAWS by 2005 for all jet or turboprop aircraft over 15,000kg or 30 seats. There are also ‘equirements which will ensure all new jets of turbosrops over 5700kg oF 9 seats are fitted with TAWS from 2003. ‘TAWS must provide both aural and visual signals and have a ‘TAWS display, either integrated with EFIS or not Airbome Collision Avoidance System (ACAS) ACAS Il, otherwise known a8 TCAS I, i required forall turbine powered aeroplanes with a maximum certificated take-off mass Jn excess of 5700kg or with more than 19 seats. Night Operations / lighting ICAO and JAR OPS) specify that, as a minimum, an aircraft must carry be equipped with © Anvanti collision light © Two landing lights © A green navigation fens uate on the “ fest wing fo, wnble a gio © Awhite navigation light, usually on the tail, Visible through 140° Figure 104-10 + Ared navigation light, ‘istally on the left wing tp, visible through 110°, © lights for all instruments and equipment that are are used by the flight erew “+ lights in all passenger compartments; and “+ an electric torch for each erew member station, ‘Operational Procedures (sous aaFuses lf fuses are used in the aircraft there must be an extra 10% oF three of each rating, whichever is greater, carried as spares, Windscreen Wipers Aircraft over S700kg need @ windshield wiper or equivalent ‘means to maintain a clear portion of the windshield during precipitation installed at each pilot station, Interphone System Aircraft of more than 15,000kg or more than 19 passenger seats require a crew member interphone system which must (1) Operate independently of the public address system except for handsets, headsets, microphones, selector ‘switches and signaling devices; (2) Provide a means of two-way communication between the ight crew compartment and: 1) Bach passenger compartment; (i), Each galley located other than on a passenger eck level; and (ii) ach remote crew compartment that is not on the passenger deck and is not easily accessible from 2 passenger compartment; (3) Be readily accessible for use from each of the required fight crew stations in the Might erew compartment, (4) Be readily accessible for use at required cabin erew ‘member stations close to each separate of pair of floor level emergency exits; (5) Have an alerting system incorporating aural or visual signals for use by Might crew members to alert the cabin, crew and for use by cabin erew members to alert the Might crew; (6) Have a means for the recipient ofa call to determine whether itis a normal cal or an emergency cal (7) Provide on the ground a means of two-way ‘communication between ground personnel and at least ‘hwo flight crew members, ery Tse 5 Operational Procedures“The Might deck lockate Public Address System Aircraft with more than 19 passenger seats require a Public [Address system. The system must operate independently ofthe interphone, be readily accessible for immediate use and be audible and inteligible at all passenger seats and toilets, cabin crew seats and work stations, Audio Selector Panel ® Figure 104-44 Ian aircraft is to operate under IFR it needs an aueio selector panel at each fight crew station. Doors and Curtains, ‘As discussed earlier, all Might crew compartment doors must be capable of being locked. In addition, an aireraft must have the following: () Iman aeroplane with a maximum approved pastenger ‘seating configuration of more than 19 passengers, a ‘door between the passenger compartment and te fight deck compartment with a placard ‘erew only’ and a locking means to prevent passengers from opening it ‘without the permission of a member ofthe Migh: crew; (©) Aeroplanes of a MTOM in excess of 45 500 kg or with a Maximum Approved Passenger Seating greater than 60 ‘require a cockpit door that is capable of being locked and tunlocked from each pilo’s station, This door shall be ‘Operational Procedures love 5 aa3closed prior to engine start for take-off and will be locked ‘until engine shut down after landing. In addition, a ‘means shall be provided for monitoring from either pilot's station the area outside the cockpit to identify persons requesting entry and/or to detect a potential threat. 6) Ameans for opening each door that separates a passenger compartment from another compartment that hhas emergency exit provisions, The means for opening smust be readily accessible; (d)_ itis necessary to pass through a doorway or curtain separating the passenger cabin from other areas to each any required emergency exit from any passenger seat, the door or curtain must have a means to secure it in the open position; [c) Aplacard on each intemal door or adjacent to curtain ‘that isthe means of access to a passenger emergency ‘eit, to indicate that it must be secured open during take off and landing; and ()Ameans for any member of the crew to unlock any door that is normally accessible to passengers and that can bbe locked by passengers Megaphones ‘An aircraft with more than 60 passenger seats, and carrying fone or more passengers, needs a portable battery powered ‘megaphone readily accessible for use by crew members during ‘an emergency evacuation. For each passenger deck with 61 to ‘99 seats, one megaphone Is required. With 100 or more seats, two megaphones are required. 42a ~~S”SC ne perational ProceduresChapter 5 — PreFlight Planning Introduction minima, performance and fuel planning are contained in both Annex 6 and JAR OPS, Where JAR OPS ‘contains substantially the same instructions as Annex 6 we have only quoted the JAR version. T: rules for choice of diversion aerodromes, operating Use of Air Traffic Services [An operator must ensure that Air Traffic Services are used for all fights whenever availabe, Flight Plans {An Operational Flight Plan is required for all flights. An ATS flight’ plan should be fled or, alternatively, adequate {information should be deposited in order to permit the alerting services to be activated if required, ‘The ATS flight plan preparation is described in the Flight Panning section, I unusual nowadays to manually complete ‘the computer Night plan along with the Operational slight Plan aiven to the pilots. Once prepared, ether the pilot in command fr the fight operations dispatch officer must forward it to the nearest Air Traffic Service facility. “The reasons for fling the ATS Might plan are to advise Air Traffic Services of the flight operation and to enable Air Tralfic Control to clear the proposed fight operation. ‘Operational Procedures issue‘When unable to submit or to close the ATS fight plan due to lack of ATS facilities or any other means of communications to ATS, an operator should establish procedures, instructions, land’ list of authorised persons to be responsible for alerting search and rescue services, To ensure that each Might is located at all times, these Instructions should provide the authorised person with at least the information required to be included in a VFR Might plan land the location, date and estimated time for re-establishing ‘The instructions should provide that the information will be retained at a designated place until the completion of the fight Ian aeroplane is overdue or missing, the procedures should provide for notification to the appropriate ATS or Search and Rescue facility Flight Rules AA flight may be conducted under IFR or, where permitted tunder VER, IFR Operating Minima A flight to be conducted in accordance with instrument Might rules (IFR) must not be commenced unless information is fevallable which indicates that conditions at the aerodrome of intended landing be at or above the aerodrome operating minima (for BTA +1 hour). Where @ destination alternate is ‘required, at least one destination alternate aerodrome must, at ‘mated time of arrival (#1 hove), meet the planning ‘Should the appropriate weather reports or forecasts for the destination indicate that at the estimated time of arrival (#1 ‘hour) the weather will be below the applicable minima, or if no ‘meteorological information is available, two destination alternates are required, Having commenced the flight, a commander shall not continue towards the planned destination unless the latest information fvallable indicates that at the estimated time of arrival the ‘weather conditions at the destination, oF at least one of the destination alternate aerodrome, are at or above applicable ‘aerodrome operating minima 52 lus Operational Procedurese ‘VER Operating Minima ‘An operator must ensure that VER flights are corducted in accordance with the Visual Flight Rules and in accordance with the Table below. A flight to be conducted in zecordance with VFR must’ not be commenced unless current ‘meteorological reports, or a combination of current reports and forecasts, are satisfactory. In order to be considered, satisfactory. they must indicate that the metrological Conditions along the route, or that part ofthe route o be flown, under the visual fight rules will, at the appropriate time, be Such 2 to Fender compliance with these rules possible, ‘Special VFR Nights must not be commenced when tke visibility J less than 3 km and not otherwise conducted when the Visibility is less than 1.5 ken. erate |asst | SRNR, | REE evr | ah Sint Soe tpoan ns | Sm mz) Figure 1054 Vote: When the height of he tannin aitude Lower tha 3050 tm (10.0 ‘Ry AMSL, F100 should be used In lew of To,o00e Note? Cat A and 8 aeroplanes may be operated in ight visi ‘down 0.2000 tm, provided the appropriate ATS suthoryy jpemuce eof gn tty ian fans, a ne reumatances are such, tat the probably encounters ‘with other tate ow, nd the Ine 90 orl ‘Operational Procedures Issue 5Minimum Flight Altitudes ‘The minimum flight altitudes to be used and the method of calculating them are specified in the Operations Manual and ‘approved by the National authority. They may not be less than those established by the States flown over or those prescribed by another responsible State. When determining the method of calculation the following should be considered: + the accuracy and reliability with which the position of the aeroplane can be determined; ‘+ the inaccuracies in the indications of the altimeters used + the characteristics ofthe terrain e.g. sudden changes sn the elevation}; + the probability of encountering unfavourable ‘meteorological conditions (eg. severe turbulence and escending air currents} ‘+ possible inaccuracies in aeronautical charts; and airspace restrictions In practice operators use one of a group of generally accepted ‘methods to calculate minimum altitudes usually based on the highest terrain in an area and a safety margin of 1000 to 20008 depending on the height of the terrain. The method chosen will probably produce one of the following: sa Minimum Safe Altitude. MOCA Minimum Obstacle Clearance Altitude MORA Minimum Of Route Altitude MEA Minimum Safe en-Route Altitude GRID MORA Grid Minimum Off Route Aluitude land the major differences are in the areas over which the irrain is considered, ‘The commander or pilot to whom conduct of the flight has been delegated may not fly below the specified minimum altitudes except where necessary for take-off o landing. Choice of Level Any aircraft should, ideally, be operated at the altitude that agives the best performance. For a jet this normally means that You are operating as high as possible within the constraints of the cruise buffet boundary The graph in Sgure 10-5-2 allows us to determine this optimum altitude for the B737. It shows two lines, one of which covers both the long range cruise (LRC) and the normal Cruise (0.74 Mach) and the second deals with the high speed cr Operational Procedures Minimum Fight rot he loss thancruise (0.78 Mach). This graph also shows the maximum ‘operating altitude (37000 feet} for this airerat. Acursory glance at the chart reveals that, as we would expect, for either cruise the optimum altitude increases as. the aeroplane mass decreases, ‘As the cruise progresses and the mass is reduced because of fuel bum, the altitude should be progressively and continuously increased. Operating above this optimum altiude wil reduce che busTet boundaries (while operating below it will result in a fuel penalty and therefore a range mileage penalty. The penalties are listed below the graph. errs Fuel Mion ge Penalty % [asco nto | Figure 10.53 ‘Operational Procedures issuExample: For a mass of 55000 Kg, determine the Optimum Altitudes for Long Range Cruise (LRC) and the ‘Cruise at Mach No 0.78. Use the table above to determine, for each cruise, the fuel penalty if the aeroplane operates at an altitude of 20000 ft at this mass, Solution: When using this or any Optimum Altitude graph be sure to use the correct weight scale Entering at the base of the graph at the CRUISE: WEIGHT 55000 Kg travel vertically tothe lines for 0.78 Mach and LRC /0.74 Mach in turn; in each cease then go horizontally left to read: For 0.78 Mach: 334008 For LRC/Mach 0.74 342008 [At the table below the graph the penalty in fuel ‘and mileage is determined by interpolation: For 0.78 Mach, 290008 is 4400 ft below the optimum, the correction is 4.7% For LRC 29000 & is 52008 below the optimum, the correction i -5.8% ‘The optimum altitude is bound to be constrained by ATC requirements. One would normally ile for the next available FL ‘above the optimum, aa the fuel bums off this level would ‘become first the optimum then lower than the optimum. Once this happens the aireraft can climb another 2,000f to 4,007. ATC and the cruise buffet boundary permit. Choice of Route Form a commercial point of view the operator would, at least in still ait, wish to fy the direct, great cree, track to destination ‘operating at all times at the optimum level and speed. Three things get in the way ofthis, ‘+The first is the effect of wind, the shortest distance may ‘©The second is ATC routings and requirements. ‘+The third isthe Regulatory Authority which impose restrictions on the routing to make sure that the fight, is adequately safe 80 that loss ofa system such as pressurisation or loas of an engine would not lead to Toss of the aircraft,‘The Effect of Wind ‘The minimuro time route is caleulated nowadays by computer It i still possible to roughly work out a min time -outing by construction, by dividing the route into one hour sectors and ‘using the tangle of velocities to find the shortest tire ‘The following example is only a demonstration of a coarse technique that can be used to find @ minimum time route. No scale is given and you will not be asked to do this in the exam. You may, however, be asked to recognise the technique. Exam questions use the odd term ‘isochronie lines’ meaning lines of equal time. Bxample: An aircraft is to fy from A to B al a TAS of 400k: with the winds as shown. Determine the ‘minimum time route by construction, as a a jaan ENS -E Solution: ‘The first wind speed is TOkt. Draw a wind vector ‘Onm long fom A. From the end ofthis line draw ‘an are corresponding to the TAS, 400nm long and mark the tangent to the are at the closest point to Se AS e Now draw the second wind veetor 4Ons: long from the new point and repeat the process, ‘Operational Procedures 37Now the same for the third leg and join up the route at the tangents for the min time routing. ‘The modern realty is that min time, min fuel and min cost routes are selected on the FMS in flight and programmed into the computer version of the operational Flight Plan by operations staff. ATC Requirements Certain routes such as the trans-Atlantic track from the US to Europe attract large amounts of traffic at particular times of day. Over the North Atlantic most of the traffic fies west to east ‘overnight and back to the States in the daytime. As all the fireraft take-off over a. short time period and all want the optimum levels and tracks there are ATC routing requirements ta keep them apart. This is the North Atlantic Track (NAT) system which we will discuss later. ‘The NAT system is the most extreme example of organised routing over the oceans but other examples do exist in other fareas such as the Pacife. Alternate Aerodromes. When fying under Instrument Flight Rules (IFR) an alternate aerodrome must be inchuded in the operational ight plan. An operator has to establish procedures for the selection of festination and alternate aerodromes that are adequate for the types of aeroplanes to be used and the operations to be undertaken, considers to be satisfactory, taking account of the applicable performance requirements and runway characteristics. In Addition, it should be anticipated that, at the expected time of luse, the aerodrome will be available and equipped with necessary ancillary services, such as ATS, sufficient lighting, communications, weather reporting, navaids and emergency z ‘Operational Procedures ‘You must have an TR tightFor an ETOPS en-route alternate aerodrome the operator should also consider the number of letdown aids and runways ‘available for an instrument approach, ‘Take-Off Altemate Aerodrome ‘A take-off alternate aerodrome rust be selected and specified jn the operational fight plan if the weather conditions at the aerodrome of departure are at or below the applicable aerodrome operating landing minima or it would not be possible to return to the aerodrome of departure for other Feasons, This take-off alternate aerodrome must. be located ‘within the following distance from the aerodrome of departure: Aeroplanes with two engines — within the distance ‘equivalent to a fight time of one hour or, if authorised for ETOPS, the approved ETOPS diversion time (eubject to any MEL restriction), up to a maximum of 2 hours. at single engine stil air cruise speed, ‘Aeroplanes with three or more engines - within a distance equivalent to a Might time of two hours at the one ‘engine inoperative engine cruise speed in still air standard ‘conditions, If the Flight Manual does not contain a one-engine-inoperative cruising speed, the speed to be used for calculation rust be that which is achieved with the remaining enginels} set at ‘maximum continuous power, ‘To be selected as a take-off alternate the available weather {forecast information must indicate that for one hour before and fone hour after BTA the conditions will be at or above the planning minima for that operation EnRoute Alternate Aerodromes For the majority of IFR fights, the requirement for alternate aerodromes is limited to one for departure, if requimed, and at Teast one forthe destination. In the case of extended range operations with two engined aeroplanes (EROPS or ETOPS) a number of en-route alternative ferodromes must be selected in order for the aireaft to be ‘within the authorized ETOPS diversion time from a suitable diversion. The conditions must be better than the planning ‘minima for the petiod commencing one hour before and ending fone hour after the anticipated time of use Certain fuel planning procedures make use of an en-route alternate at of near which a decision is made to either continue ‘Operational Proceduresthe fight or to land, the decision depending on the fuel used. In such case the weather must be at or above planning ‘minima from one hour before ETA to one hour after ETA, Destination Altemates ‘An operator must select at least one destination alternate for ‘each IFR fight unles 1. The fight time is less than 6 hours, two separate ‘meteorological conditions prevailing are such that, between one hour before and one hour after the ETA the the ceiling will be at least 2000ft or circling height + ‘500M, whichever is greater, and the visibility will be at Teast'5 km or ‘The destination is isolated and no adequate destination alternate exists. In this case the weather must be at least that required for a destination alternate aerodrome, and on arrival at least 2 hours of fuel (at cruise) should remain in tanks. Separate runways in this context are separate landing surfaces, which may cross. If one of the runways is blocked, i ‘must not prevent the planned type of operations on the other runway, Bach of the landing surfaces must have a separate approach procedure based on a separate aid ‘An operator must select two destination alternates when the ‘weather reports or forecasts for the destination indicate that between one hour before and one hour after the ETA the ‘weather conditions will be below the applicable planning Tninima or when no meteorological information is available. ‘Aerodrome Operating Minima ‘The operator must establish operating minima for each approach at cach aiffield used in agreement with the Authority, Im establishing the airport operating minima which apply to ‘any particular operation full account must be taken of ‘+The type, performance and handling characteristics of the aeroplane. ‘+ The composition ofthe Might crew, their competence and experience. ‘+ The dimensions and characteristics ofthe runways, Which may be selected for use S10 —~—~SCWmueS—~—=«Oporational Procedures,‘The go-round ‘must be Initiated + The adequacy and performance ofthe available visual and non-visual ground aids, ‘The equipment available on the aeroplane forthe purpose of navigation and/or control ofthe flght path ‘uring the approach to landing and the missed approach. + The obstaces in the approach and missed approach areas and the obstacle clesrance attitude height for the instrument approach procedures. +The means used to determine and report meteorological conditions. +The obstacles in the climb-out areas and necessary clearance margins ‘The operating minima are expressed as decision abitudes or heights (DA/H) and minimum met visibility or RVR for precision approaches and Minimum Descent Alitudes or Heights (MDA or MDH) for non precision approaches. The DA ‘or DH, MDA or MDH are based in turn on Obstacle Clearance ‘Alinudes or Heights (OCA or OCH) published by the state in ‘which the aerodrome is, ‘The Obstacle Clearance Altitude or Height ‘The OCA or OCH is the lowest altitude oF height for compliance with obstacle clearance criteria on the approach. The DA/DH, or MDA/MDH can never be lesa than the OCA/OCH and is, usually more. Typically the DA/DH MDA/MDH is found by taking the greater of the OCA/OCH and the systen minima published by the operator's state of registration aad adding Corrections for pressure and temperature error in the altimeter. ‘Thus the DH for a CAT [ILS where the OCH is 170% and the pressure error specific to the aircraft is SOR would be found by taking the higher of 170 and 200, the aystem minima, and then adding SOft pressure error. An OCH of 1708 produces, in, this example, a DH of 2508. ‘There is a further requirement that the ceiling and visibility minima can not be lower than those established by the State in Which the aerodrome is located except when specifically approved by the State Decision Altitude or Height ‘The DA or DH is a specified altitude or height in the Precision, Approach to a Runway at which a missed approac’ must be initiated if the required visual reference to cortinue the approach has not been established ‘Operational Procedures issues oat‘Minimum Descent Altitude or Height ‘The MDA or MDH is a specified altitude or height in a Non precision Approach or Circling Approach below which the escent must not be made without the required visual reference. In each case ‘the required visual reference’ means that section of the visual aids or of the approach area which should have ‘been in view for sufficient time for the pilot to have made an ‘assessment of the aircraft position and the rate of change of, the position in relation to the desired fight path. In the ease of ‘circling approach, the required visual reference is the runway MDA and DA are referenced to mean sea level (MSL). DH is referenced to the Runway Threshold (THR) elevation, MDH is referenced to the aerodrome (AD) elevation, or the THR ‘levation if that js more than 2 metres, or 7 feet below the fserodrome elevation, [An MDH for a citeling approach is referenced to the aerodrome tlevation. OCH and OCA for each approach use the same reference as the approach. Instrument departure and approach procedures ‘An operator must ensure that instrument departure and approach procedures established by the State in which the faerodrome is located are used, ‘The commander may, however, accept an ATC clearance to deviate from a published departure or arrival route, provided obstacle clearance criteria are observed and full account is taken of the operating conditions, ‘The final approach must be own visually or in accordance ‘with the established instrument approach procedure, Baa ‘Operational Procedures lured for non precision ‘approaches. Do Deow MOMPlanning minima for precision appresches only RVR or vty ‘Aerodrome Planning Minima for IFR flights ‘The planning minima for alternate airfields are not the same the aerodrome operating minima. Generally higher coud bases, ‘and visibilites “are required than the minima. Thus an altemate aerodrome with a CAT Il approach allowingan RVR of 300m would not be suitable for use as an alternate unless the ‘weather conditions were CAT 1, 550m RVR, or better. This allows a margin for fate. ‘The cloud ceiling needs to be taken into account when the only approaches available are non-precision and/or circling approaches. Any limitation related to one engine inoperative ‘The planning minima for a destination aerodrome ace that the RVR or visibility should be the same as or greater than the ‘minima for the approach and, for a non-precision approach or A citeling approach, the ceiling must be at or above NDH; Destination and En-Route Alternate Aerodromes ‘The planning minima for destination and en-route alternates fare more stringent than those for a destination afield. As mentioned above, if@ Cat 1! approach is available Cat I minima fare required, The full table is set out in figure 10-5-5; as before Cloud ceiling is only important on non-precision approaches, Tyosotneroach | Parana ere ae RVR & MOH vorewcen ee ‘Operational Procedures los easPlanning minima for an ETOPS en-route alternate are shown, in figure 10-5-6, of _acodrom wah at asst 2 ibn ceases. | oom sctegfigctenmays |S newe eer | mene SE ceoen. Neppecam | uemestocanage Hence” tee ae i Fuel and Oil Requirements A flight must not be commenced unless, taking into account both the meteorological conditions and any delays that are expected in fight, the aeroplane carries sufficient fuel and oil to-ensure that it ean safely complete the fight. In addition, a reserve must be carried to provide for contingencies. ‘The fuel load is split into distinet elements, and under JAR OPS these are: Taxy fuel uel required for start up and taxy to the end of the runway An operator will probably use a standard figure for particular fircraft type, but this can be varied to account for local eonditions, Sector fuel Unless otherwise specified the fuel required from take-off to touchdown, Also called burn off or trip fuel saa Teo Operational ProceduresContingency fuel Extra fuel, usually a set percentage of the sector fuel, to allow for unforecast winds and ATC re-rotes, Contingency fuel can be calculated by a number of methods. These include: + 5% of planned trip fuel © 3% of planned trp fuel (an enroute diversicn is available = 20 minutes ying time (providing an individual airframe fel monitoring programme is established) ‘+ an amount of fuel based on a statistical method (typically used on long haul sectors) Whichever method is employed would be approved by the Authority and detailed in the Aircraft Operations Mana Diversion fuel ‘otal fuel required from the point of diversion to touchdown, at alternate. Final Reserve fuel Defined by the operator in the Operations Manual, ¢ypically for jets i would allow for 30 minutes holding at 1S00f shove the destination alternate aerodrome, and for a reciprocating engine aeroplane, fuel to fly for 45 minutes, ‘The Ramp Fuel loaded for a typical sector would require the ‘addition of all the above “standard” fuel element: Taxy fuel Sector fuel ‘contingency diversion final reserve, TOTAL FUEL ‘There are some adeitional calculations that may be required that might add to this total, these are: ‘Additional Fuel: This is an amount of fuel that would cater for file of @ power unit or loss of pressurization, based on the assumption that auch a failure occurs at’ the most critical point. Fuel should include fuel to descend, necessary, proceed to an adequate aerodrome and hold for 15 minutes'a 1500? and make an approach and landing. Extra Fuel: This is at the discretion of the commander and could take into account a number of factors ~ weather, ‘Operational Procedures swe SSOSCSC*~*~*~«Slikelihood of holding and routing problems. Local knowledge land experience play a key part in this dec ‘The above rules outline what may be termed the “standard” fuel calculation, but there are some extra rule calculations that might apply to other slightly ls scenarios. These are: Island Holding Fuel ‘An alternative to diversion fuel, Where diversions are not ‘available an alternative is to arrive at your destination with 2 hours of fuel (at cruise consumption) to allow for a period of holding at medium altitude while any showers pass or ‘aerodrome probleme are resolved. The required weather must be in accordance with the destination alternate aerodrome criteria. Not all operators can tse this option; the Operations Manual wil detail when and where it might be employed, and also give details of any extra planning considerations (for instance calculation of PSRs) Decision Point Procedure ‘The Decision Point (DP) procedure offers additional Nexibilty in fuel planning for an operator, The procedure makes use of an en-route alternate and, in effect, reduces the minimum fuel required for the sector by reducing contingency fuel. This may nly reduce the fuel by a few tonnes, but this may be the diference required in order to ly the sector without ofoading payload, ‘The amount of fuel required should be the greater of the following two values Caleslation 1: ‘Tay fuel Sector fuel (to destination via DP ‘contingency (5% of trip DP to destination) ‘diversion inal reserve, TOTAL FUEL. Calculation 2: ‘Taxy fuel Sector Mel (to en route aWy via DF) contingency (2% of trip to en-route diversion) inal reserve, TOTAL FUEL When and exactly how an operator can use the decision point procedure requires the approval of the Authority. Details, of ‘Course, will be contained in the Aircraft Operations Manual. z "issue S—~—“Operational ProceduresExample of the Decision Point Procedure Consider the following scenario. An aeroplane is chartered to ‘operate a route from Prestwick to Toronto with Ottawa ae the flternate. The route overflys Goose Bay. Figure 1057 ‘Because of payload and performance restrictions, the fuel load ‘on departure from Prestwick is limited to only 73000kg, ‘We start the calculations as normal forthe route an come out with the following fuel plan: ‘Trip Fuel to Toronto 162000 kg Contingency 5% 3200 kg Alternate (Ottawa) 3600 ke Holding (80min) {5000 ke Total fiel 74800 kg Which is awkward as we only have room for 79,000kg without unloading passengers. We now revert to plan B, and look at applying the Decision Point Procedure using Goose Bay as our ‘prvvonte diversion. The fel ealeilaiona work am fellows: Calculation 1 ‘Trip Ruel to Toronto via DP 62000 kg Cont 5% DP to Toronto only 400 kg Alternate (Ottawa) 3600 kg Holding (30min) $6000 ks ‘Total fuel 72000 kg ‘Operational ProceduresCalculation 2 ‘Trip Fuel to Goose Bay via DP 54700 kg Cont 3% 1650 kg Holding (20min) 6000 ke ‘Total fuel 62350 kg From the two totals, we must take the higher value, 72000kg., ‘which is within our'73000 ke limit, Pre-Determined Point Procedure ‘Once sgain, this procedure offers an operator a degree of flexibility; it is designed for the scenario where the distance between the destination aerodrome and the destination ‘alternate is such that the fight can only be routed via a pre- {determined point (PDP) to one ofthese aerodromes. ‘The amount of fuel should be the greater of the following two caleulations: Cateulation 1: ‘Taxy fuel Sector fuel (to destination via PDP) ‘contingency (normal rules) + additional fuel (turbine engines ~2 hours at ‘eruise on arrival overhead destination) = TOTAL FUEL Calculation 2: ‘Taxy fuel Sector fuel to alternate via PDP} + contingency (normal rates) + additional fuel (turbine engine ~30 minutes holding 1500M above aerodrome) = TOTAL FUEL Performance and Mass Considerations JAR separate aircraft into three performance categories labeled ‘Class A, B and C with Performance Class A being the most capable’ ICAO do not use this classification. Annex 6 lists ‘some general requirements for all aircraft and then some mare specific requirements relating to multi-engined aircraft with all-up weights in excess of S700kg. These roughly correspond to JAR Clase A and C. We will consider the JAR performance restrictions later, sae ‘Operational ProceduresMass constraints caused by noise be ebeerved General Requirements ‘The National Authority is responsible for ensuring aeroplanes fare operated in accordance with a comprehensive and detailed ode of performance. In practice, because aeroplanes are produced for international sales, the requirements in diferent, States only differ in the detall {An aeroplane must be operated according to any terms and restrictions on its certificate of airworthiness and within the ‘spproved opersting limitations of the Aeroplane Flight Manual (AFM). This means that Maximum Take-Off Mass, Max Landing Mass and other limitations must be observed. A light must not be commenced unless the performance Information provided in the flight manual indicates that the requirements regarding the aeroplane, ambient weather conditions, aerodrome characteristics, including elevation plus the runway conditions, length and gradient can be complied ‘with the Might to be undertaken, In fulfiling these requirements, account must be taken of all, factors that significantly affect the performance of the sacroplane. “These factors will include: ‘© operating procedures ‘+ the pressure-altitude appropriate to the elevstion of the ferodrome temperature = wind + runway gradient and condition of runway, i, presence of slush, water and/or ice, for landplanes, water surface condition fer seaplanes ‘The presence of slush, significant water, ice or snow on @ runway is Inown az ‘runway contamination’ Single-engined aeroplanes must only be operated in conditions fof Weather and light, and over such routes and diversions therefrom that permit a safe forced landing to be executed in the event of engine failure, Noise Certificates If the Noise Certificate contains a limitation on maximum mass for take-off and landing this limitation must be observed unless exceptionally authorised for an aerodrome or runway ‘where noise abatement is not required, ‘Operational Procedures locus S‘MultiEngined Aircraft in excess of 5700kg AUW Take-off If critical power unit fails on take-off the aircraft must either bbe able to reject the take-off and stop in the accelerate stop distance available oF continue the take-off and clear obstacles by an adequate margin. Account must be taken of any distance lost as the aircraft Hines up. ‘The aircraft must aleo be able to satiety a limitation of ‘minimum climb gradient governed by ita weight, the aerodrome pressure altitude and the air temperature called the WAT or cima Lm, En-Route Performance ‘One power-unit inoperative IF a single power unit is lost en-route or on diversion the ‘aeroplane must not descend below the minimum safe altitude ‘and must be able to reach and safely land at an aerodrome. ‘Two power-units inoperative Aireraft with three or more power units are allowed to operate ‘at longer ranges. from airfields than twin engined alreraft ‘without ETOPS. Beyond a certain distance from a suitable ‘serodrome such an aireraft must be able to sustain a double engine failure, continue to an en-route alternate and land. Landing Performance At a destination or alternate landing aerodrome the aircraft ‘must be able to clear obstacles in the approach path by a safe ‘margin, be able to land and stop within the landing distance ‘svailabie, Allowance must be made for variations in the approach and landing techniques if such allowance has not ‘been built into the performance data The airerah must also be able to satisty a separate landing climb Limit, ‘The National Authority is Responsible for producing obstacle data for ite aerodromes. a0 Teaue S@ Chapter 6 - Final Preparations, Taxy and Take-Off here are a series of final considerations for the aircraft ‘commander belore take-off The latest weather forecasts fand actuals for departure, destination and diversion ‘must be considered, the paperwork: must be complete ‘and on board and the commander must make sure the aircraft, Is ready for light Aircraft Contents, Equipment & Paperwork ‘The commander must not commence a fight unless he or she is satisfied that The aeroplane is airworthy; The aeroplane is not operated contrary to the provisions of the Configuration Deviation List (CDL ‘©The aeroplane is fitted with the instruments and ‘equipment required for the ight to be conducted, ©The instruments and equipment are in serviceable condition except as provided in the MEL; board: + Ground facilities and services required for the planned fight are available and adequate; ‘+ Oxygen requirements, minimum safe altitudes, ‘aerodrome operating minima and availability of ‘Operational Tesue 5 oaalternate aerodromes, where required, can be complied with forthe planned fight; + The load is properly distributed and safely secured; ‘The Performance eritera can be satisfied © AFlight Plan has been filed ‘+ Any additional operational limitation can be complied ith Weather ‘Take-Off Weather Cloudbase is unimportant for takeoff unless no take-of alternate is available within the prescribed distances. Under normal circumstances only the RVR or visibility in the Girection of take-off need to be considered, ‘The minimum visibility should allow sufficient guidance to control the aircraft fon a normal take-off take-off following an engine failure and fa rejected take-off IF no RVR fs available and even if the prevailing visibility is ‘below limita take-off can still be condueted provided that the commander assesses the visibility in the direction of take-off as adequate. This is only allowed because the prevailing visibility ‘oughly represents the average Visibility and, consequently, the visibility down the runway may be better and may be worse, Latting None (ay ont) edo beeina rang ote Scoasteie | so/at0n Tonge alge sera snes eae Figure 10.64 62 issue Operational Procedures ‘ually based solely on RVR‘The required RVR or visibility varies with the runway lighting system for multi-engined aircraft from as much as 590m to as litle as 75m. The very lowest vieibilities require a lateral juidance system on take-of, this normally uses ILS localiser ‘Signals to give very sensitive visual indications to the pilots of displacement from the centreline ‘Where multiple RVR values are used they must all be greater than the minimus, Subject to the approval of the Authority an operacor may rechice the take-off minima to either 125 metres RVR or 150 metres RVR depending on aircraft category when low visibility procedures are in force High Intensity runway centre line lights are available Pilots have taken appropriate training A.90 metre visual segment is available from the cockpit +The required RVR value is present at all the runway’ reporting points And it can be further reduced to not less 75 metres when the aircraft has a lateral guidance system on take-of provided runway protection and facilities equivalent to Category Il landing operations are available, Destination and Diversion Weather ‘To launch on an IFR flight or to revise the Might plan in fight the expected weather conditions at the destination and/or required allemate aerodromes must be at or above the planning minima we have already encountered. Once the Sircraft is airborne the fight cannot continue to éestination Unless either the destination or the alternate are above the applicable aerodrome operating minima. (On a VFR flight a commander must not takeoff unless Torecasts indicate that compliance with VFR will be possible throughout OperationTaxying Aireraft are normally taxied by type rated pilots but they ean, jn some rare circumstances, be taxied by other personnel, pethaps ground crew, provided that the individual ‘+ has been duly authorised by the operator or 2 Aesignated agent; + is qualified to use the RT ‘+ has received instruction from a competent person in respect of aerodrome layout, routes, signs, marking, lights, air trafic control (ATC) signals and instructions, phraseology and procedures and is able to conform to the operational standards required for safe aeroplane ‘movement at the aerodrome. After Take-Off ‘The normal and abnormal fight procedures are detailed in the Aircraft Flight Manual/Aircraft Operations Manual. JAR’ OPS. ‘and ICAO have the following further requirements which Should be found in the operations manual. Noise Procedures Noise abatement procedures are common for take-off and landing ‘st international sirports, the local Authority is responsible for ensuring noise abatement objectives are specified by aerodrome operators. Preferred runway directions for noise abatement are published te avoid noise sensitive areas. For a runway to be ‘preferred It ‘must have a suitable glidepath guidance aystem like ILS or, in visual conditions, VASIs or PAPIs, Noise abatement departure routings may be published for any runway. ‘The choice of runway is not always driven by noise abatement considerations, other conditions maybe overriding specifically Ifthe runway is not clear and dry if the visibility is les than 1900m (1M) the erosswind is more than 15kt, including gust If the tailwind is greater than Ske, including gust When windshear is reported or forecast ea Tsous® Operational Procedures ‘Grounderow oan tay aera when adequately+ When thunderstorms are expected to affect the approach or departure I any of these conditions apply another runway other than the fone preferred for noise abatement may be used ‘The procedure itself must be established by the operator and approved by the Authority. The procedure an operatcr species for any one aircraft type should be the sane for all ‘serodromes. ICAO provide examples of two acceptable procedures in Document 8168, PANS OPS Volume 1. Procedure 1 is designed to reduce noise levels close to the ‘runway, procedure 2 is designed to cope with noise sensitive ‘areas in the latter part of the procedure. Both procedures require an initial climb under full power climbing at V2 10kt to Va + 20kt. Procedure 1 reduces thrust early and delays flap retraction to 3000, procedure 2 starts flap retraction ‘under full power at a minimum of SOOM. Diagrams of the (wo procedures are shown in figure 10-6-2, the Var referred to is, the minimum manoeuvre speed with zero lap or Maps up. Procedure 2 Figure 10.62 If @ noise abatement procedure other than one cf these is approved some minimum criteria must be observed 1. The minimum speed must not be less than V2 + 10kt unless this exceeds the maximum body angle ‘Operational Procedures ue os2. I thrust reductions are used they must be after 800°. ‘The minimum reduced thrust setting must be the lower fof maximum climb thrust ané the thrust required (0 maintain the minimum engine inoperative net climb fradient for the number of engines fitted and the aircraft Configuration. The minimum reduced thrust level must bbe specified in the Aircraft Operating Manval. 3, Obstacle clearance must be maintained allowing for the Lime to reset full power iPan engine fails, Noise abatement procedures for landing normally involve combinations of reduced power and reduced drag, delaying {Msp and gear selection until the later stages of the approach ‘but not Inter than the Outer Marker or mm from the ‘threshold, whichever is eatlier. These changes to configuration and the subsequent higher approach speeds may not be made ‘mandatory Other requirements are that high rates of descent must not be required and pilots must not be required to turn onto the final ‘approach track at distances less than those adequate to ‘establish on track before glidepath interception or, in visual operations, less than those adequate to stabilise on final ‘approach before crossing the threshold. Displaced thresholds for noise abatement landings can be used ut only when noise is ‘significantly’ reduced and the remaining runway length is safe and sufficient. In all noise ‘abatement procedures air/ground communications should be kept to a minimum so.a8 not to distract the Might crew. ‘Simulated abnormal situations in flight Simulated emergencies and simulated IMC (screens) are not allowed on public transport flights. In-flight fuel management ‘An operator must establish a procedure to ensure that in-fight ‘uel checks and fuel management is carried out. A commander must ensure that the amount of usable fuel remaining in fight is not less than the fuel required to proceed to an aerodrome ‘where a safe landing can be made, with Mal reserve fuel remaining. [Note that this means that, once airborne, i is legal to continue to destination even if you dont have sufficient fuel to divert povided you are comfortable that a safe landing can be made. SAR OPS says ‘Operational Procedures Procedure 2, lap ‘00H, hen reduce power OR ‘eduction a 800% ‘Simulated ‘emergencies in fight are notY, as a result of an inflight fuel check, the expected fuel remaining on arrival at the destination is less than’ the required alienate fuel plus final reserve fuel, the commander must take into account the traffi: and the operational conditions prevailing at the destination faerodrome, along the diversion route to an alternate ‘aerodrome and at the destination altemate aerodrome, ‘when deciding whether to proceed to the destination ‘aerodrome or to divert, 80 a8 10 land with not less than {final reserve fue. ‘The commander must declare an emeryeney whist Ue sett ‘usable fuel on board is less than final reserve fuel. Note that this last instruction is very specific. The call 'Tuel priority’ does not exist and an emergency means a MAYDAY call, Cosmic Radiation If an aircraft is to operate 15,000 m (49,000 ft) the equipment specified to meaaure the amount of total cosmic radiation being received must be monitored to ensure the limit values specified in the Operations Manual are not exceeded. If they fare exceeded a descent must be initiated aa soon a8 racticable. Ground Proximity Detection When undue proximity to the ground is detected by any Might crew member or by a ground proximity warning system, the commander or the pilot to whom conduct of the flight has been delegated must ensure that corrective action is initiated immediately to establish safe ight conditions Operational Procedures issues aOccurrence Reporting Flight Incidents: ‘The operator or commander of an aeroplane must submit a report to the Authority within 72 hours of any incident that hhas endangered or may have endangered safe operation of a flight ‘Technical Defects A commander must ensure that all technical defeets and ‘occasions of exceeding technical imitations occurring while he was responsible for the Might are recorded in the aeroplanes Technical Log. Air Traffic Incidents. A commander must submit an_air trafic incident report in ‘accordance with ICAO PANS RAC whenever an aeroplane in flight has been endangered by a near collision with any other flying device, faulty air traffic procedures or lack of compliance with applicable procedures by Air Trafic Services or by the Might erew or a failure of ATS facilities. Bird Hazards and Strikes Birds are « major hazard for aircraft, particularly when taking off and landing. Birds congregate naturally in areas where food is available, like rubbish sites, and where the environment is reht for them, like large areas of open grassland on airfields One of the measures adopted to reduce the number of birds on sirfields has been to adopt a long grass’ policy to discourage larger birds, others include using recorded bird distress calls for even hawks to drive them off Bird strikes can damage airframes but at landing and takeot speeds the greatest risk Is to the engines. Ingested birds can cause structural damage and surges. A commander must immediately inform the appropriate ground station whenever a potential bird hazard is observed, ‘Statiotice cuggect that 00% of bird etrkee ovcur below 15000 (500m), although there have been strikes recorded above 100008; luckily these are very rare! Another statistic suggests the levels at greatest risk from birds is 0-150m. If there is bird strike, that results in significant damage, the captain mist flea written bird strike report after landing, ‘Operational Procedures Birds congregate ‘round rabNotify a8 soon as otty 98 soon as tity by the Nott without foiay Inflight Emergencies with Dangerous Goods on Board. Ian in-flight emergency occurs and the situation permits, a commander must inform the appropriate Air Trafi= Services unit of any Dangerous Goods on board. Unlawful Interference. ‘Acts of unlawful interference with a flight include attempted or ‘successful hijacks, unlawful interceptions and attempts to take ‘control af ar erash the aircraft. Rallowingan_act af wnlaerfil Interference on beard an aeroplane a commander must submait ‘a report as soon as practicable to the local Authority and the ‘Authority in the state of the Operator. Irregularities of Ground and Navigational Facilities and Hazardous Conditions. ‘A commander must notify the appropriate ground station as soon as practicable whenever a potentially hazardous condition, such a8 An irregularity in a ground or navigational facility; or ‘A meteorological phenomenon; oF ‘Avvoleanic ash cloud: oF AAbjgh radiation level, Is encountered during Might. ‘Accident Reporting An operator must establish procedures to ensure that the nearest appropriate authority and the authority of tae state of the operator are notified by the quickest available means of fany accident, involving the aeroplane, resulting in serious Injury ar death of any person or substantial damage to the ‘seroplane oF property. ‘The commander , of in his absence the operator, must then submit a written report to the Authority of the State of the ‘operator within 72 hours, Emergency Violation of Local Regulations or Procedures If an emergency situation, which endangers the safety of the ‘seroplane or persons, necessitates the taking of an action that involves a violation of local regulations or procedures, the pilot: In-command must notify the appropriate local” authority, without delay. ‘Operational Procedures .If required by the state in which the incident occurs, the pilot Notiy in writing Jn command must submit a report on any such violation to the within 10 days appropriate authority in that state or country. In that event the pilot in command must also submit a copy of the report to the state of origin of the operator as soon as possible and normally within ten days. [scus® Operational Proceduresthe RVR Is Beyond the outer Chapter 7 - Approach and Landing ‘need to be made quickly and correctly. This chapter ‘examines the legality of making an approach in the frst place, deciding to continue if the weather is bad and finally deciding to land or go-around, ‘The Decision to Continue ‘The captain or operating pilot can begin an instrument approach regardless ofthe reported RVR or prevailing visibility. ‘The approach can not be continued, however, beyond the outer ‘marker or the equivalent position if the reported RVR or ‘sibiiy is less than the apphieable minima. T: landing is a critical stage of fight where decisions If, ater passing the outer marker, the reported RVR/visibility falls below the minimum the approach may be continued to DA/H or MDA/H Where no outer marker or equivalent position exists, the ‘captain or operating pilot must make the decision ‘> continue for abandon the approach before descending below 1000 ‘above the aerodrome on the final approach segment. ‘The approach may be continued below DA/H or MDA/H and the landing may be completed provided that the required visual reference is established at the DA/H or MDA/H and is maintained, ‘Where RVR is not available for landing equivalent values can be found by converting the prevailing visibility using the table im figire 10-7-1, This table was actually established for converting reported visiblity, which is an old) method of eporting aerodrome visibility and was the lowest visibility in any direction. The current way of reporting visibilty is as a prevailing visibility which ig not the same thing. Akhough its Use is still legal and recommended in JAR OPS-1 the table ‘Operational Proceduresshould, perhaps, be used with caution until amended. It may not be used to assess take-off RVR, only landing ‘wee | | (we [|= | Not | es eo ‘a suitable autopilot coupled to an ILS or MLS, in which case pormal minima apply. The Decision Height applied must not be less than one and a quarter times the minimum height for ‘using the autopilot. Minimum Lighting For Night Operations For night operations at least runway edge, threshold and runway end lights must be on. Low Visibility Operations Low Visibility Operations (LVO) and the Visibility Proceduree (LVP) were fret developed commercially ‘on the Trident and Belfast ireraft to inerease the probability af landing, particularly in the bad foge and smog of the 1950s ‘and 1960s in the Thames Valley near London, ‘The reduction in air pollution since then has improved visibility but it was quickly realised that an aircraft that could ‘operate in all visibility conditions was very unlikely to have to 72 ssueS Operational ProceduresAirerat approach ‘catogories are ‘etermined by threshold speed divert, a major consideration for a tightly run scheduled operation Low visibility operations are now widely used at international, ‘and some national airfields where the weather factor can be ty Operations include: ‘+ Manual take-off with or without electronic gudance systems + Auto-coupled approach to below DH, with manual flare, landing and roll-out + Auto-coupled approach followed by auto-are, ‘autolanding and manual roll-out; and + Auto-coupled approach followed by auto-fare, autolanding and auto-rell-out ‘An autopilot system with a rollout capability is one capable of fuidance on the runway centreline ‘Approach Categories We can break the landing limits down now into three ‘categories. CAT I involves a cloudbase of 200% with a minimum RVR of 550m and would be regarded as a ‘normal ‘approach. CAT Il and Ill are low visibility operations, CAT IL allows minima of 100f and 300m, CAT Ma zere DH and tinimum RVR of 75m. Cat If operations would be appropriate fora low cost or charter airline, they would usually get in but sometimes divert. Cat Ill ‘would ‘be appropriate for a transallantic scheduled operation, Giversion would be almost unheard of, provided the runway clear and the wind inside crosewing limits Aeroplane Categories Aircraft are divided into five approach and take-off categories epending on their target threshold speed (Vir or Ve). Var is found by taking elther the stalling speed or minimum steady fight speed in the landing configuration (Vix) and multiplying it by 1.3 or by taking the very similar Vaio, the staling speed where the aircraft can generate lit equal to its weight, and multiplying it by 1.23, Both calculations are run in the landing configuration at the ‘maximum certificated landing mass. If both Veo and Voie are lable the higher resulting Vir is be used, ‘Operational Procedures os 7a‘Aeroplane Category vat a Less than okt 8 From 91K 0 12084 c From 121 to 1404¢ ° From 141 185 £ From 1864 to 20k! Figure 1072 Legality ‘The governing documentation here is the Operations Manual conforming to JAR All Weather Operations UAR AWO) with, fonce again, ICAO regulations in the background, Circling: The visual phase of an instrument approach to bring tn aireraft into position for landing on a runway which is not Suitably located for a straight-in approach, Low Visibility Procedures (LVP): Procedures applied at an aerodrome for the purpose of ensuring safe operations during Category Il and Ill approaches and Low Visibility Take-off Low Visibility Take-off (LVTO}: A take-off where the Runway Visual Range (RVR) is less than 400 m, Flight control system: A system which includes an automatic landing system and/or a hybrid landing system, Fail-Passive flight control system: A flight control system is fail-passive if, in the event ofa faslure, there is no significant ‘out-oFtrim condition or deviation of fight path or attitude but the landing is not completed automatically. A fail-passive ‘automatic light control system disengages the autopilots after failure, Ta Operational ProceduresFail Operational Might control system: A fight control system Is fail operational if, in the event ofa failure below alert height, the approach, flare and landing, can be completed automatically Fail-Operationsl hybrid landing system: A system which consists of a primary fail-passive automatic landing system land a secondary independent guidance system ensbling the pilot to complete a landing manually after failure of the primary system, A pial scunnlay ianleyeudent guidance aystens would Ue a monitored head-up display with command or situation, {nformation. Visual approach: An approach when either part of all of an Instrument approach procedure is not completed and the approach is executed with visual reference to the termi Low Visibility General Operating Rules {An operator must establish procedures and instructions to be used for Low Visibility Take-O and Category ‘I-and Il operations. These procedures must be included in the Operations Manual, "be consequently approved by the Authority, and contain the duties of fight crew members during taxiing, take-off, approach, flare, landing, rell-out and ‘missed approach as appropriate Particular emphasis must be placed on fight crew responsibilities during transition from non-visual conditions to visual conditions, and on the procedures to be used in deteriorating visibility or when failures occur the distribution of Aight deck duties. ‘The instructions in the operations manual must be compatible with procedures in the Aeroplane Flight Manual ané cover the following items in particular + Checks for the satisfactory functioning of the aeroplane ‘equipment, both before departure and in fight; ‘+ Bifect on minima caused by changes in the status of| the ground installations and airborne equipments Procedures for the take-off, approach, flare, landing, roll-out and missed approseh; + Procedures to be followed in the event of failures, warnings and other non-normal situations; 75©The minimum visual reference required; +The importance of correct seating and eye position; + Action which may be necessary arising from a “deterioration of the visual references + Allocation of erew duties to allow the Commander to ‘devote himself mainly to supervision and decision making: ‘+The requirement for all height calls below 200 ft to be based on the radio altimeter and for ane pilot to continue to monitor the aeroplane instruments until the landing is completed; ‘+The requirement forthe Localiser Sensitive Area to be protected; 1+ The use of information relating to wind velocity, windshear, turbulence, runway contamination and use ‘of multiple RVR assessments; + Procedures to be used for practice approaches and landing on runways at which the full Category Il or Category Ill aerodrome procedures are notin force; + Operating limitations resulting from airworthiness certification; and + Information on the maximum deviation allowed from the ILS glide path and/or localser. ‘The operator is also responsible for training crews in low Visibility operations. They must be simulator checked and ‘Qualified for each operation. This training is type specific. ‘The Operations Manual must list the minimum equipment that hhas to be serviceable at the start of a Low Visibility Take-off or a Category Ilo Il approach, ‘The aerodrome must be approved for Cat Il oF Il operations by lite own authority and the operator must establish that low vis procedures are in place, I is up to the commander to satisfy himself that the aeroplane, the crew and the airport all conform to the requirements before conducting low visibility operations. any one does not the low Visibility operations are not permitted, Te ‘Operational ProceduresMonitoring {A suitable aystem for recording approach and/or automatic landing success and failure’ must be established and ‘maintained to monitor the overall safety of the operation Landing Minima ‘Visual Approaches “The minimum RVR is 800 m for a visual approach, Circling Approaches Circling approaches are those flown to break off and land visually on another runway. The lowest minima to be used Under JAR-OPS for circling are: Avcratcategoy| A | B | ¢ | D MoH -4onn | soot | soon | 7208 | _Metvsoity | 500m | s000m | 2400m | enon Figure 1073 jaree 08 77Non Precision Approaches Non: precision approaches are those flown to an MDH or MDA ‘The lowest acceptable MDHs are listed below. The minimum RVRs associated with these approaches vary depending on aircraft category, runway lighting and MDH from 800m to 200m. Type ef Approach| MDH ILS LLZ (Localize only 2508 SRA 052m 2508 | ver rome 208 vor 2008 SRAIW 100m 00% Nos 2008 vor soon Figure 107-4 Category | Approaches ‘cat 1 approaches are ILS or MLS approaches to a specific runway with @ decision height of not less than 200. ‘The landing RVR for Cat | approaches up to glide angles of 4° are shown in the table below. The RVR depends, once again, on the airport lighting and this is deseribed as fal, intermediate, basic or none. Full facilities consist of runway markings, 720m or more of High Intensity/Medium Intensity (HI/Ml) approach lights, runway edge lights, threshold lights and runteay end lights. Lighte must be on Intermediate facilities comprise runway markings, 420-719 m ‘of HI/MI approach lights, runway edge lights, threshold lights ‘and runway end lights. Lights must be on. Basic facilities consist of runway markings, <420 m of HI/MI approach lights, any length of Low Intensity (LI) approach Ta Tocues Operational Procedures“The minima lights, runway edge lights, threshold lights and runway end lights. Lights must be on. 200 | 550m | 700m | a00m | 100m 20116260 | 600m | 700m | 800m | 1100m 25116300 | 650m | 600m | 900m | t200m _ [sor Azove| econ | 900m | 1000 | 200m | Figure 10-75 No approach light filties comprise runway markings, runway edge lights, threshold lights, runway end lights or no ights at all Category Il Approaches {A Category Il operation isa precision instrument approach and, landing using ILS or MLS with a decision height below 200 ft ‘but not lower than 100 # and an RVR of not less than 300 m, ‘To continue an approach below the Category Il decision height the pilot must have the required visual references. The required visual reference is defined as three centreline, approach or runway edge lights and one crossbar or threshold, Tighting. ‘Operational Procedures issue 5Figure 10-76 CAT or It Minimum Visual Reference The minimum RVR for Cat Il approaches is shown in figure 10: 7-7, These minima assume an autopilot approach to at least DH. It is worth noting that, for some aircraft, although the decision to land is made at not less than 100M, the autopilot may stay engaged below that height, typically to SOT or 60 Category Il Minimum RVR ‘atenory too- 1208) 300m 300m wim-4on) 400m 400 m 450m 450m Figure 10-77“Tae minimum cat Category Ill Approaches Cat I operations have decision heights less than 100% and, usually zero. The Cat Ill minima depend on the autopilot ‘capabilities. Fall Operational, as discussed earlier, means the capability to lose an autopilot channel and safely continue the fautoland, fail passive means manual reversion and go-around, [= nee Figure 10-78, ‘Category INC has a zer0 decision height and zero RVR. It is not often used because of the difficulty taxying airerat in less than ‘751m visibility. Performance Implications on Landing We met the ICAO performance restrictions eafier, they basically required an alreraft to be able to land safely in the distance available and imposed an adlitional climb gradient or (WAT limit. The in-fght determination of the landing distance should be based on the latest available report, preferably not ‘more than 30 minutes before the expected landing time, JAR regulations are more detailed and split aircraft into performance Classes A, B and C where Class A is the most apable and contains jets and turboprops, Class B contains light pistons and Class C heavy piston alrerat. ‘The regulations are reproduced in full here because questions fare likely to use the tortuous wording of the original, explanatory notes are included at the sie. ‘Operational Procedures issue 5 TatClass A Aircraft Figure 10-79 Landing WAT Limit 4) An operator shall ensure that the landing mass of the The minimum aeroplane does not exceed the maximum landing mass gradients of the Specified for the altitude and the ambient temperature normal landing expected for the estimated time of landing at the WAT mit apply ‘destination and alternate aerodrome. 1) For instrument approaches with decision heights below por Gat Wand i 200 ft, an operator must verify that the approach mass Sperations » fof the aeroplane, taking into accotnt the take-off mass seeone WAY limit fand the fuel expected to be consumed in Hight, allows ® must also be ‘missed approach gradient of climb, with the critical Considered. twill tengine failed and with the speed and configuration used be limiting for 2 for go-around of at least 2.5%, or the published and'3 engined gradient, whichever is the greater. The use of an siveraft alternative method must be approved by the Authority. Operational ProceduresLanding Field Length Limits Winds are factored and » Ignored swolght must bec) Planned so the In both i air conditions ‘Operational Procedures Issue 5 73 An operator shall ensure that the landing mass of the ‘aeroplane for the estimated time of landing at the estination aerodrome and at any alternate aerodrome allows a full stop landing from 50 ft above the threshold (0) For turbo-jet powered aeroplanes, within 60% of the landing distance available; oF 2) For turbo propeller powered aeroplanes, "70% of the landing distance available; thin (@)_ For Steep Approach procedures the Authority ‘may approve the use of a sereen height of less than 50‘, but not less than 35 2. (4) The Authority may exceptionally approve, when satisfied that there ie a need, the use of Short Landing Operations. When showing compliance with sub-paragraph (a) above, an operator must take account of the following: (1) The altitude at the aerodrome; (2) Not more than 50% ofthe head wind component ‘of not less than 150% of the tallwind component; (8) The runseay slope in the direction of landirg if greater than +/2%. When showing compliance with subparagraph (a) above, it must be assumed that (2) The aeroplane will land on the most favourable runway, in stil air, and) (2) The aeroplane will land on the runway most likely to be assigned considering the probable wind speed and. diection’ andthe ground — handling characteristics of the aeroplane, and considering bother conditions such as landing aids and terrain. {fan opeentar is unable to campy with sub poeneranh {ot} above for a destination aerodrome having a single Tunway where a landing depends upon a specified wind component, an aeroplane may be despatched if 2 alternate aerodromes are designated which permit full, ‘compliance with sub-paragraph (a), () and (. Before commencing an approach to land at the destination aerodrome the commander must satstyDimself that @ landing can be made in full compliance with JAR‘OPS 1.510 and sub-peragraphs (a) and (b) above. (e)Ifan operator is unable to comply with sub-paragraph (€)2) above forthe destination aerodrome, the aeroplane may be despatched if an alternate aerodrome is designated which permits full compliance with sub- paragraphs (a), (b) and (e) Contaminated and Wet Runway Landings A runway is considered to be contaminated when more than 25% of the runway surface area whether in isolated areas oF ‘not within the required length and width being used is covered by the following: (i) Surface water more than 2 mm (0.125 in) deep, or by slush, or loose snow, equivalent to more than 3mm of water; (i) Snow which has been compressed into solid ‘mass which resists further compression and will hold together or break into lamps if picked up (compacted snow); or (ii) tee, including wet ice. ‘A munway is considered wet when the runway surface is ‘covered with water, or equivalent, less than 2mm deep ot ‘when there is sulicient moisture on the runway surface to ‘cause it 10 appear reflective, but without significant areas of standing water (a) An operator shall ensure that when the appropriate ‘weather reports of forecasts, or a combination thereof, indicate that the runway at the estimated time of arrival may be wet, the landing distance available is at least 115% of the required landing distance (b) An operator shall ensure that when the appropriate ‘weather reports or forecasts, or a combination thereat, indicate that the runway at the estimated time of arrival may be contaminated, the landing distance available fmust be at least the landing distance determined ‘accordance with sub-paragraph (a) above, or at lea 115% of the landing distance determined in accordance ‘with approved contaminated landing distance data or ‘equivalent, accepted by the Authority, whichever is reat, a8 Toouss Operational Procedures itiean't land wind a ie ‘3 aun it ‘Some factor appliede Wetrimwayscan ——(c) lure lower tactors If ‘te Fight Manuat nae specific data ‘Specialy prepared (i) rumors ke pecked stew can {ise lower factors f |Alanding distance on a wet runway shorter than that required by sub-paragraph (a) above, but not less than normal, may be used if the Aeroplane Flight Manual Includes specific additional information about landing. distances on wet runways, ‘A landing distance on a specially prepared contaminated runvway shorter than that required by sub-paragraph (b) fsbove, but not less than normal, may be used if the ‘eropiane Flight Manual includes. specific additional information about landing distances on contaminated Class B Aircraft Figure 10-740 ‘The Landing Performance Class B landing rules are the same as those for Class A except the factor on landing is a uniform 70%, slope is taken account of and the exemption which allows a’ Class A ‘destination does not exist. ‘The extra WAT limit for Cat Il and Ill landings does not exist, presumably because small piston twins don't operate to these limits ‘The factors for landing on wet runways are the same, 115%, but for contaminated runways the landing distance required ‘Operational Procedures Issue S a8etermined by data acceptable to the Authority must not exceed LDA. The 115% factor for wet runways may be reduced ifthe Flight Manual includes specific data. Figure 4027-14, ‘The landing requirements for Class B. Tous 5 Operational ProceduresChapter 8 - ETOPs and Long Range Flights Introduction T: same regulations that apply to shorter trips also ‘apply to long range fights. but there are additional factors to consider in the planning ‘The large distances traveled require careful fuel and Performance planning, as does “the scarcity of diversion [trfields in some areas of the world, The Inck of navigation aids such as VOR and DME creates a requirement for reliable long, ange navigation systems. Some remote areas such as the North Atlantic have ‘compounded problems as they are not only extremely busy sections of airspace at certain times but also outside of the range of ground based radar. Special navigational and ATC procedures have been introduced in these areas. Operators’ Responsibilities JAA places the overall responsiblity squarely on the operator ‘who must ensure that operations are only conducted along uch routes or within such areas, for which: + Ground facilites and services fineluding meteorological services), are provided which are adequate forthe planned operation; + The performance ofthe aeroplane intended te be used is adequate to comply with minimum fight altitude requirements ‘Operational Procedures ios©The equipment ofthe aeroplane intended to be used meets the minimum requirements for the planned operation; ‘+ Appropriate maps and charts are available; ‘+ Iftworengined aeroplanes are used, adequate ferodromes are available within the specified time and distance limitations for Extended Twin Engined Operations (ETOPS) 1+ If single-engine aeroplanes are used, surfaces are available which permit a safe foreed landing to be executed. ‘An operator shall ensure that operations are conducted in laccordance with any restriction on the routes or the areas of ‘operation, imposed by the Authority. Aircraft with more than 30 passenger seats that fail to meet the ditching standards of the certification requirements must rot be more than 120 minutes cruise or 400nm from ‘land suitable for making an emergency landing And there are some additional ICAO requirements relating to documents to be carried on fights over water although these fare covered anyway in other requirements. {An aeroplane shall carry: ‘+The operations manual or those parts oft that pertain to Might operations; +The flight manual for the aeroplane, or other ‘documents containing required performance data and ‘any other information necessary for the operation of the aeroplane within the terms of its certifeate of airworthiness. + Current and suitable charts to cover the route of the proposed fight and any route along which itis, Feasonable to expect tht the light may be diverted. The Regulations ‘The restriction on routing on long range fights comes from the Regulatory Authorities, this ease JAA. This is brondly done by restricting how far an aircraft may operate from a suitable Slernate and by eneuring the accra ir operated at weights ‘that would allow it to hold an adequate height if an engine fails, a2 "issue Operational ProceduresNot performance ‘Loss of an engine is more critical on a twin than on a three or four engined aircraft so the regulations tend to be mote restrictive and complex for twins, Relatively recently regulators have relaxed the rules for twin, fengined aircraft to allow commercial operations cross the North Atlantic and Pacific. The relaxation carries large ‘number of caveats, the operator has to demonstrate high levels, of reliability in ‘service to be awarded Extended Twin ‘Operations (ETOPS) approval. ETOPS is sometimes referred to fas or Extended Range Operation (EROPS), we shall use the ETOPS abbreviaclon, Net and Gross Performance Several of the following regulations refer to net or gross performance standards. Gross performance is the average performance vou might ‘expect, there is a 50:50 chance that you might have better than gross. performance and a 50:50 chance that your Performance will be worse. ‘The net performance is the gross performance factored down so that, i you plan to net standards, there is only a remote probability that you will fai to meet them. Long Range Twin Ops Without ETOPS If operating without ETOPS approval a twin engined aeroplane rust not be operated further from an adequate aerodrome than the distances listed below. ‘+ Performance Class A aeroplanes of either 20 ar more passenger seats or a MTOM greater than 45960kg a Gistance equivalent to 60 minutes fight time ‘+ Performance Class B or € aeroplanes the lower of 300mm or a distance equivalent to 120 minutes Night For this calculation the times are based on a cne engine Inoperative TAS in ISA conditions and level Might. For jets the evel i amvused to le daw lower uf FLI7O aia Ue greatest height the gross aircraft can achieve, engine out. For propeller driven aireraf itis the lower of FLS0 oF the greatest height the ross aircraft can achieve, engine out. Maximum continuous thrust or power is assumed on the remaining operating engine and the aircraft mass is assumed fo be the mass calculated from a take-off at max weight ‘Operational Procedures loss 33followed by a climb to height and cruise at long range cruise for either 60 or 120 minutes depending on Performance Class As these distances and speeds are not going to change for a particular aireraft the operator works them out and includes ‘them in the operations manual. The fight levels above have no performance implication, they are only used for this calculation, ‘The diagram below shows the areas of the world within a \ypical 60 minute fying time of adequate aerodromes. Notice ‘that travel by great cree patns 1s umpossibie across both the Atlantic and the Pacific under these rules and. that the subsequent longer tracks make the routes uneconomie for twin engined aircraft without ETOPs approval Figure 108-4 Long Range Twin Ops With ETOPS TOPS can be authorised in the AOC alter extended reliability trials, particularly of engines, and the approval of training systems and operating procedures. The still airtime, known the rule time, can be extended from 60 minutes to 90 minutes to.120 minutes to 138 minutes and even 180 minutes from a suitable alternate. The approval is incremental, each increase in still air time dependant on a track record of successful operation at the shorter time Extending the rule time to 138 minutes changes the picture to this ‘Operational ProceduresTOPs rule te ‘moans nearly the Figure 1082 Adequate Aerodromes & Suitable Aerodromes Some authorities, including JAR, introduce a subtly new definition for ETOPS, ‘We have already encountered the adequate aerodrane. This is defined as an aerodrome which the operator considers to be satisfactory, ‘aking account of the applicable performance requirements and runway characterises. In ‘addition, it should be anticipated that, at the expected time of use, the ferodrome will be available and equipped with necessary fncillary services, such as ATS, sufficient "lighting, ‘communications, weather reporting, navaids and emergency ‘The new definition is a suitable aerodrome, 4 suitable aerodrome is an adequate aerodrome where, at the entiipated time of use the weather will be at or above planning minima. Do not forget that the ETOPS planning minima can be more restrictive than the normal destination and alternate minima, ‘Thus we have our JAR OPS requirement Refore conducting RTOPS fights an aperater shall ensure that a suitable ETOPS en-route alternate is ‘available either within the approved diversion ‘ime ‘or a diversion time based on the MEL generated ‘serviceability status of the aeroplane, whichever is the shorter. Operational ProcJAR En-Route Performance Limitations ‘The ICAO performance restrictions basically required an aircraft to be able to operate above MSA and land safely in the fevent of an engine failure. JAR regulations are, once again, ‘more detailed. ‘The en-route requirements refer, once again, to the ability to ‘maintain at least MSA in the event of an engine failure. Ian ‘engine fails over the sea the solution is pretty cut and dried, the aircraft must not stabilise below MSA, It occurs over land the aireraft may use a drift-down to clear ranges of hills. When working out the clearance it is an obvious advantage to ‘assume the aircraft starts off very high. ‘The regulations ‘prevent this idea being abused by imposing @ maximum height you can assume to be at, a performance ceiling, in Classes 3 and C, Class A Aircraft Figure 1083, En-Routo - One Engine Inoperative 4) An operator shall ensure that the one engine inoperative fen-route net fight path data shown in the Aeroplane Flight Manual, appropriate in the meteorological conditions expected for the flight, complies with either ‘sub-paragraph b) or ¢) at all pointe along the route. The ‘het fight path must have a positive gradient at 1500 ft ‘above the aerodrome where the landing is assumed to Operational Procedure and ieingWind must be “drttdown, fet jettison can be eed wos aera havo minetee ‘ee tear cree tare on crane tong bbe made after engine failure. In meteorological conditions requiring the operation of ice protection systems, the effect of their use on the net fight path ‘must be taken into account. ‘The gradient of the net flight path must be positive at least’ 1000 fabove all terrain and obstructions along the route within 9.3 km (Snm) on either side of the intended track, The net Aight path must permit the aeroplane to continue fight irom the cruising alieuce to. an ‘aerodrome where a landing can be made on either dry runways or wet and contaminated runways, ‘The net fight path must clear vertically, by at east 2000 fall terrain and obstructions along the route within 9.3 kam (5 nm) on either side of the intended track in accordance with the following requirements: ‘©The engine is assumed to fll at the most critical pint along the route; ‘Account is taken of the effects of winds on the light path ‘Fuel jettitoning is permitted 10 an extent consistent with Teaching the aerodrome with the required fuel reserves ifa safe procedure is used; and ‘+The aerodrome where the aeroplane is assumed to land after engine faifure must meet the following ‘+The performance requirements at the expested landing mass are met; and ‘+ Weather reports or forecasts, or any combination thereof, and field condition reports indicate that a safe landing can be accomplished at the estimated time of landing En-Route - Aeroplanes with Three or More Engines - ‘Two Engines Inoperative a) Operational Proc [An operator shall ensure that at no point along the intended track will an aeroplane having three or more engines be more than 90 minutes, at the allengines Jong range cruising speed at standard temperature in stil air, away from an aerodrome at which the performance requirements applicable at the expected fares soe 8 oF» 8 a a landing mass are met unless it complies with sub: paragraphs b) tof) below. ‘The two engines inoperative en-route net Might path data must permit the aeroplane to continue the ght, in the expected meteorological conditions, from the point where two engines are assumed to fail simultaneously, to an aerodrome at which itis possible to land and come to a complete stop when using the prescribed procedure for a landing with two engines inoperative. The net fight path must clear vertically, by at least 2000 ft, a tefrain and obstructions along the route within 9.3" (S nm) on either side of the intended track, At altitudes, land in meteorological conditions requiring ice protection systems to be operable, the effect of their use on the net flight path data must be taken into account. If the navigational accuracy ‘does not mest the 95% containment level, an operator must increase the width margin given above to 18.5 kim (10 nm). ‘The two engines are assumed to fail at the most critical point of that portion of the route sehere the aeroplane is more than 90 minutes, at the all engines long range cruising speed at standard temperature in stil air, away from an aerodrome at which the performance requirements applicable at the expected landing mass ‘The net flight path must have a positive gradient at 1500 f above the aerodrome where the landing is ‘assumed to be made after the failtire of two engines, Ful jetisoning is permitted to an extent consistent with reaching the aerodrome with the required fuel reserves, ia safe procedure is used ‘The expected mass of the aeroplane at the point where the {wo engines are assumed to fail must not be less than that which would include sufficient fuel ta proceed to an aerodrome where the landing is assumed to be ‘made, and to arrive there at least 1500 ft directly over the landing area and thereafter to fly level for 15 minutes, [ous Operational Procedures Sm of track must Fut jottisoning istut be able to ‘lide to tae fora {orcad tanding Class B Aircraft Figure 10-84 En-Route - Single-Engine Aeroplanes a » ‘An operator shall ensure that the aeroplane, in the ‘meteorological conditions expected for the fight, and in the event of engine failure, is capable of reaching a place fat which a safe forced landing ean be made. For landplanes, 2 place on land. is required, unless otherwise approved by the Authority. When showing compliance with sub-paragraph (2) The aeroplane must not be assumed to be ying, with the engine operating within the maximum Continuous power conditions specified, at_an altitude exceeding that at which the rate of climb equals 300 ft per minute; and (2) The assumed en-route gradient shall be the gross gradient of descent increased by a gradient of 05% ‘Operational Procedures wuss SSS~SEn-Route - Multi Engined Aeroplanes ey » ‘An operstor shall ensure that the aeroplane, in the meteorological contitions expected forthe flight, and in the event of the failure of one engine, with the remaining engines operating within the maximum continuous power conditions specified, is capable of continuing Right at or above the relevant minimum altitudes for sale flight stated in the Operations Manual to a point 1000 ft above an aerodrome at which the performance requirements can be met. When showing compliance with sub-paragraph (a above: (1) The aeroplane must not be assumed to be fying ‘at an altitude exceeding that at which the rate of ‘limb equals 300 ft per minute with all engines ‘operating within the maximum continuous power ‘conditions specified; and (2) The assumed en-route gradient with one engine inoperative shall be the gross gradient of descent or climb, as appropriate, respectively increased by a gradient of 0.5%, or decreased by a gradient of 0.5% ‘Once again it cant be assumed te be ‘ying higher than tsClass C Aircraft Figure 1085 En-Route— All Engines Operating ‘An operator shall ensure that the aeroplane wil, inthe oper meteorological conditions expected for the Might, at any point fn its route or on any planned diversion therefrom, ve capable of rate of climb of at least 300 ft per minute with al engines fperating, with the maximum continuous power conditions Specified. The minimum altitudes for safe fight on each stage of the route to be flown for of any planned diversion therefrom), must be specified in, or calculated. from the information contained in, the Operations Manual relating tothe seroplane, Minimum En-Route Altitudes - One Engine Inoperative An operator shall ensure that the aeroplane wil, inthe ‘meteorological conditions expected for the Might, in the event of lany one engine becoming inoperative at any point on its route (or on any planned diversion therctrom) and with the other engine of engines operating within the maximum continuous power conditions specified, be capable of continuing the Night from the enuising altitude oan aerodrome where a landing ean bbe made. Obstacles within 9.3 km (5 nm) either side of the Intended track must be cleared by a vertical interval 3f a least: + 1000 ft when the rate of climb is zero or greaver; or * 2000 ft when the rate of climb is less than zero, Teoue 5 oat‘The Might path shall have a positive slope at an altitude of 450 1m (1500 f} above the aerodrome where the landing is assumed to be made after the failure of one engine For the purpose of this sub-paragraph the available rate of climb of the aeroplane shall be taken to be 150 ft per minute Jess than the gross rate of climb specified When showing compliance with this paragraph, an operator ‘must increase the width margins of sub-paragraph a) above to {Ts.5 em (10 nm) i the navigational accuracy does not meet te 95% containment level Fuel jettisoning is permitted to an extent consistent with reaching the aerodrome with the required fuel reserves, if a Safe procedure is used En-Route - Aeroplanes with Three or More Engines, Two Engines inoperative ‘The regulations for three or four engined Class C aircraft are the same as those for similar Class A aircraft except that the net rates of climb assumed are specified as 150 ft/min less than the gross. ‘Operational ProceduresDirect roading compasses ere ‘reliable im =| “Tmo DI wanders ‘straight ight Chapter 9 - Polar and Oceanic Procedures Introduction uch of the world’s air traffic travels across the poles and the oceans. This chapter considers the general problems of long range and polar navigation and the Specific procedures for the North Atlantic Track (NAT) system, Long Range and Polar Navigation Compass and Dt Until the introduction of the first long range navigation equipment in the 1950s sireraft navigated primarily by ‘magnetic compass and gyroscopes. Barly magnetic compasses relied on a compass needle or card suspended in uid, they can stil be found on light aircraft and as standby compasses fn larger aireraft These compasses are unreliable in a tur and are supplemented by a Direction Indicator, a DI, The DI is based fon a gyroscope which keeps its heading reference over the Short ferm and is therefore reliable in turns. Unfortunately the DI does not keep its heading reference over, longer periods and needs to be intermittently caged and ‘synchronised to compass heading when in level ight. Part of the reason for the longer term errors of the DI is that a gyroscope holds its position in space. Even though the aircraft ‘may be stationary on the ground it is not holding a constant position in space because the earth's surface is rotating. ‘Operational Procedures issue 5 oa‘This error is called earth rate or astronomic precession and ‘can be corrected for by a formula which is: Earth Rate 5x Sine Latitude in degrees per hour. This correction can be built into a DI by means ofa latitude nut which is screwed in and out to produce ‘an equivalent opposite error in the DI-and cancel the effect of the earth rate, The latitide nut is set on the ground and ean ‘only correct for one latitude, ‘The second source of long term errors in the DI occurs ifthe sicerafl is moved east oF west. Figure 109-4 Figure 10-9-1 shows two gyroscopes, one at the equator and one further north, each with their spin axis initially aligned ‘with true north on the left ofthe picture. Even ifthe earth was completely stationary as the gyros are moved from left to right the one away from the equator loses its alignment. Depending fn the direction of movement this transport wander will add to for act against earth rate. ‘The rate of transport wander in degrees per hour can be caleulated from the formu, Transport Wander = east wost groundspeed x Tan Latitude 60 ‘The amount of transport wander for an east/west fight can becalculated more simply by the following formula, degrees of longitude traveled x sine ofthe latitude, Bxample An aircraft travels from 60°N O10°W to 60°N, (O40°W. Find the transport wander on a Dl Solution: Transport wander» degrees x sin lat = 30%sin 60" 26" ‘The Mal error source is the imperfection of the gyro ite, this will lead to real wander, The chances are that all the questions ‘You get wil set real wander to zero in the question, We can now say that the total rate of wander is Earth Rate + Transport Wander + Real wander + Latiuude nut The earth rate will act in different directions in the northern land southern hemispheres, the transport wander will act in Giferent directions depending on direction of travel and the latitude nut should oppose earth rate. We must be careful with the signs here, ‘The error rates are applied with the following signs Figure 10:92 You may be asked to calculate gyro error. This is more completely covered in the General Navigation section but the following example shows how itis done, Example: A perfect DI has its latitude nut set for 60N. ‘The aircraft Mies for 90 minutes on a track of 270°T at Lat SON. TAS is 300Kt, with a wind of 090/60Kt [At the end of the Bight, what is the total DI error? Solution: This is a perfect DI, so real wander is zero. The fitude nut error is 15 x Sin 60 deg/tr. The TW ‘Operational Procedures Issue 5 33 f‘error is 360/60 x Tan 50 = 6 x Tan SOdeg/br, fand it ie TW West, ER is 15 x Sin S0deg/br Putting all these together you get ‘Total Error Rate = 0 [25sinSo] + [158in60] + [6Tanso] ~ [11.49} + [12.99] = [7-15] = + 8.65 degrees per hour {for 90mins fight the total error is: + 8.65 x1.5 = + 12.975? or roughly 13° Notice that both transport wander and earth rate get greater nearer the poles, This makes the conventional direct reading compass and DI aystem unreliable in these areas. ‘An additional factor isthe very rapid change in variation near ‘the earth's magnetic pole and, when very near to the magnetic pole, there is an area where the horizontal component of the ‘earth's magnetic field is so low that magnetic compasses cease ‘to work reliably. This is called the ‘six miero tesla zone’ Near the magnetic pole, in Northem Canada, several airways Ihave VORS aligned fo true north rather than magnetic north as it is recognised that conventional compass systems cannot be ‘used. Gyro Compasses ‘A part solution to this problem is to use a more modern ‘compass system called a gyro compass which combines a ‘yroscope and a compass system to use the best bits of each, ‘The compass detectors are less sensitive to turing errors and the gyro system is automatically synchronised to the compass system continuously removing the gyro errors we discussed ssbove. Variation can be fed into the system using either @ three dimensional cam or an electronic inpt ‘When compass information is unreliable nesr the poles this system will operate as a gyro in the Directional Gyro or DG mode. ‘This is stil only a part solution because a gyro compass in the DG mode is subject to the same errors as a normal Dl. Thus any prolonged flight in areas of compass unreliability would stil lead to navigational problems. oa Tew ‘Operational Procedures “The aren none the‘changes, ayo Pure Gyro Navigation |A second method for dealing with the problems of polar ‘avigation isto discard the normal heading references of ether the true or magnetic north and discard magnetic compasses in favour of pure gyroscopic or DI type heading references, We then overprint a grid of lines on a chart and then use the arid and gyro for heading reference. As the DI remains aligned in space it will kep its alignment as ‘we move around, at least_on a stationary earth, and. the problem of transport wander is sidestepped. Notice that this does not remove any uncorrected earth rate or redl wander. ‘These residual erroremean that, even when sing grid navigation, the gyzo alignment must be repeatedly rechecked pethaps with star shots from a sextant, Gig Noah Grid North Geib North. Grid North Figure 109.3, Figure 10-93 shows a grid aligned with the Greenwich ‘meridian laid over a chart of the polar region. An alrsraft track thas been overlaid, in still air to avoid confusing the issue. You can see that, although the true. track would change ‘considerably the grid track, the sireraf’s alignment to the grid, does not. If we were to state this in another way we could say that, apart from the line where grid north and true north coincide, the datum meridian, there will be @ difference between the’ grid track and the true track, ‘Operational Procedures [sous 5 os‘The dilference between grid track and true track is called convergence and will always be the chart convergency between, the datum meridian and where we are. If we know grid track we can find true track, if we know true track we can find grid track provided we’ know the chart cconvergency, Problems of this kind are usually presented on a Polar Stereagraphic chart where convergency is simply the change of longitude. If you are also studying Flight Planning land have the Jeppesen charts an example of such a chart is the AT(HI) Polar High Altitude En-Route Chart. Bxample: Solution: ‘An aircraft is overhead 78°N O95°W flying a track. ‘of 040°Grid on a polar chart with the grid aligned fo the Greenwich meridian. Find the true track direction. Draw a sketch diagram. Grid Track ‘ose GN sowyou 7 6 Figure 109-4 ‘The grid track and true track must differ by the convergence, which isthe change of long from the @atum meridian, in this case 95". The only fecision to make is whether the truc tracks O40" minus 95°, 305%, or 040° plus 95°, 195°. The Glagram provides the answers 305° Tow) Operational ProceduresConvergence, lke variation, can be labeled ‘east’ or ‘west. Bast if true north is east of grid north and west if true north is west of grid north. Having named it correctly the addition or ‘subtraction problem can be solved with the ehyme convergence east true track least ‘convergence west tre track best you can, draw a diagram rather than use the rhyme. ‘One further note of caution, be careful in the southern hemisphere. You might tind it useful to follow the convention, we have used, drawing the northern and southern hemispheres so that East is always to the right of the page, the ‘way we normally think of it QO This convention, if followed, means not only that eas: is always to the right and west 0’ the left but clearly distinguishes between northern and southern hemisphere diagrams. Example An airerat at 80°S 130°B ie fying 030°. A grid is, overlaid aligned with the Greenwich meridian, Getermine the grid track direction. Solution: Draw a diagram WSO ” YS Figure 10-96 hon ‘Operational Procedures losis oF‘The track is 030°T, the difference is the convergence, 130", so the grid track is either 030° ‘minus 130°, 260° grid, oF 030" plus 130°, 160°, ‘The diagram provides the final answer, 160° grid, Although itis not a very elegant navigational solution it might bbe worth noting that, provided these diagrams are drawn correctly, an accurate drawing will allow the answer to be ‘measured with a protractor. Inertial Navigation Modem long range aircraft use Inertial Navigation Systems (INS) otherwise called Inertial Reference Systems (RS) ‘operating either independently or through a Flight ‘Management System (FMS) Although an inertial gystem operates with gyros and accelerometers, three of each, it does not suffer from the gyro terrors of transport wander and earth rotation, It can, however, give an incorrect position as a result of an inital input exror, from real wander or from errors arising from a cyclical error called Schuler Laop error. ‘Schuler ertors produce oscillating errors in position which are quite small and ean be damped out. Input errors should be ‘avoided and produce such large errors that they are usually easily detected. Real wander and, on some types, a rushed alignment procedure, can produce a position drift. Each system will have set limits of drift, usually between 4 nm to ‘Shim per hour flown is acceptable, Unlike compass based systems an inertial system will work just as well n polar areas a8 anywhere else, Single INS. AA single IN must be backed up with another long range havigation system, either GPS, Loran, Doppler’ or a combination of Gyro Compass and Radio Navigation. The systems operate independently with the pilots either ouituring Use esvure al waypoials Uy cotaing jsious on by observing cross track displacement on the HSI oe Tosues Operational Proct stil work near the poles‘Twin INS ‘Twin INS units are used independently, in what is called the stand alone mode, with error monitoring by position checks at ‘waypoints. The HSI will show distance and time to the next ‘waypoint, track direction and cross track displacement to allow Additional continuous monitoring. The diagram beow shows two HSls, the one on the left is the Captain's and the one on the right the First Officer's. The Captain's HSI is supplied by INS 1, a8 indicated by the 1 in the 9 aclock position, which is, steering the aircraft through the autopilot. The First Ofcer's is, supplied by INS 2 in the stand alone mode ‘The two HSls show distance and time to the next waypoint at the top left and right of the display, there is a diference in distance of 2.3nm, and the FO's deviation bar shows a cross track error of just under one dot which would equate, on this, system, to about nm, Both course pointers indicate the same desired track. ‘The INS Control Unit (CDU) will also show distance end time to the next waypoint by selecting DIS/TIME on he rotary function selector. Cross track error (XTK) and track error angle (TE) can also be displayed. The FO's CDU is shown opposite With the two selections made, this mirrors the information on the HSI, except that a TKE of 0.1" has been detected which ‘would be invisible on the other instrument, ‘Operational Procedures issueFigure 10.98 Ian error arises the difficulty with twin INS is deciding when a system has faled and which IN is in error. Ifyou are lucky the INS itself will detect an internal failure and show @ fault light, more likely it will be up to you to decide. Ultimately this would hhave to be determined using another navigation system such ‘as VOR oF NDB, if available ‘Triple INS. It is highly unusual for triple INS to be used with anything ‘other than an FMS, If it 8, then the INS in error can be Identified as the only one that disagrees with the other two Errors can be monitored at waypoints and on the HSI or IN CDU as above Ha triple INS system is used with an FMS the position will be ‘riple mixed’, the FMS position will be the average of the three IN positions, unless one IN wanders off in which case it will be discarded by the FMS and the pilots informed. In addition, most _new aircraft will be equipped with GPS navigation systems. For instance, a modem Airbus Tull up’ navigation mode would be ‘GPS Primary’, a problem with satallite coverage ‘would lead to a system downgrade to ‘Triple mix’. These modern systems are both very reliable and extremely accurate FMS Stored Routes FMS systems have stored routes in databases that are updated ‘every 28 days. The routes may be modified in fight by the crew but the chanzes only appiy to that flight, the route that is ‘Stored in the FMS remaine unchanged, oa0 esas 5 Operational Proceduresespace nd FLA20 ei alled the N eee Navigation Performance “Traci (NAT) governing documentation tor MNP alrspace ss ICAO the Document 7030. STA Kee He XAT Wee Cons ReCertain levels within the MNPS area are designated as Reduced Vertical Separation Minima (RSVM) levels. Inthe North Atlantic MNPS area these are FL290 to FLA10 inchusive (virtually all of MNPS “airspace. Aircraft, operators and crews must. be ‘additionally authorised by the National Authority to operate at RVSM levels, Although the operator must obtain the approvals the final responsibility reste with the Captain to ensure the approvals fre in place and the aircraft is equipped for the route MNPS airspace operates IFR. ‘As you read through this section cross refer to the chart ‘AT(H/L) Atlantic Orientation Chart in your Jeppesen pack, ‘This chart inchides notes on clearances, message formas, frequencies, normal procedures, comms fallure and nav failure procedures. It will nt be with you in this exam so you wil still have to learn the procedures described Longitudinal Separation Longitudinal separation between following and crossing aircraft is established by time at waypoints and controlled by regulating the aireraft speed as a Mach number. No matter how accurate the navigation system the separation ia degraded if the aircraft clock is in error. Hecause of this, and because many master clocks can only be reset on the ground, the pre- flight checks for an aircraft intending to operate in. MNPS airspace must include synchronising the clock to UTC from an ‘acceptable source sich as GPS oF the BBC time signal ‘The minimum longitudinal separation between jet aircraft in MNPS airspace is 10 minutes for aircraft reporting over a common point and traveling at the same speed. I the aircraft in front Is going faster by at least M0.02 and it is possible to ensure that the time interval existe using radar or another approved means the separation can. progressively reduced down to 5 minutes ifthe one infront is MO.06 faster. If the aircraft do not report over a common point and are out of radar range the separation is 15 minutes. Vertical Separation Vertical separation in MNPS airspace is 1000ft at RVSM levels Outside RVSM levels minimum separation is 20008. Touss Operational Procedures uns airspace is ‘separation within VSM airspace I=‘raft must Ihave 2 primary ‘aNimeters that tay within 2008 RVSM Minimum Equipment ‘The minimum equipment standard i¢ embodied in the Minimum Aircraft Systems Performance Specification (MASPS) for RVSM operations. The MASPS require: ‘+ Two fully serviceable independent primary altitude measurement systems; + One automatic alitude-control system; and + One altitude-alerting device, {A functioning Mode-C SSR Transponder is al fight through radar controlled RVSM transition required for irspace. Airworthiness Approval for RVSM operations may he granted by the appropriate State Authority to individual aircraft, or to a group of aircraft which are nominally identical in aerodynamic sign and in items of equipment contributing to height, keeping accuracy. When checking altimeters (pre-flight or in-ight), confirmation is necessary that all altitude indications are within. the tolerances specified in the aircraft operating manual, At least two primary altimetere must at all times agree within plus oF ‘mins 200 feet. MNPS approved aircraft that do nat meet RVSM standards may. climb and descend through RVSM levels, with clearance, and ‘can in certain circumstances such as humanitarian fights be ‘allowed to operate at RVSM levels Lateral Separation ATC clearances ensure a lateral separation of 60nm. The NAT MNPS defines a requirement for the standard deviation of lateral track errors to be less than 6.3 nms. Since {wo standard deviations provide for about 95 % contairment, the MNPS statement is effectively equivalent to an RN? value of 126. Itis also interesting to note that actual measucements of the achieved navigation performance by the entire feet of NAT aireraf. even before GPS came into use by a large proportion, indicated an achieved standard deviation of approximately 2 ‘Operational Procedures laws oa3‘Nav Equipment Requirements For Unrestricted MNPS. Operations For unrestricted operation in the MNPS Airspace an aircraft ‘must be equipped with the two fully serviceable Long Range ‘Navigation Systems (LRNSs) which may be INS, IRS/FMS or Ps. Each LRNS must be capable of providing to the flight crew a Continuous indication of the aireratt postion relative to desired track, Although not mandatory, it io desirable thatthe steering ‘navigation system can be coupled to the autopilot, Routes Usable by Aircraft Without Two LRN Systems ‘A number of special routes, called Blue Spruce Routes, have ‘been developed for aircraft equipped with only one LRNS and ‘carrying normal short-range navigation equipment [VOR, DME, ADK), Additional speetal routes designated G3 and G11 ean be ‘used by aircraft that only have VOR, DME. and ADF. ‘These routes are within MNPS airspace and still require approval from the National Authority. It is the responsibilty of plots with limited certification to reject clearances which ‘wouild otherwise divert them from officially permitted routes Aircraft not Approved for MNPS: Aircraft not approved for operation in MNPS Airspace may be Cleared by ATC to climb or descend through MNPS Airspace provided that the climb or descent can be completed within the ‘overage of selected VOR/DMEs or NDBs or within the radar ‘coverage of the ATC unit. The aircraft must be able to maintain Direct Cantroller/Pilot Communications {DCPC) on VHF and MNPS must not be adversely affected Non-MNPS approved aircraft may also be cleared to climb or descend through MNPS airspace to depart or land at an airport lundereath the MNPS airspace even if it does not have serviceable short range navaids, radar or DCPC. The Organised Track System (OTS) ‘The NAT OTS provides fixed tracks for trans-Atlantic trafic in the morning and the evening, The trans-Atlantic tracks are colloquially referred to as NAT tracks, It is worth noting that ‘the track aystem has been devised to cope with the peak traffic flows; Westbound during the day, Eastbound overnight, ‘Currently around 50% of North Atlantic trific utilizes the OTS. ona Tasne 5 ‘Operational Procedures ‘Two long range ravigation system areWesthound NAT ‘They never get much beyond © NAT track routings are issued on a daily basis takirg account of the predominately westerly prevailing winds. Each North ‘Allantic Organised ‘Track is identified by. m letter. The ‘westbound tacks begin with the letter 'A’ as the most northerly track and continue vertically down with ‘BCD’ fand so on depending on how many tracks are needed 10 ‘accommodate the foreeast traffic Figure 109-10 Figure 10-9-10 illustrates a typical distribution of westbound tracks, figure 10-9-11 shows typical eastbound tracks, ‘The ‘eastbound tracks begin with Z' as the most southerly track ‘and continue vertically upward with , % W"etc. Note the ‘one degree or Gn lateral separation. When considering the allocation of fight levels and routes on the North Atlantic, the fact that the eastbound flow is predominantly a night time phenomena and the westbound the ‘opposite gives rise to two distinet and separate taffic flows, Operational Procedures 945re Iabelod Z to ‘bottom to top. ‘They never got much beyond W. ‘The NAT OTS operates twice during each 24-hour period with a Westbound, westbound system operational fom 1130 hours to 1900 hours daytime UTC and an easthound system operational between 0100 and 1430~1900 ‘0800 UTC. Eastbound ed ‘eye 0100-0800 ‘These published times refer to when the flight is going to cross the 030°W meridian of longitude. This is the boundary point ‘between the Shanwick and Gander Oceanic Control Areas, the areas through which the majority of flights transit. Within these areas there are some 00 individual operations at any ‘one point in time during peale hours NAT Track Messages are issued twice daily once to describe the ‘eastbound tracks and once for the westbound. They originate ‘with the Gander and Shanvick OCA ATS. Eastbound NAT OTS track message; Issued by Gander Oceanic Control Area Centre (OAC) at ‘around 1400 UTC and valid for fights fying between North ‘America and Europe at O30°W during the hours of 0100 to (0800 UTC the next day. one ese S Operational Procedures@ Westbound NAT OTS track message; Issued by Shanwick Oceanic Control Area Centre arcund 2200 UTC and vali for flights operating between Europe and North ‘America at 030°W during the hours of 1130 to 1900 UTC the Decoding a NAT Track Message ‘A sample westbound message is shown below. Only two NAT tacks have been showin for brevity but otherwise th: message is complete (qar-2/2 TRACKS PLS 320/ 390 rHcLUSIVE cetoaer /"11302 70 OCTOBER 8/" 18002, ‘59/10 61/20 61/30 61/40 61/50 60/60 ciMAT 2 58/20 60/20 60/10 6/40 59/80 Paam wo? REQUIRED 70 FLY IN THIS AIRSPACE. IN ADDITION, _RVSW APPROVAL 1S REQUIRED TO PLY GEIWEEN FL310. ND’ F1390 ND OF PART Ou OP OM PARTS) If we look just at NAT A we have the designation first and then, the routings 1k 59/20 61/20 62/20 62/40 62/50 60/60 cimar Means “the routing for NAT A is NS9°WO10* to N61*WO20" to N61°WOSO" to N6I°WO40" to NGI°WO5O® to N6O"WOSO? to cmmat™ ‘Operational Procedures swe SSOSCS*~*~*~*«STSMeans "there are no easterly levels allocated and westerly tracks can be flown at FL310, F120, FL330, FL340, FL350, FL360 or F390" Means “there are no designated euro routes feeding into this track and routes out ean be via North American Routes (NAR) “The Track Message Identifier is the day of the year counting. from 1 to 365 (or 366) which you include in the clearance readback 80 the controller knows you read the right piece of paper. Preferred Route Message (PRM) Operators are encouraged to submit in advance the number of flights and their company preferred route for these fights through the appropriate oceanic controled areas. This helps the authorities in the compilation of the NAT OTS for the particular ime period in the following 24 hours, The PRM will ormally take into account the “minimum time route” (MTR) ‘which we looked at earlier ‘+ For eastbound fights the PRM should reach the Gander OAC by 1000 UTC, + Por the westbound operations it should reach the Shanuick OAC by 1900. In MNPS airspace waypoints should be on whole degrees of Lat and Long, every 10° of longitude when flying predominantly fast/west and, when predominantly north/south, every 5 of latitude. Tracks between waypoints should be great circles. OTS Changeover Periods ‘There is always a gap of several hours between the de- activation of one set of NAT tracks and the activation of the hex! between 0801 and 1129 UTC and between 1901 to 0059 UTC to avoid confusion on the changeover. During the changeover periods some restrictions to fight planned routes and levels are imposed. Eastbound and ‘westbound aircraft operating during these periods should fle Tight level requests in accordance with’ the Flight. Level Allocation Scheme (FLAS) as published in the UK and Csnads ane SoS Operational ProceduresAIPs. Operators should recognise that they might not be allocated the level requested, Random routings during the operating times of the NAT Organised Track System It is recommended that the OTS is used whenever possible. Operators who plan flights on ‘random routes’ will not be refused clearance but, in the majority of cases, will b: fan uneconomic fight level below NAT tracks or will be re- routed to avold the OTS system altogether. Either of these will Incur an economic penalty. Aireraft may fly on random routes which remain Ckar of the ‘OTS or may Ay on any soute that joins or leaves an cuter tracke ‘of the OTS. There is also nothing to prevent an operator from planning a route which crosses the OTS, if this occurs in the ‘early stages of the flight it is Ukely the aircraft wil be held ‘down below the NAT tracks until clear, i it happens near to ‘destination the airerat might be descended early or re-routed, Figure 10.942 Random routings outside the operating times of the NAT OTS Outside of the OTS periods operators may flight plan any random routeing, except that during the two hours prior to each OTS period the following restrictions apply: (1) Rastbound flights that cross 90°W less than one hour before the incoming westbound NAT tracks (after 1029 ‘Operational Procedures issue 5 a9UTC), or westbound flights that cross 30'W less than fone hour before the incoming eastbound NAT tracks (after 2359 UTC) should plan to remain clear of the Incoming OTS structure. (2) Any such opposite direction fights crossing 30°W ‘between one and two hours before the incoming OTS where the route beyond 30;W would coincide with the incoming OTS structure at any point should plan to join fan outer track at any point, or backtrack the length of fone ofthe incoming tracks, ‘The time restriction effectively means this applies to aircraft crossing 30°W eastbound between 0930 and 1029 UTC or westbound between 2300 and 2859 UTC. The Oceanic ATC Flight Pian Flights in MNPS airspace require an ATS fight plan. Flights authorised to operate in MNPS airspace should have an X after the S for nav equipment in item10. Flights authorised for RVSM should also have a W inserted ‘Thus item 10 will read SXW/C rather than the usual 8/C. The Cis for mode C NAT Tracks: ‘The NAT track can only be used in item 15, the route, if the whole track is own. The normal routing is shown with the speed asa TAS up to the entry point, then the speed is expressed as a Mach number for the route and after the exit point the speed reverts to TAS, [NOS6SF310 WAL UBS BEL DCT S9NOIOW/MOSOF380 NAT C CARPE REDBY/NOATOFS70 NA2IO Random Routing For flights operating on random routes, or routes not following the full length of a published NAT track, the route entry in item 15 on dhe ATS Might plan cannot reer to ve NAT (racket Us case the route description must be completed using all the latitude and longitudinal co-ordinates. For example: [NO46SF310 WAL UB3 REL DCT SSNOLOW/MOSOF3S0 DCT S9NO2OW S9NO30W SENO4OW S7NDSOW CARPE REDBYINOATOFS70 NA210 20 issue 5 Operational Procedures: [An ATC tight plan is roquired ‘notated X torI included in tho feodback by the MNPS Communications ‘Oceanic Clearance ‘The Captain must obtain Oceanic ATC cleararce before entering the NAT area, ideally 40 minutes before. The OACS recognise 40 minutes notice is not always possible, ‘The call westbound is usually made to Shanwick on VHF, castbound will be to Gander on VHF. Oceanic clearances can also be obtained on HF or sent to the operator and on to the Alrerat via the VHF data link ACARS. AA ypical request for clearance would indicate Mack number, level, the highest level the aireraft can cope with and a second, choice of NAT track. “Speedbird 464A request Oceanic Clearance. Estimating SONOIOW at 1131. Request Mach decimal eight 2ere, Flight, Level three five zero, able Flight Level three six ze, second ‘choice Track Charlie” ‘The Oceanic clearance will be based on time estimates for the major reporting points fled in the ATC flight plan and, as the flight progresses, any differences in these ETAs of three ‘minutes or more must be reported to ATC. “Speedbird 464A is cleared to Toronto via Track Bravo, from S6NOIOW maintain Flight Level three five zore, Mach devimal eight zero”. ‘The clearance is read back verbatim except the TMI number is Included. Clearance errors that are not picked up by either ATC or pilots are called ATC loop errors. “Speedbird 464A is cleared to Toronto via Track Bravo 283, from S6NOIOW maintain Flight Level thvee five 270, Mach ‘decimal eight zero” If on the OTS the oceanic clearance may include the phrase “send met reports’. If operating off the OTS met reports are always required and the instruction will not be given in the Clearance. If met reports are required each position report wil finish with the temperature, wind, and any significant weather, “Virgin $43, 40 North 40 West at 1010, Flight Level 350, Estimating 40 torth 50 West at 1110, 40 North 60 West Next, Temperature minus 53, wind 250 diagonal 65, over, ‘Operational Procedures aAHF Comms. ‘Most NAT air/ground communications are conducted on single sideband HF frequencies. Plots communicate with OACS ‘rough radio operators. The ground radio operators are not controllers, they relay messages to the relevant OAC for action, ‘Acradio stations and OACS are not necessarily co-located. For ‘example in the case of Shanwick operations, the OAC is located at Prestwick in Scotland whilst the asscciated acradio station is at Ballygrreen in the Republic of Ireland VHF Comms ‘The carriage of HF communications equipment is mandatory for fight in the Shanwick OCA. Aircraft with only functioning VHF ‘communications equipment should plan their route ‘outside the Shanwiek OCA and ensure that they remain within VHP coverage of appropriate ground stations throughout the fight. The VHF air-to-air frequency is 123.45MHz Large aircraft have equipment fitted that allows the pilots to be contacted on the radios without continuously monitoring the frequency. This is particularly needed for long oceanic legs using HF frequencies. SELCAL, short for selective calling, operates on HF or VHF radios, Bach sirframe has @ SELCAL code allocated to it made up of four letters, for example RHKM, which is notified to the ATC agency on the fight plan and once more on first R/T contact, ‘The ATC agency can transmit coded tones corresponding to the letter code that activates a flashing light and an audio tone in the cockpit, Once called the erew can put their headsets on and respond on the appropriate radio, Modern aircraft have the SELCAL ‘listening’ on all radio boxes ‘atone. The diagram opposite shows an A320 comms box with the SELCAL ‘CALL’ ight illuminated on the number 1 HE radio. ‘Operational Procedures wusuay MF ‘the Might planror to entry into ‘ach now agency ee ee Figure 10943 SELCAL on an A320 ‘The SELCAL must be checked with the ATC agency before the crew remove their headsets and go from a listening watch on the selected frequency to a SELCAL wateh. In practice this SELCAL check is carried out on first contact with each new ‘agency, even if the SELCAL has already been checked on the ‘same frequency with the previous agency and the ‘rst check ‘must be completed at or prior to entry into the OCA. Position Reports Position reports should be made at designated repor:ing points and at the significant points listed in the Flight Plea. If'on an [NAT track report at the points listed in the track message and at designated reporting points. ‘The general guide i that ATC should have reports at roughly ‘hourly intervals, asa rule North of 70°N every 20” offongitude, South of 70° every 10° of longitude. Any changes ‘0 ETAS of Three minutes or more should be advised to ATC a8 soon as possible. Pilots must always report to ATC as soon as possible on reaching any new cruising level For flights outside the domestic ATS route network, position should be expressed in terms of latitude and longitude except when flying over named reporting points. For flights whose Tracks are. predominantly east or west, latitude should be ‘expressed in degrees and minutes, longitude in degrees only. For fights whose tracks are predominantly north or south, latitude should be expressed in degrees only, longitude in degrees and minutes. All times should be expressed in four digits giving both the hour and the minutes UTC. Operational Procedures issue 5 oaHF Comms Failure when Out of VHF Range ‘Two way HF communications failure can be caused either by fon board equipment failure (effecting single aircraft) or through poor HF propagation conditions asa result of ionospheric Gisturbances effecting many aircraft possibly over a wide ‘area), General rules for either ofthese scenarios are as follows: + With two way ATS communications failure operate the SSR Transponder on identity Mode A Code 7600 and + Iequipped, use SATCOM to contact the responsible ‘aeradio station. However, it must be appreciated that pending further aystem developments, the capability ‘aries between different NAT OACS, ‘+ Ifnot equipped with SATCOM then attempt to use VHF ta.contact any (other) ATC Tacity or use VHP air-to-air 123.45MHiz 20 another aircraft can relay information to ATC, ‘+ In view of trafic density in the NAT Region, broadcast regular position reports on the inter pilot frequency. HF Comms Failure Before /After Entering the NAT Region ‘Again, actions will depend on whether the failure is due to ‘equipment failure or to HF blackout, and also if a NAT Clearance has been received. It is strongly recommended that ‘an aireraft with HF comms equipment failure before entering the OCA does not enter it. However, in the comms blackout ‘scenario, the requirement to divert could lead. to mass confusion, depending on the number of aircraft involved. A summary of actions are as follows: 1, If there is an aircraft comms equipment failure before receiving an Oceanic Clearance then the pilot must either Givert or fly the Fight Plan route, speed and initial planned oceanic level to landfall. 2, If there is an HF comms blackout encountered in a Domestic ATC environment belore an Oceanic Clearance hhas been received then all affected aircraft should continue at their Domestic ATC cleared level and follow their fight planned routes and speeds to land{al 3, If there is an aircraft comms equipment failure or HF comms blackout after an Oceanic Clearance then that clearance must be complied with to landfall, o20 ‘Operational Procedures Allantc arto frequency is‘The oovanie ssquawntis 2000, Manabe to ‘loarance, offsot limbideacond Im all cases after landfall rejoin, or continue on, the fight planned route, using appropriate State AIP specified procedures for the domestic airspace entered, SSR Procedures Mode A 2000 with height reporting should be selected 30 ‘minutes after entering the OCA. In the Reykjavik OCA when, under radar control you may be instructed to set other squats, ‘The emergency codes, 7700, 7600 and 7500 are stil valid in ‘oceanic airspace, In Flight Contingencies If there is an emergency or a situation on board the alreraft ‘that results in the aircraft being unable to comply with the ATC clearance then, ideally, a revised clearance should be obtained before any deviation is made using the prefix PAN, PAN’ or 'MAYDAY' a8 appropriate, If the nature of the emergency is such that prior clearance ‘cannot be obtained the aireraft should broadcast its 2osition at frequent intervals on 121.5MHz with 123.45MHlz as « back-up, Until @ revised clearance is obtained the NAT in-ight contingency procedure should be followed. This requires an offset from the assigned route by 1Snm and then & climb or escent to a level which differs from those normally used by Sook Partial or complete loss of navigation/FMS capability Some alreraft carry tiple (or more) LRNSs and hence if one system fails, even before take off, the two basic recuirements for MNPS Airspace operations may still be met and the flight ccan proceed normally. The following guidance is offered for aircraft equipped with only two operational LRNSs: ‘One System Fails before Take-Off: ‘The pilot must consider: delaying departure until repair is possible; ‘obtaining a clearance above or below MNPS Airspace; planning on ‘Blue Spruce’ or 'GOLF” Routes appropriate, ‘Operational Procedures issue S 928‘One System Falls before the OCA Boundary Is Reached ‘The pilot must consider: ‘+ anding at a suitable aerodrome before the boundary or returning to the aerodrome of departure; ‘+ diverting via one ofthe special routes described. previously; ‘+ obtaining a re-clearance above or below MNPS Airspace. ‘One System Fails after the OCA Boundary is Crossed Once the aircraft has entered aceanic airspace, the pilot should normally continue to operate the aireraft in accordance with the Oceanic Clearance already received, appreciating that the reliability of the total navigation system has been significantly reduced ‘The pilot should, however, assess the prevailing circumstances, consult with to ATC with respect to the prevailing circumstances (e.g. request clearance above ot below MNPS Airspace, turn-back, obtain clearance to fy along fone of the special routes, et), obtain appropriate re-clearance prior to any deviation from ihe last acknowledged Oceanic Clearance ‘Tho Remaining System Fails after Entoring MNPS Airspace ‘The pilot should notify ATC immediately, attempt visual sightings and establish contact on VHF with adjacent aircraft for useful information, keep a special look-out for possible conflicting aireraf, and make maximum use of exterior lights Diversion Across the Flow of Traffic Before commencing any diversion across the flow of adjacent waffle, aircraft should, whilst maintaining the 15 nm offaet track, expedite climb above or descent below the vast majority of NAT trafic (ke. to a level above FL410 oF below FL285), and then maintain a fight level which differs from those normally used (+/-500 ft). However, ifthe pilot is unable or unwilling to carry out @ major climb or descent, then any diversion should ‘within MNPS Airspace, until a new ATC clearance is obtained, I these contingency procedures are employed by a twin engine aircraft asa result of the shutdown of a power unit or the failure of @ primary aircraft system the pilot should advise ATC as soon as practicable of the situation, reminding ATC of the {ype of aircraft involved and requesting expeditious handling. 26 Tome Operational Proceduresmarked change Rapid toss of| headwind loads Chapter 10 — Turbulence and Windshear his chapter considers the responses required to in-flight hazards and emergencies such as microburst wind shear, wake-turbulence, decompression and fires and smoke on board the aircraft Windshear Windshear is most hazardous and most likely when close to the ground, ether taking off or landing, It ean occur because of strong surface winds interacting with local terrain to produce ‘marked changes in windspeed near the surfece, linear Windshear, be associated with frontal systems or with large thunderstorms ‘and supercells in the form of microburst windshear, The causes of windshear are discussed in depth in the Meteorology section. Windshear at Fronts You will recall that wind direction changes as the ffont passes or, indeed, as an aircraft flies through the front itself. Figure 16-10-1 shows the effect on sn aircraft crossing a frontal surface on the final approach. Here it ie assumed that there is « 90° shift of wind direction through the front. A 25k headwind suddenly becomes a 25kt ‘rosswind and a zero headwind. The aircrafts inertia carries it fon momentarily at the same TAS, the IAS drops by 25kt, and the aircraft begins to sink. At the same time frontal -urbulence ‘ean produce some control difficulties. ‘Operational Procedures Issue 5 704Figure 10-404 Windshear near Thunderstorms Cold air descending from a thunderstorm can run ahead of the storm, producing a mini cold front, These gust_ fronts, sometimes called the “first gust", can give considerable windshear and turbulence, effects similar to those of frontal windshear discussed above. Windshear has been measured at {ip to 80kt and 90" in direction through shallow layers, Figure 104402 702 Tes Operational Procedures‘Gust fronts can extend at worst to 24 to 32km (15 t0 20nm), ‘ahead of the thunderstorm and up to 6000f. When there is. line or group of thunderstorms gust fronts can exterd to twice this distance. Their presence is sometimes marked by a roll of ‘loud at the gust front with rain and aqually conditioxs. Windshear at inversions and in The Boundary Layer ecause of the fiction at the surface the surface wind will be slower than the 2000 wind and will be blowing from a diferent direction. Climbing from the surface to the free stream wind, or descending on the approach, will therefore always take you through vertical windshear. This is. not, normally significant, unless the fre-stream wind is very strong, or there is'a temperature inversion present, which produces, very sharp boundary between the airflow above and below the inversion. The critical conditions are: + A freesstream wind of over 40kt. This implies turbulence in the boundary layer, and, over land, at least a 20kt speed and 40° heading difference between, the surface wind and the free-stream. + A vector difference between the surface and the free-stream wind of 40kt or more. This is saying approximately the same thing as above © A temperature inversion of 10°C or more in the frat 1000% agl. This will completely isolats the slow surface wind from the fast free-stream wind above the inversion, giving marked windshear in the climb or descent and clear air turbulence near the top of the + The presence of a turbulence inversion, Here, 100, the inversion will produce a sharp windshear boundary between the turbulent airflow below the inversion, and ‘the smooth free-stream airflow above. It is not a coincidence that these conditions ars used to generate mandatory warnings of windshear or turbulence. ‘Standing waves Standing waves in the troposphere occur when a stable air mass blows at moderate speed over a range ef hills or mountains. There is turbulence alott that often extends into the low stratosphere, but the severe hazards - turbulence and, downdraft - are find near the surface, ‘Operational Procedures issue 5 703‘The conditions required for the production of standing waves, ‘or mountain waves of lee waves as they are also called, are: ‘+ A.wind of 15kt or more over small mountains, to 3Okt for more over large mountains ‘+ Wind speed increasing steadily with height up to the ‘tropopause ‘+ Wind direction roughly constant up to the tropopause '+ Wind direction within 20° of the perpendicular to the dge line + Astable alr mass. However, the strongest waves occur ‘where there is a very strong stable layer, perhaps an inversion, at ridge height, with rather less stable air, ‘but not unstable air, above and below When these conditions are met, the air mass forms the stable wave pattern shown in figure 10-10-3. | a San ee eit (hour ea) Bg Figure 10-103 The area of maximum turbulence is at about the height of the ridge, and one wavelength downwind. The wavelength epends on windspeed and ridge height, but for ordinary European conditions it will be'5 0 10 nm, so the two definitions — one wavelength and § to 10 nm ~ are used interchangeably by the examiners 708 ‘Operational Procedures‘its, rotors ana ‘re not confined aly to stancing ‘wove conditions. ‘Thay can eur in any strong winds four minutes Im this first peak the wave formation may be strong enough to start horizontal rotor, with rotating roll closd if the Ihumidity is high enough. The “Helm Bar” of Cross ell in the UK is a well known example of this effect. Turbalence in rotors is severe, Sometimes the rotors breal off and stream ‘away downwind carrying their turbulence with them, Note that, rotors and rotor streaming can occur in the lee of rdges even, ‘when the upper sir conditions are not right for standing wave Tormation, ying with the wind over the rldge itself produces no serious problems, but fying into wind means that you will be tying to Climb to clear the ridge when the downdraft is fercing you down. This is not a hazard only for light aircraft. There have been several near disasters to civil airliners caught in these conditions, and one case of an aircraft broken tp in flight that may have been due to wave turbulence, Other visual clues to standing waves are cap cloud over the ridge and the lens shaped lenticular - clouds, formed ‘wherever there isa layer of moist air aloft that is conied below ‘dew point in the rising part of the wave. ‘The turbulence from standing waves can be felt right up into the low stratosphere, and as the start conditions call for a moderate low level wind that steadily increases with height, standing waves are often, but not always, assocated with Jetstreams aloft. The wave effects can persist for up to 100nm downwind, depending on the size of the hills and the windspeed, Microbursts ‘The microburst is an extreme form of windshear generated by the slug of descending air that comes from a thunderstorm cell. These downdrafts average around 3-4000fpm but have been measured at 6000{pm, Okt, and when they hit the ground they can flow out at SOkt in one direction and SOkt in, the opposite direction. This gives a vector surface wind of 100kt over a relatively short di Jn. They last for only a few minutes, but the combination of downdraft and rapid wind reversal ean be fatal ‘Operational Procedures love 5 705Figure 1010-4 ‘The aircraft at position A above has reached the frst sector of, the microburst. The headwind is increasing rapidly to SOkt, IAS has gone up, and the aircraft will go high on the glidepath ‘The pilot reduces power to compensate, and just as this is taking effect, the aircraft is hit by the downdraft and the headwind changes toa talwind. IAS falls and the aircraft sinks below the glidepath at B ACC the pilot has started his missed approach procedure, but the IAS is still falling as the tailwind is still increasing Recovery will depend on the power, height and speed reserves available. The “substantial corrective action” required is a ‘maximum alpha and full power overshoot ‘The downdraft is initiated by precipitation, and is often marked by a colin of rain, Ifthe air below the cloudbase is relatively ty, and the precipitation se-evaporates, giving a “dey” microburst, the windshear will be worse. The evaporation vill cool the siug of descending air, making it more dense and Increasing the downdraft speed Studies of microbursts have shown that the downburst can be 110 3k across. The most dangerous condition occurs in the Grst few minutes after the downdraft hits the ground, although the downdraft ean continue at lesser intensity for up to 15min. ‘Typical speeds give a wind vector change through the smleroburst of about 5Okt, with a maximum recorded of 100k. ‘There are two principal systems in use to give warning of mlerobursts at’ airields. One isa feld of anemometers surrounding the airfield set some 5 to 10nm out. These are ‘Operational Procedures, ‘Sect fl power land pitch tothe ign butte ry mierbursts ‘than wot ones bette 3hm across ‘and lst ony a owlinked to the control tower and display the pattern of surface winds on the approach. This is called the Low Level Windshear Alert System (LLWAS}. The second is low frequency doppler radar, used to directly measure wind vectors around the aril Detecting and Responding to Windshear ‘The best way to deal with windshear is to avoid it, particularly imicroburst windshear, and the LLWAS and pilot reports are ‘vale in this respect, Given that avoidance has proved impossible the next problem is one of detection, In situations where windshear ie Hkely the pilot should be alert for rapid changes in airspeed hat might be caused by windshear. Older aircraft equipped with INS as ‘opposed to IRS can obtain windshear indications by selecting SIND" and "HOLD" simultaneously. A flashing display of 8888 signities windshear Figure 100.5, More modem aircraft have a windshear warning incorporated into the GPWS, When windshear is detected below 1500 radio a visual Windshear Warning message appears on each EADI with the audio warning ‘WINDSHEAR, WINDSHEAR, WINDSHEAR’. Windshear warnings take priority aver other GPWS modes. Both detection systems are sensitive and windshear warnings therefore only require a ‘suitable response’ which may be no more than extra vigilance. The only exception Is when ‘mieroburst windshear is suspected, this isso extreme that the ‘only appropriate reaction is a Windshear go-aroind”. This Gifers from a normal go-around in that full power i selected, often disregarding TGT limits, and the aircraft is pitched to ‘maximum angle of attack rather than a Gxed attitude. Max AoA fs the pitch thet corresponds to the pitch limit eyebrows’ on an EFIS aircraft and on a pre-EFIS aireraft means flying on the light buffet of, more usually, stick-shaker. If speedbrakes or spoilers are out they should be selected in. Depending on type, Operational Proc jures 707