y NEADS Za) SE FA Cra Va aR | ee Sa ial j | se eases [pa |Mi ae a - eC See rat Uae eee ee nee eer modern Chinese grammar. In compiling this work, the authors have drawn upon their years of experience in both teaching Chinese as a foreign language and compilation of language os ete See SO eC ee RC ee Re AMC eT Ree U RC ee nar ee RCM Ten ee eer ietiement Mitten ath words, phrases and sentences. Exercises in diverse forms and answer om eT eater of the book facilitate self-study. A key characteristic of this book is that it selects a number CPOE e eon SR SN TNe be obstacles for nonnative speakers and specific notes are given about the usage of these ee LeU a Ree een mnt actor teen ian Ren eet and teachers of Chinese home and abroad. er eine 28 £2 Sore ee tube e | ise Dime mek Lobes sre tse} BUCO ALLE echo SN CES ULL Sob cs MeO st ota obs ee te eects | ee aes eed Re reo Ed od a as cae oe Lae ieee sats] Med eh ee ee eee eee Gs EU ease ee ISBN 978-7-5619-2163-0 il 561"921630! I rerenes ? PaaS eae we TClee a a ee cae Ee Seo eee Oa elu) ey ertPER In Chinese and English yN EADS (esas) Se De wap A PRACTICAL CHINESE GRAMMAR FOR FOREIGNERS Revised Edition SRR BED / HB FR RBS / iT SURE / HSTTHE UNIVERSITY PRESS3 ene Bl (CIP) aa bE ASHE / PGE BRE MS. — 2h (f1T AS). — ALR ALCL AA ARAL, 2008. 8 ISBN 978-7-5619—2163—0 a BP Ah gp 1. OF @ FH Tl. WiR—- iE HINA — Hbt IV. H195.4 WAS PLB tH CIP RHF (2008) 3% 120366 6 at 2: PRE Gate: HBR: PEED: toARAaT : de: : www.blcup.com : BAF 82303650/3591/3651 PERAK RAL TERA KR 15S ADBHY 100083 BR 82303647 RSARBB 82303653/3908 POETIMIBIE 82303668 OPS 4=%5 service@blcup.net ICRBPBEAAIAS 2BRtHB5 AoA | HS 3 ud 2 DS | eB : 2008 8 ASS 1h 2008 F 8 ASS 1 2REDAl $50 Kx 1168 SK 1/32 EDK: AYE 20.75, HAM O.7S : BROMO FS, BIH IFS EMM: 1 — 30007F : ISBN 978-7-5619-2163-0/H-08152 60.00 76 ABMRARAIB, AMARA, BIR: 82303590417 iit AA AREY 1988 4E ARIE, EA 20 4E 7. RCIA EN Mi THEIL UA, WOAH TERA, ARE REARS, UAHA BADR PENT HE Bh oT EE MAE BARRE DU, ENG SSF HART, Bed AGE AS AS He NBS EF: A A EBL RI HEB VIE CE IR BUY LL, AN EHETT TTT. AR ACA AE ZEUE UTE Wo BUBTT , WT BAB SH, AEE —. BETBEKE IN, 1. FER — Ti EE TORE; 2. SMT RRB AN PA “INE TEL BEAR” 3. PAM T S26 Ba TAU He SE 4. BT RSA Di “Ay” HOBE MR 5. BN TRAM ead “3b” NODE 6. WEN TS EA UE SERN T PME RCI AG DRE He) HOA, @ME, BAIRD, EI, So, =) ROH “AESGE” OBER, WW EAE, A, MA ERA: 1. BETA AN ZEA REN] 2. mili) “BR” A “APsee ee . Sri) HE"; SEL cia MIE, SARIN “de” I” SRA . deatetenis A" ALE" Be AL ORE 10. Shia) “HR” AL“ EL" AREER M1. UR 12, RRUBKRNLIKE, Fy Ti, HME: 1 RAE, ERIE 2. ADEA, BaNN ] LiF the predicate. In the sentence 3€!, there is only the predicate, while in the sentence SKE? there is only the subject. Therefore the last two examples are called one-member sentences or non-subject-predicate sentences. One point which should be mentioned here is that in the Chinese language, not only verbs, but also other notional words, can function as the predi- cate. (=) fF Wy Sentence element 4a) Fe He be a a) BR — Fe TE KI. FEA HE EATEN REAR EB ial, BM FR, DU “FRA AAFP Ro, Bi: SEI, TRA, RB. TR. DEA ANE. GIES” RAR SAF: “FR fi)" AeA, “22-9” ALINT, “TBR” FERIA. TE “BR SR” PASH: EIR. WR. RIB, RAL Wik. WAPR: A sentence is composed of various words or phrases arranged accord- ing to certain grammatical relationships. These words and phrases in a sentence with certain grammatical functions are called sentence elements. Generally speaking, there are six sentence elements in Chinese; subject, predicate, object, attributive, adverbial adjunct and complement. For instance’, there are three elements in the sentence FJ UiRK. FA is the subject, 3#2J the predicate and #43 the object. In the sentence FUAIKS FJ HWE, there are five elements; subject, predicate, ob- ject, attributive and adverbial adjunct. ‘The sentence elements are shown in the following table;BASE Rl EARS TRB SY Subject part Predicate part iG | WIA BHiAl aR Subject | Predicate verb | Object aM | FA 2 SRB THE RB Subject part Predicate part SE Ti Sh a aR Subject Predicate verb Object EB we AEE Attributive Adverbial adjunct Attributive a wR | HA By Ris | ia 3 SEVa ERS TWERBSY Subject part Predicate part SER maa SB ~ | Subject Predicate verb Object ARE . ANB ei Adverbial adjunct Complement | Attributive , & ek. # (4) Ea as BE AAR FABER IAS BOL. WM RANT DIR” — 4fay, Few “BRA” “AAD” BE” SAAR. “RRR SVP TGR” "a, Far “RR “RR. “AB”, “WOR. “TERA” RON MAAR. Th “RAEI.” Wise ea “ER” “Re”. SAE” ORR “SOG”. “TERA” BEAN FUR 0 A word is the most basic language unit in making up a sentence. For example; the sentence “$&{{]9¢ J i# 3” is made up of 3 words: “Seq” “AA” “GWE”. While the next sentence “RAB ALY DUETAIK” is made up of 6 words “H”, “UHR”, “HA”, “AeA”, “UHH”, “HEY”. While the sentence “JEP DHE" is made up of another 6 words: “#2” “—98" “2E" “Kee” “ONG” “ig DEAS TASCA AEA AT ASS AEA A, SE AT HR E NTE, HEART AF sd. Bid, Hi, oh HW, Wane), BA, BOW. BAA, Wheat iy PAN AABIESE Al. HEI — A SHE E, IRL A a 98 IF My, BANS, Wie, Chinese words can be divided into two categories according to their meaning and grammatical function — notional words and auxiliary words. Notional words have actual meaning and can act as sentence elements in- dependently. Nouns, verbs, auxiliary verbs, adjectives, numerals, measure words and pronouns belong to this category. All the 10 words in the above 3 sentences are notional words. While function words do not have actual meaning and can not be used alone as sentence elements. Prepositions and auxiliary words are in this category. (a) wet Phrase TALE ARR — EEA SRA). ALLA 5ASEFAIEENE | a SEV, BUSS. WETS. PAN “ FRR EE 3" ay,“ PURR” Fl “DTA” ABE al HE EAL, “BED” WED AYMIE MA, “EI VGEEIR” Sah ze ial Hl “HR” Al “DUR” ABTA, “BN” FR. A phrase is a combination of words arranged according to certain grammatical rules. There are the subject-predicate (S-P) phrase, the verb-object (V-O) phrase, the endocentric phrase, etc. For example: in the sentence “FRANKS AS DIA” , “PURER” and “NUR 34” are both nominal endocentric phrase. “4%” and “37H” both serve as the attributive; “3% j35J” is a verbal endocentric phrase modified by the adverbial adjunct “$y”. “3% JiR” is a Verb-Object phrase. SUG DUE A) FA OTL Z HA ASE AA PE EHF The types of Chinese sentences and the relationship between them are illustrated briefly in the following graph; a F Sentence ty | Zt | Simple sentence Complex sentence aE a) ay iE E1)) . Aes ‘ow-member sentence | | One-member sentence Clause (G-P sentence) (Non-S-P sentence) (Simple sentence) DURAN EB AE: The main characteristics of Chinese grammar; 6(—) TF, BADE. Word order plays a major role in Chinese language. TAP RDA RA ie RRR NAEP RS, Mia F ‘eA ASE: EU GH) ER, WIRES, Bi CEA i) ATER IA CP OIE) BT; MAME (oh WRBAIA) Rw. The basic sentence~pattern of Chinese language is: the subject comes first, verbs follow. The modifier, be it attributive or adverbial, must be placed before the modified word, while the complement is always placed after the verbs. Pay attention to the following graphs; BPWWEtR: ASHE EWE) Modifier (attributive ) Bt (Hub) Modified word HHBPAR, BERT, HOTA MBIA, Different word order brings different meaning. Same words, but two different persons. (eM CRIB) BEMIS (Hulls) Modifier (adverbial adjunct) Modified word HR HI BR Reith un aha Main word ‘Complement a ee ra (FE) RH & —KA= (1.82m) aSRA SEDGE a FERN PN, Palin) “AB” AEB “OR” Ea JERR, BwaK—. / Look at the following two sentences. Because the order of the adver- bial “8” and “#K” changes, the meaning changes completely : RN ABA HK. (Fea “HAT” PBA — PA) RA] AAR A. (He “BAN” BPAHAK, FARE) DOE HY Si COAT RAEN MMB ASE, AR AUR HR. IY. HE. BRATS. CELE TEU, ARI ARR. HES. KR. NMSA AR, iS HVES ARR. Atk, TE GER. Unlike the verbs in Indo-European language, there is no strict mor- phological change in Chinese language. The form of a verb remains un- changed under all circumstances. Differences in person, gender, number or time do not require changes in the form of a verb, which makes the word order even more important; Lai “O" abl, AP RIMM: Take the verb “4” as the example: look at the following four sen- tences ; 1 & Fe 2 4, Ko 3 Fe4i1 | 2 [RRQ 4 aR we $a, RE As Ho SURES AR, TERIA, ARMS, (Hebi “ie” WERAGRRS Though the subjects vary in their gender and number, the verb “z” stays the same.— coe ee RE PE Fe ah ia “AY” AERA IRAE. al: This can be illustrated by one further example. The form of the verb £5] also remains unchanged with any time reference. For example: REF HIG, ——HitA (Referring to the past) RREF IRB, 44IL# (Referring to the present) RAF ET AB, ——444$K (Referring to the future) (=) AE EEE BE The use of “function word” also plays the important role in Chinese language. ATMA. Ail, MI), Bi, ML, BAIA), Beek FPA ALAR TDI BR, (ELE hb Ay TE BET HE JA. PlanBhial “A” AST” Aoi A The term “function word” refers to adverbs, prepositions, conjunc- tions and particles, interjections and onomatopoes. They do not carry concrete lexical meaning, but grammatically, they play a very important role. Take the “function word” “f¥j” and “7” for example; xRH. (Rit AGE 9h 85 BBS) (It is meaningless in Chinese. ) RH. (AR NBRTR HEB, (Means “I own this book. ” ) RBA. (ARB, Me: EAB.) (Means “I am planning on writing a letter.” or “I am writing a letter.” ) RST HE. (AF LBSET.) (I have written a letter. ) (]) maMmie The use of measure words DGB AE EE, PM, area — 9SPA SBOE i fi, RABAT, HN RERUN. DEE AERA E I, ASHER AR. SOPRA, ERT NY FA LE BEME, BEE SE Dy WUCAE IA. Another feature of modern Chinese is the wide array of measure words, which indicate the specific unit or measure of things or actions. The use of measure words is obligatory, extensive and complicated. It is not easy for foreigners to learn all those measure words. He has to learn them one by one. SALMO TILA F922 Ta; Take the following measure words for example ; Di PER, BPE, Set KR: -KRT, ARLA, ERR qe: —RHF, Ate, Kia A: —AH, BAWMR, CARH BAILA es FES dBA Here are another two examples; ki RAK, FMBK 38: Ai, THB, Fs ANZ, MPRA RE, BEE — Fh Se BE FY Ae ind BET AL HD AES, MA ARA RES , Wma, MLE WEA. Fir BAP EA REET ED TEENA HOE, ESOL, PASE AMBAMET . To sum up, it is not easy for foreign learners to remember all those measure words, to master a method of word formation and sentence con- struction which relies mainly on word order and function words, but it must be done. It is hoped foreign learners will strive hard to grasp the characteristics of Chinese grammar. 10TB et A — A ic, ARR AB HEAR. DURHAM EW, SEMA. Mi AER TE, TANS, WA PHARAMT RATE a. MAM: AL Ry BR, SE. WWM: Wik, BIT. WR A, SH. win: ATE. AIRE, SE. DURA ak FABRA, WAM AEA ei, Ol. “ORE” “WE AS”, “BEE EE” ALE”, “CR” A “BEAL ‘A word is the smallest meaningful unit in a language, and is used as the basic material to express ideas. If a word is represented by a single syllable, we call it a monosyllabic word. If a word is represented by two syllables, we call it a dissyllabic word. Words composed of three or more syllables are called polysyllabic words. In writing, a syllable is a charac- ter. So a monosyllabic word is represented by one character, a dissyllabic word by two characters, and a polysyllabic one by more than two charac- ters. For example: A, #&, 43, 3%, etc. are monosyllabic words; 2X iSPBASOUGHE ii, EIT, WH, MAH, etc. are dissyllabic words: AFA, ATK 4g, etc. are polysyllabic words. There are a few characters which are meaningless by themselves and they must be combined with other charac- ters to make up words, e. g. in the word #j4j (grapes) , neither #j or i carries any meaning by itself, HE and # in #EEE as well as Bk and HY in 3234 are all such cases. B ansx Classification of Words DUBE BT DAG RSA ALP AS, SATS al, , Wahl, BA, Ril, MAAC, MATA) Wel i, Arial, EW, DW, MM AM MAB, PRT =HAAYL Sh, BAAR, BAe ial ALI Fe AP HT WL SY. BUSS MNF (SUBS 14 3) In Chinese, words can be divided into two kinds; notional words and function words. Nouns, verbs, auxiliary verbs, adjectives, numer- als, measure words and pronouns belong to the notional word category; adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, particles, interjections and onoma- topes belong to the function word category. Besides, there are two kinds of affixes, namely , prefixes and suffixes. A table of parts of speech is given below: (p. 14) B ines Conversion of parts of speech — BORG, AMAA HUF —MaZ. (a SET fe eR PRU LMM AE. Bin “A” i, HE UR R o ai, CE ATER T” peat], HM “HA”, PE eh — 3 12en awe | wa 26" eH faahinl, 4e “SERNA” Piseshial, Ma “A” — iW, ESAS SE” DEBS, RMHKS MB K: WE “EAR TUL, 2 “BEM” WORE. BRL “ORE” i) WIM: WAHAB, Add, HARMAN LARA Tr ARIE. Normally a word belongs to a certain part of speech. But some words have the grammatical function of two of more parts of speech. Here are two examples; For example; the word “783” is used as a noun in “i ABZ” , while it is used as a verb in “fh ART”. The word “45” is used as a verb in the sentence “#4 4h—-X45” while “#4” is a preposi- tion in the sentence “244&{']Jt24”. In the phrase NASER, EF is an adjective, meaning “rich”, while in the phrase HAA, 4H becomes a verb meaning “to enrich”. In this case, =£ 7% belongs to two different parts of speech; adjective and verb. This is called conversion of parts of speech, i. e. they belong to different parts of speech without any change in form. Ae AR EA A, Ce EN Td, (ES FEMA MBA A, AWA, MN “RAND” AL “22S” Bin) “AA” AbeahiAl. If the meaning of a word in different sentences remains unchanged, it is not considered conversion although it has different functions. For example; $247] 5) and #5) 4832, in both sentences, £5) is a verb. 13SPB ASDA WMIBWMAR Chinese Parts of Speech WRB Names al ge Nouns (Ss mia 5 Verbs % Auxiliary verbs fe @ Bik & RRA Adjectives Hk ROE PAR A sia -~ 22+ ate Numerals a 2 itial NKR MH RAR AR ° tial Nominal & Measure words tial ‘ke Verbal =| * 8 #7 ARR GAL . ‘ Tk Re ae Ne (ial fattial . Pronouns | Demonstrative | & AG meta | a, Interrogative | # #t& GAA — 14BR aA y HA Names Examples Alia Adverbs ho Mh wR HR CBR Sia Khe kB H Prepositions ei i Conjunetions fe ae HF OR BA RK Sra whi Structural | #2 3% # | wid | aap | & | Pasticles | Aspectual | * % % AUDA "Modal Boek Tt ial , Interjections e te eB RA Onomatopes ee BR | ia . > Prefixes Rne ge 8 _ WR ; Suffixes MF Be KR | FSS — ANB, Now we shall deal with each part of speech separately. 15SPBASADGR BW Hill EY SECTION | NOUNS —. Bide MK Definition BRARP YA Po il 2 8). A word denoting the name of a person or thing is called a noun. oO REZANAABL, MAYARUPSR: Nouns can be grouped into the following kinds according to meaning ; © SAA (AHAA, WH. AB, HAS): Proper nouns (including names of countries, places, persons, etc. ). For example; SR tae BT ea Phe BEAR CRD © HANSA: Nouns of personal reference: AK WR KR. LA Be © HAMA: Nouns of animate things; fa He BH © RRA A A: Nouns of inanimate objects; 2 £ ih AF HU BUR ea SER Ri © RRWNAPWNA: Nouns of abstract things; Rik WGA AG © RRMA MAA: Nouns of time; kK Be TA 16RE WK % AOA Pim RE RK © RTA: Nouns of locality ; EF i 2 WB A bw Jam We Pn =, Sait Grammatical features (—) Bini A), ILA: Generally a noun can be preceded by a numeral-measure word com- bination. For example: A aE KE _ ef (=) ACR RESE RN AHE HH. A noun cannot be modified by adverbs. (=) SCH EGA) WT 4 TE, eR AR” RS; MARISTA, Gildan: Some monosyllabic nouns can be reduplicated to express the mean- ing of “every”. In such cases, there is no need for measure words. For example: KK (BA) Seat (4) RR (HK) (BE) BAM ASAT LUMA “11”, fem. Gl: The suffix {[] can be added to a personal noun to express the plural. For example ; - Wise way BN RN CH) MPSA aE eh Zea aE PL” ak “Sh” FRAG. Pil: 17SPRL SE ADE a i ~ Some nouns are composed of a noun or verb with a suffix J, JL or 3k. For example: KF WF RP OF HL Wl Rl RIL BX KK TX BK =. Sanh Functions ARI TAB HY DAZED F BCE. SET ARETE Normally a noun can serve as subject, object and attributive in a sentence. (=) eaeiz. « As the subject. JRE BRR, AR, BAAS, Rie (=) GRR. As the object. RAR. DUEL Po PRE BL BETH BETE AG i, KAO, : (=) fieeia. As an attributive. we BH. REKAAW ALR. RBA AMES AIRE 2 32 FH HAHEI EFEX JLo (WY) fie. As the predicate. SRR. HER ZI A. 18How D. CASAS ERM Lae Points that merit special attention (—) Sins BA “AT” The plural form of nouns and the suffix {IJ DUA AIA IES BH RH, RATT Sis LNA A RSA: Usually the singular and plural forms of a noun are identical and the plural is expressed in three ways: 1. BAUMAN RARA RASA. Pili: By premodifying numeral-measure words or other words implying the plural. For example: ZRWE AR SOKA TENET eG 2. BHIF SRR RR. Hild: ‘By other elements in the sentence. For example: BAACKT AWSEAF Lo 3. nna “1” By suffixing {f] to the noun BAMA an “AT Ja, Zia eR eal To “41” BB. RRIF: By suffixing “{f]”, which is pronounced in the neutral tone, to the noun. When thus used, no other words expressing the plural number can be used. For example; 19SPA SADE IER rs) arene x Shae JAN x SLM AN RSME x ARS A RY AE x BET (=) KF Ha Time nouns 1. WEMERRAM, MR, SHSHR. ‘Time nouns are nouns indicating dates, times of the clock, seasons, etc. 2. ATR TREE. RIB, EMIS, BARAK BH, M-RAAFRARTHE. Pin: Apart from serving as subject, object, altributive and predicate, time nouns can also serve as adverbial adjuncts, whereas nouns of other kinds cannot. For example; UHR. {HAT KB, RRLES BH EATEII. (=) KFA Nouns of locality 1. AMAARTARDRUENZA. WAAR ET, W EHP. AEGAN: (SU 21 FR) Nouns of locality are nouns showing direction and location. There are two kinds of them: the monosyllabic ones and the dissyllabic ones. Examples of nouns of locality are shown in the table; (Table p. 21) 2. Fi he The function of nouns of locality 20aie | wae PTI BI SOR Te MLA — 1d A WALA, LRT RG WCE TA. SET ARE Sb, EAT LA WCRES Bin: Monosyllabic nouns of locality are seldom used by themselves. Dis- syllabic nouns of locality can serve, roughly like ordinary nouns, as sub- ject, object and attributive, only that they can function as adverbial ad- juncts as well. For example; EWA, BUNT. WLW Dissyllabic ao Monos- |i “ide” Erte “EG” |AIM “LA” fT “Ze ] Feb, yllabic Followed Followed Preceded Preceded Miscel- by id by if by LA by z laneous £ bn ii BLE ZE LF ¥ Fu Fi DE ZF Je Ww ta iinet buat Zit Wa a ra Jalil Dus 2a \ ze Fei Zeist \ \ A a Hw a \ \ \ # By Zi vu \ ob db Bb SP ii bub \ \ h \ \ \ ze rh vi \ \ DA ZA w5h ta \ \ \ 2 Ta B co] \ \ \ \ ES A ail WK \ AH, ARAL i ra wa wai \ \ cy Bia Pan vin \ Biwi, tt at de Atta wae \ \ 21SHEAR DGS | 3. ERR: Points that merit special attention; CL) Seri “Hn” AE aa. MN: Monosyllabic noun of locality 4! and _ are usually used after other nouns. For example; BY2 Bre Be FE RR BE (2) “HE Gi)” AY ARR: The use of #2 (ii): BRUTE “Tee BO” AOR, BAER“ Ga)” WY BEHI TIA. We should pay attention to the use of 1 (3/1), when it is used to express the meaning of {£++++- FEL, OH RURAL “HB Gh)”. Bin JB (31) cannot be used after nouns indicating geographical units. For example: RAL x Fetes G4). RAKE, x HbA (1) QRRWHNE REE “HH GH)”. BM: 41 (i) can be used after nouns indicating containers. For example; [#emae, x BACHE. ae hae. | x AREER 3) AAT EBA, WEASUIUER ERD Sri] “He”. BAM: Nouns of locality can be used as various elements of a sentence. When a noun of locality serves as the subject or adverbial adjunct in a 22ERE sentence, the preposition 7£ is not used before it. For example: LHA-RBE, Fd RN EE 0 There are no such forms as #£ 1! (i —2RWE, TESLA AYES , ete. “SEB” fe “RB A” AR. AR 3A” © SGEHGHA means HLF LAK. One cannot say Me7e HU AK. (4) “DAT” Al “UU” UFR: How to use LA and LUE: Theil “Ua” A “Lue” RAB seASAt TA. The nouns of locality Lif and LA} are generally used to indicate time. Ofperiz As an adverbial adjunct ROWE, BEI. CHE EH) (LAR is between the subject and the predicate. ) AB TK CHEM, SET) (LAJai is at the beginning of the sentence. ) Oita iz As attributive WN FRA ELV HTT. Oru WAzIE. There can be attributives before “Lil”. DV (BATA T 0) 23SPAS ADC oe LR (BUTT 2) (WY) Aina Rei “AY (de)” Nouns serving as attributives and the structural particle {J (de) 1. EH-ESRAREHAP LE (SABA) Wid. ‘ld : The attributive must be placed before the modified word (normally a noun). For example; SBME? BA] C “a, “OPE” Seid, emia, “eu “A” ee ia, Set ie.) (4 and [J are nouns serving as altributives while ii and are nouns used as modified words. ) PALATE 0 2. REARARNAHEBRWEAH “WH”. BM: The structural particle ff should be used after an attributive com- posed of a noun indicating the possessive relation. For example; Ze FTE bo FBHB.8S HF ILZL HY 0 3. Wid, MEME ABI “AS”. BM: When words of time or of locality serve as attributives, [J is normal- ly used. For example; EZ IA— HES, Wi ORAL BE (BE) Zia seis Nouns used as adverbial adjuncts IE ECM PIR (Awaba) Hi. MN: The adverbial adjunct must be placed before the modified word (normally a verb). For example: 24aa FS FEAR? ( “WAR” RASTA], SEAR; “OR” Feahial, AeA Bo) (WIR is noun of time used as the adverbial adjunct and 3€, a verb, is the modified word. ) HAMIL. ( “Hon” Zaina, ARTE; “GR” dahil, 24 Lif.) (834 is a noun of locality functioning as adverbial ad- junct modifying #&, a verb used as modified word. ) (A) SRAM ERMA, AAG “HE” Soi, fal : There are a few nouns which can serve as predicate without using the verb J. For example: HERP RK. SRE WKAZ, (+o) ENT AS RARE RE. Bild: The reduplication of monosyllabic nouns can only be used as the subject or adverbial adjunct. For example: AMA LHF CRETE) (as the subject) FMA CEI) (as the subject) {BRAK CORE) (as the adverbial adjunct) CN) 44 The noun 4: 25SPB ASADGETER : i FOUR, “He” Reet. Gla: In Chinese, 4 is only a measure of time. For example: PREC OOM Fo fh2O OFF MF AMF Bo oil aE SECTION I! VERBS —. BANE MH Definition and types of verbs (=) BNE. TFA, OES, AREY a aha, ‘lan: Words indicating actions, behaviour, mental activities, changes and developments, etc. are called verbs. For example: © Rate: Verbs indicating actions: 45 hw RW © BATA: Verbs indicating behaviour: fon RE WY nt At © AHORA: Verbs indicating mental activities; % i Mo Bk A AU © BMRB: Verbs indicating changes and developments; AOE HER RU BEAK FEM © RH. TH. AEN: 26BE Verbs expressing judgement, possession, existence: te A > Bm: Verbs indicating direction; bP #& th # XY WK K (=) SADE AREER, Verbs can be grouped into two kinds according to whether they take an object. 1. Rowa Transitive verbs Wee VA Bee Sei AN) Bh Ta mY Je yh i Verbs which can be followed immediately by an object are called transitive verbs. Q) HARM RTE. GMM: Verbs taking only one object. For examp! aia Se Verbs Objects 5 4B = KE ca ee By Me FF oF HR Me ke % BR es 5 Ht # x ¥ RR ER. AM RF | i) RS obi Re Ae (2) DRA AAT SIE. BAN : Verbs taking two objects. For example; 27SHAS AOE | . eee nig BBL (BA) SB 2 (SHED) a Object 1 (of personal Object 2 (of non- Verbs reference) personal reference) & XR : # & AA Ri tal ENR . Aa Sie | set tt 2. RRMA Intransitive verbs FUE BBA RM AY AR Yahi, PM: Verbs which cannot immediately take an object are called intransi- tive verbs. For example: © hea: Monosyllabic verbs; oe ME fA © MHA: Dissyllabic verbs ; AR WO PRA BCH RHE =. Mia RRA ° Grammatical features (—) DUBAI ATE There is no strict morphological change in Chinese language. DUE BAN BRAAEN , BAERS ARR. HERI, BE MS. PSN: The form of a verb remains unchanged under all circumstance. Differences in person, gender, number of time do not require changes in the form of a verb. For example: 28— . Row REAF. BANS Ko Sh Eb. {188 ERK. HUTTE AA. UES UE TESCE BARUIK 85 A TA. F/M RS Dis PGES WIAA ok EPA EBA A ERR ILE. (=) SRG LAR, Most of verbs can take objects. (=) S8ah A aay DBA “TB”. Gt”. Bid: The aspectual particles [ (le), ## (zhe), it (guo) can be suffixed to most verbs. For example: 1. shi + Bhi “7” RARMER A 5k Verb + “7” —to indicate the completion of an action RAT AAEM. (BABES) I have read a very interesting novel 2. Hi + Shia “eB” BARD EPEAT MRS ESE Verb + “#” —to indicate the continuous state of an action LE BLY. CIEFE ) He is reading a novel. BPA. (MLFIFARA) ~ The window is still open. 3. mid + Bhi “it” RAAESRAR SAB Verb+ “it” —to express an action as past experience RAAT. (MIUBMAR) Ive seen this movie (and I know what it is about). (EB) SVT AAAS. GA: Various complements can occur after verbs. For example: 29SEL AFA | i Mts HF GEM RAUL WR HR WR RAR (2) she Rei. Bilin: Verbs can be preceded by various modifiers. For example ; wi awh RR HE ARETE FRR fet ARDY BRI ee- CK) Bees eah ian JB se Mid “AN” BR “BE CAT)” 0 ‘Bilt: Verbs are negated by the negative adverbs 7K or & (4). For ex- ample: RFE. EAA Bo WATER bo {hi (AT) Ho (bt) KDA UE, WES A BRIA ABAB, fal: Many verbs can be used reduplicatively; the reduplicative form for dissyllabic verb is ABAB. For example; Bibi A OR O\) HEATERS (RUIFA BRM ER) HART. fli: The affirmative-negative questions can be formed by putting the af- firmative and negative forms together. For example; BREA? BEARVE? FLAS SE? HEA TIC? AWA? CQ) S240, BAAR TUM “he” acaba, ‘fold : Some nouns and adjectives can be tumed into verbs by adding the suffix {{, to them. For example; 30Bia Nouns 2. Adjectives yan 1 wR _ Ba ww ayia Verbs kit ute SLR =. wie Functions (—) {GRRE As a predicate. SAW ER AGEL WORE. Bid: Verbs mainly function as the predicate. For example; Ble. RA as. (=) CEI. As a subject. FIER DP REE (=) eeia. As an attributive. XE BMI TK 31 WATE. EMA 0 HORM HREZAR., FABER IL.SNBLASCAUGEHERE | a RBI + HAART (BD) esis. As an object. MLE WHS Fo SLEPT Ho RAKIM. (B) haha. As a complement. WER. RAL. KREME. FAMBA Bo (WA) BERR. As an adverbial adjunct. Ahi SHU RARE th. A. CAoANnBSPEHLT ae Points that merit special attention (—) ahi “2” The verb f& 1. ap OR" RAI The verb £ has the following meanings C1) ARAL. Bilan: To express judgement. For example; RAHA. SRABWA {th BIT. (2) SAFE. PIA: To express existence. For example: UME. DBI RHE. FI ZH 0 32Ra | (3) RAR. Pid: To denote classification. For example; DBA, RAT. MOAT EAB TEBE 0 ABE EAC HEN. 2. “8” MibK ER Grammatical features (1) “28” ARB ARR RABE oN TE, JRA AB Ooh AS BD HA “T. Hit”. & is not an action verb, therefore it can not be followed by J, & or it (2) “8” JEN IBAFAME. The verb J cannot followed by complements. (3) “3k” BRERA. J& cannot be reduplicated. (4) “JE” ARIES “AR”, Bd: The negative form of J is 7XJ&. For example: RRRLWGA. FRMTIARRA MHRA LA (=) ahi “A” The verb 4 1. a" SFB Functions of the verb # C1) RRS. Plan: To express possession. For example; RAFI. SATB Te {har i. (2) RARFeTES ilu: To express existence. For example; 33SRA SADE | - BEAK. RLAB. REFIT. (3) FARA. Bi: To give a list of things. For example: RWUKARBA, PRA, RBA, AAA. BEART, AMT, AT, AHF. (4) RaRAa. HM: To express inclusion. For example: —BATITA —TEWMAER. RELATE. (S) ARE) (FEDS) o HN: To express the meaning of reaching a certain quantity. For example: BLEKRA EAST AF BOMFATT. KILAAFERZASER. RBMSIEAAPAR + RE KE (6) “8” ALR Leh ial, RUB AIT, ZAR TE RARER, HGTV BEM AEE. PAM: 4% can take abstract nouns to make adjective phrase, pre-modified by adverb adverbial adjuncts. {RA (very experienced) 4B AANA (very knowledgeable) 4RA LA (very interesting) 4A 4B (very hopeful) (7) Abt “A” AT LARANIZTE. Bi: Sometimes # can make a general reference; A—K (one day) ATH; (some place) 34HEH WA (8) “4” ATLA ABE. Hila: “4g” can also be used for comparison. For example: {HA EEA T o SREAMWAKMBAM. 2. 8" BRR Grammatical features of the verb #4 QC) “A” AABHR. AZ cannot be reduplicated. (2) “i” ARETE “UA”. alan: The negative form of # is BL4{. For example; RAAF. BBRAAS Ree ABT TA]. PULA BAIT. (=) shin) “4” The verb 7£ 1. “4” AYRE Functions of the verb 7£ C1) ahi “4e" Ravteteo pilin: The verb 7£ expresses existence. For example; {WEAR A WEE REARET « (2) shin) “Ze” Zea eee. ShBr. plan: To indicate location. For example: BMBRo PATTER HT Bee 2. “He” WR Grammatical features of the verb #£ C1) “4e” RARE MBAS BIA] “Ta. Et”. The aspectual particles {, 2% or xt cannot be used after 7. 35SHAS DG | i (2) “te” AABTR. 4£ cannot be reduplicated. (3) “48” WEIL TPL: The object of 7E generally indicates a place. For example: REZ IAR. SVK TEMB IL HLTEX A] 0 FARETESE JL. BAMA IAA REMIT “HE” MRE, eI -E “BOL” Be “HBL”. Bilin: Nouns or pronouns of personal reference cannot be used as objects of 4€ unless 3XJL or SJL are added to them. For example; {BERGE IL, RRFEM A ABIL. (W) RSA Verbs and objects 1 RYDATAGRE, SHAAEMARIBHREB fin : Transitive verbs can take objects, but this is not necessarily always the case. For example; fh DDG. ( “TUR” A “SES” AUR) (DUE is the object of 443. ) See BD, ( “AE” ANAS) (In this sentence , 242J has no object. ) DELTA A DABRL ‘There are only a very small number of verbs in Chinese that must have an object. 2 MANRBERXLEBRSY. Hin: The collocation of a verb and its object must be logical. For exam- ple; 36ae nas BATH. Rika FIA) . 3. BASIN AMIARIRF “8. BR. BR. fe. BB i), BIS. Sik, A” Sais. pi: ‘There are only a few verbs that can take two objects, among them are , 36, WH, 1H, wh, A, Al, EIS, iF, TM ete. For ex- ample; Wha TE {ths RR (EME BAN SSA. 4. SEMAPETR A. file: Heb, To. Some verbs cannot be followed by any objects, among them are 4¢ ML, i&FF ete. BERR BL Pk T Ee Ss thse 45 5 5. FEM ARMARIB, MS. ITH. Some verbs can only be followed by verbs as objects, such as #2, 4TH etc. thar BERK AR. RPAH. (EL) SEEM AEM APE, TET EA eae ea “Pk. FRG. AUR” ZN SHALE. PALAU: A verb can be used as subject on condition that the predicate of the sentence must be an adjective or a verb expressing the ideas of “stop, start or judgement”. For example; : THER RK. PERI. BUF. IBMT VASE TBA CA) Sa ACE 1B BUR TB AY A dd “a” Be” Bian: fi) or J must be added to a verb used as an attributive or adverbial adjunct. For example ; 37SRE AS CO eR DES RAKGMHIAL ABS IEBE: OREM” 6 Cb) BRO Aaah Baha ERE. lh: Verbs of mental activities can be modified by adverbs of degree. For example; ARIK Paw BLE seal OV Faia Reduplications of verbs 1. BRWRIRS Formulas and pronunciation of the reduplicated verbs (1) Feet. AA, Biin: ‘The reduplicative formula for monosyllabic verbs is AA. For example: vE—EBE A$ Ab (2) Rishi WHALE: ABAB pilin: The reduplicative formula of dissyllabic verbs is ABAB. For example; YY—EYA eat ay eat (3) Tea ies arial BEE The reduplicated part is in the neutral tone. 2 BEMATNER, MaRS Verbs that can be reduplicated and verbs that cannot “ (1) Fema. FNNOSNALTT AR. fal: Verbs of actions and behaviour can be reduplicated. For example: We bhie—itigitie #—_ EE #78} fa] —fa} fa] YS —$§$ Wee a 38Sa | 2) FARR AMT we. PilaN: Verbs of positive thinking can be reduplicated. For example; RF BR BR BAT — AAT G3) FRULRWAAREES The following kinds of verbs cannot be reduplicated: A. RDA, WM, RAE, BK” He Verbs expressing mental activities, such as }H, #eHe, BK, etc. B. ZN RRR, AN “AE, BOR. FPR” RS Verbs expressing change or developments, such as 4E, JB, Jf etc. C. Feafete. AUT. STAIN, WU “HE, He. RA” Verbs expressing existence, judgement, possession, ete. , such as fe, &R, A, ete. D. seni, gn “i. La, ME” RS Verbs showing directions, such as #2, it, Hi, HE, etc. 3. HABE MRL Implications of reduplicated verbs C1) RRSVEAD METAL. aN: The reduplication of a verb implies a short and quick action. For ex- ample: Mea, LPAGRESS SH, RA Ph. (2) RARER. Blin. It expresses an attempt or a trial. For example; WES, VEN? UBER, BORE RR. 39TRAST (3) #mseih. Gil It expresses a sense of being light and relaxed. For example; PREM, WL eae, SUUA, RES, eeaeRMK. PRES, ALARA RR. Boke (4) RAMEE fila: It expresses meaning in a circumlocutory tone. U8 BARE! FRA GIE! 4. FBSR,. Points that merit special attention; C+) Salsas, ATRIA, ARTA. pM: In a verb-object construction, only the verb and not the object, can be reduplicated. For example; BUMEAF , Upiaiaih, ( “SiF” All “Sh” ARIE, AN AEBEEE) (5&F and 4 are objects which cannot be reduplicated. ) (2) MPshiiamt, HAT “—", RA, BY WEB, Pm RREM “—", pla: When monosyllabic verb is used reproductively, “—” can be in- serted in between the two parts without changing the original meaning. But this rule does not apply to the dissyllabic verbs. For example: RBI Bie x WERE RAL x RG (3) RARE “T” Aiea te Ha ny lah ep Fl, WAKER AMAZE. pilin: The aspectual particle J must be placed between the two parts of the reduplicated yerb. It can never be placed after the reduplicated verb. 40BH For example: HbA T BRIE T o x fA a T BRIE To RAT AGH. xRBE TBA. KEMRET Ro x KERERKET PAPEL TPA x PTR To _ Ba By oh il Gl SECTION Ill AUXILIARY VERBS —. Maa eX Definition AEODSUAAAR ATE. TOMER Tal BH SDI, HLT BL A ail, gal: Verbs which “help” other verbs to express necessity, possibility and willingness are called auxiliary verbs or modals. For example: © RAMEE, AEH: Those expressing capability: fe fhe OF © ART AEH: Those expressing possibility : fe he 2 WH whe o AR LEM, Those expressing necessity by reason; me my RB © RRUBH: ° Those expressing obligation : DBR 9% (dei) 41SMBASADGRR ae © AHEM: Those expressing willingness; z H KR Kk F =. DRAHBAA Grammatical features (—) Be eriasniWawe aA. pla: Auxiliary verbs are often used to modify verbs or adjectives. For ex- ample; RABE 1H FE 0 AEE DR (—) Bee esa A] “OR”, PIM: They are negated by 78. For example: RESUME. RA ETP {HAR BEABIL (=) WHERE. fil: ‘The affirmative-negative question is formed by putting together the affirmative and negative forms of an auxiliary verb. For example: UR REAR REE? {HBR BE? REBAR BERK? (BB) fete Aah Te. fd: They can answer questions by themselves. For example; PREEARRIEZE? fo {HES EAS RE REI Bh 82 BE. (HE) FRB. They cannot be reduplicated. CA) Jaanhemahasaiid “TT. #. et". ‘The aspectual particles J, #7 or “2. D>” BEEN A IN, HRA AU A ALOR” UE" MRS", AORN “HH”. Bt # and /> must be combined with #f$ or 7S to serve as attributives modifying nouns, and it is not necessary to use fi after 424 and AU, For example: ABIES A. x SABA SA AS RTA RRNA. x STEN ASMERT RAO, x SRPEKT BOREL, | SF RMRT AIT, x STAI IU, | eunne “aR” HORRY Here 4B does not express a high degree. OW BAR. te. TE, Mm, ASE SE Repent WE, SueBREIE. olm, a 56Bae wa Adjectives such as 8, %, JE, iil, ASE, FETA, etc. , gener- ally can only function as attributive, but not predicate. For example: BRF %kKE £40 HAW BREE FAB Xa: Here is another example; KEATS RFA—THKEF “AS. BR HE, A” RADA aD. Pid: The adjectives /$, 4, iME and #f are normally used with animals and plants. For example: 2H8 cock 43% female rabbit (doe) 3846 pistillate flower #8Z§__androecium PABA GUE eM, REA “HY”. file: When the noun is absent, the particle AJ must be used after this kind of adjectives. For example: BH #605 JER ME — 69 Ran: Here is another example; ISTBAAZCE, BBE, WAH, PASS IT, ATLAS “BR” Be “te” Only when filling forms, people use “3” or “4” separately. 57SAS, Bh ia EEE) SECTION V NUMERALS —. RANE Definition RAE NM Sa. BSA Words representing numbers are called numerals. Following are the basic ones: -@) =) =(3) W(4) # (5) A (6) (7) A (8) WY) + (10) a + Ai 1% = (0) W =. MANERA Grammatical features (—) BSW RT WAS EER PL, The above basic numerals can be combined with some words to re- present various kinds of numbers. 1. BR Whole numbers AEA IRCA EAL A Re BALE: The basic numerals can be combined to represent whole numbers. For example; +> (1) +A (16) =t (30) —BAt+E (145) =TEt+ (3 070) —FARFEA=+ (15 320) 58Bae 2. FRR Ordinal numbers C1) Baa bik “os” ALA ANIUF. BAN: Ordinal numbers can be formed by placing the prefix 5 before nu- merals. For example; R- Fo Bt+o WP-ASA (2) AGS UBS PK. MLN However numerals can be put directly before nouns to act as ordinal numbers. Following are some common instances: KY GRP) “3B” JE — MPR EGBA], ECR} — , (EEA — AERA AR SESH. 2, meaning “half” , is a special numeral which is not always used in the same way as an ordinary numeral. 1. S36" ARE BINFE 4 A)F MRA. It can not be used in isolation. 2. “+” BAERAN. iM: It is often put before a measure word. For example: #8 (BD) (haa) IK (AB) Fe) i CE) (Fm) 3. 3" BARB. pilin: It often follows a “whole number + measure word” sequence. For example; RF adtRK Sie GB 5%) BAR star) 71SABA SSO 4. “3? Bp NE ia “—" ae", MR “AE” “HE”, HAFSANEA, TARXAERMD. EMRE M “—" eG” 5 PAM: Numeral — or P§ can be added before >, for example; —2¢ or J 2, which are used as nouns and can act as a sentence element. Atten- tion; only — and 9 can be put before 2. For example: KAR FH, MEH, XARA (=. We ) +, MEAs. K- FER, IFA. xKOFERH, ARE. KMERD RAE, KF, RF, xSP QL) BCE ARRAN, WER RAED, BEEZ) Bo PMN: Multiple numbers are used to show increases. When we wish to ex- press a decrease, we use fractions. For example: APR T 4s, WAT pz, One can never say HY lH] 44 F —f. RTT EP ERD T APSA, There is no such form as-WiA>T HI}Z— A (or Bit). (+) ABI, HO OL" “bh. "Se HOTTIE. Bld: JL is often combined with +-, Hf, +, Ji, ete. to ask about amount or quantity. For example; SEU HRT IL (8)? WRIA LH? IBLE ABA UB A? UA TRE! T UF RRB? 72FEHR RAPALES? thE “Beeb” Fetal, Gdn: 27> is also often used in questions like; RSL? WTA LIT $ PR? (1+—) RSI, RSUEBISHE, JARI, ARIE, L pansy, « — » ae —» sa RABIE SAL”, BBR “AS”. In reading a fraction, the denominator always precedes the numera- tor, as Fis read —4}2X—, not APA. SAA _ fk _id LEE SECTION VI MEASURE WORDS —, RAMEN Definition BART AMY a) A a, HEAT FT LAS} RK Words indicating counting units are called measure words. There are two kinds of them; (—) 4a) Nominal measure words BARA, Minho Ziti, plan: Nominal measure words are those indicating units of persons or things, such as; > ERO: Measure units; JK BR OK) 73SPBASUGHE ci AST Ing © RM: Monetary units; we (CR) fi (&) © TALE Time units; mi oa B zl © MAUI: Individual units; + & si ci x © RAT: Mass units; + mm mw att © KERMA: Indefinite units ; wt & © RAM: Compound units; AK BRK (=) sha Verbal measure words SRAM TA ALA, Glan: Verbal measure words are those indicating the frequency of an ac- tion, such as: K i fl a PIL 74_ Ba AK =. BEA Grammatical features (=). BHAA aE IF eats EET aT ie EE we. lin. . Measure words can not serve as sentence element in isolation. Re- duplicated monosyllabic measure words can act as subject, attributive and adverbial. For example: AMBER ISR. (EIR) EMMA. GEIB) ATTA AABAE RD CARE) (> BREA. lin. Measure words are used after numerals or demonstrative pronouns. For example ; ho Rk =k pum BA FIL BP eR Be ABE HBR HBA ibe (=) Bae, Measure words can be used reduplicatively. SRAM URR, 2 “RR. olin: The reduplication of monosyllabic measure words has the meaning of “every”. For example; 4A (ET) Hee (BH) RR (HR) BU (46) TRGK (495K) 75SOAS ne =. BAHAR Functions (—) BARE Br. Measure words can not serve as sentence elements by themselves. (=) BOAR MESA A a A A SE MF beat. dM: Measure words are always preceded by numerals or demonstrative pronouns (Such combinations are called numeral measure word phra- ses. ) to function as sentence elements. For example; fESKT —-RF 0 (ARETE) (as an attributive) RHE CHAE) (as a complement) RBR— AUER. CURIE) (as a adverbial adjunct) EDR? CEE) (as a subject) RAK X. CHEE) (as an object) A, SARA RS SLT Points that merit special attention (—) RT “ea Nominal measure words GLAS RN, REPORT LIE, MERAA OH AER EEIA], ANAEALAN. FAUGAS BETES AOR, BYMELA 2S DRI AS HT 2 76_ Ra wa In Chinese, there are a large number of measure words. Everything can be “measured” and that measure is represented by a specific meas- ure word. Therefore it is imperative for foreign leamers of Chinese to learn ‘every noun with its matching measure word. SUG 78 FANS A AS Bad SS OLE BA Here is a list of commonly used measure words with some of the nouns matching them: WNBA CHEERED) FAVA EA (da) SSSRPSPTRSRENME RAHA FB DF Re hr FMF Bt Hee Akl HF = WML AR FOK BPR RI ee A OA AW BE OR Baik AR Fh AN TR RRP Ae BM HR uk BO UkAs am BR KUL) wih WS se Hie HS He Be RR aU BR PA Wi IR A EE mw YF iit Th HRA BL ME HK ER HM wa kK KE RE Be WR MP TE OC IN BS A Gb eM Beit See Moe MER AT Riel A HP HEIR hk EH ES 77SBA . a Be S$ > 4(hang) BPRS EOC RS ATARSTR i a 1 GE) CD ALOR CE) WOR fe at TAN FE I MR AL TP BE Bite A He WE BR BR A WE OME BAF Hite Bk ER RRR RE aU A fk he PS tt PF LR Bk MF BE me UR CHL BEBE gy BF we : HI A KO OAL SE HEM HEE me SY i Win Ke AT oe aR w Bo Fe BE AF F UH) A dk AoW He Ab Fe Fi We wR we A HK rm Fale Bet Re MS Be A WF MRR e ATE ME RE BH BF ht BR SUW FA ide PR SU A OF Se je Pah Sey HE 78sh op SoS me cy FOE EE uk = FES N __ Haw i Sa RH EK RK Wie AAC) PR EE Re a Me Aah Bk Bk A BF WF See RE m Fe He WRG FRE RE EE BE APR bE Blas HAAR LAL ASL RR ATR AR A FE OS BE SLASHES Sib WEP WF OR HS BL Be AGS Sle oe Be fA AR Fear BE + MF KA TBE aR WR BA RR ME RE BA Fete KK BR £% Wish BL WU A BH Hb S$ APY AL Ed HGR UL SS MES Ae RR OR U5 Sie Se £e kB PR BOLE Fy FE MG He WE ya ARS & mR MF Ai(zhdng) A SEG Be HAL BE OKI HES AR BK 79SBASGE —_——— —_————— a, BE ih PS BE SRT BEAR HIME Sen hh AR Saat BER HL (AE Atk) ff mk ORE PR Ai BR RHE yk Meth KAR HSE Be AB RB BR ERR i i AH 0.5 25F, 500 ¥%) &2F AM DH KR wb B(OSAB) Hk a (ri) FRR th (MED 1. “4” ANAS ASR; BRSSHSARBENS BARRE “HS” To 4 is the most common and multi-purpose nominal measure word. SIP Perse -.8 haa But many nouns require specific measure words. In those cases, we can- not use 4+. 2 “fi” “8” RAAFANEH, PRBTRRERAE “AY FRA “iL” AMR, Bb “fe (8) Hae HA”. PRN: {ii and 4 are used with nouns of personal reference with the excep- tion of A. {ii is used in a polite manner. Therefore you have to say “— & (Mh) HPAREMA”- he PBA Stet x A 4B WAet = KAILE xHAK 80se BI WK 3. “mH” PERE, WRIA “—", RRR Ih RA. PM: wand #6 are indefinite measure words which can only be placed before the numeral —. For example: —& OL) aK —& Ol) +L eR — HR “8 UL)" JR Ht, RAEI EE — UL) which means a small quantity can only modify nouns of non-personal reference. eo “Ry Be” AERA “3. BL OO” aa. Bl: i and 26 are also often used after the pronouns 3X, JS and if. For example; BR CL) APR ABR CL) HR AB (CL) SF Bae AR AE RE HTT 4. ASPHRADENLAMUTEBR EG. tila: Measure words cannot be used with nouns of quantity. For example; KR X—BEK —tE : x ME wise x BAY =R x =k 5. SREBS ANT WEA, PTAA Ri; Ee— RARATEER. tila: Some measure words of units of length, capacity and weights can be used in succession. They are called compound nominal measure words. But ordinary nominal measure words cannot be used in this way. For ex- ample; FRE (da — itt th BER.) (meaning kilowatt per hour) 81eS MEAS (RAR ZN LHI ) (meaning ton per kilometer) x — AR BR x HK ATES 6. 4RRRRREMEEREENEB, ln: The reduplicated form of nominal measure words often serve as sub- jects or attributives modifying the subject. For example; ae (GER) ABATSIAB IL. (EIA) (as the subject) AAEM RA Bo CHEE) (as the attributive) @ WAR — BA “AB” 0 #8 is generally used before the predicate. (=) RT shia Verbal measure words DUR ARE Sift Hit. SEE AL a Te a A a a ES THEOL OIA The frequency of actions can be counted. Here is a list of the com- monly used verbal measure words and some verbs matching them. For ex- ample : Vor eveure | ICAU Mesh words Matching verbs K & RX BW i aS & GP BE FIL i & eM Ri i & 2 Ho 4 ¥F GH) GR) Fe H(A) Hh we i 90 NSi 1. WRRASHEDABLAIME, RMS. HMM: Most verbal measure words are used as complements of verbs to indi- cate the frequency of actions. For example: RTC. RE-K, SRL BCE SAAT BOE, ARR RITES TRL PYSER RUE TSI E PAR: Verbal measure words can also be used before verbs as adverbial ad- juncts emphasizing that the action is carried out or completed within a certain number of times. For example: FATA RATE T hB—KE 2. “Si” EMAAR RMSE. fli: ili indicates the complete duration of an action from beginning to end. For example: BORIC UAL — 28 T, 3. “BIL” ARAMA X. “F Jb has the following two meanings; C1) RRA. la: Indicating the number of times sth. happens. For example: BRR F JL, ARB) SEWERS PIF LE CAMB) (2) “PUL” Biba “—", RARBG, TEA HARK. pid: — is used before F JL to show that an action lasts for a very short time. —F JL functions as a verbal reduplication. For example: HAE — FIL. WTA, AE FIL, 83BREAST BATA — FL. 4. HRARRSH AAD AK. wi: Reduplicated verbal measure words are used before verbs as adverbi- al adjuncts. For example; HB AAR 0 5. FAMBAT ASR SURTARS OM EREN BA, HTAWMS Shia, fe: There are some combinations of “Nominal measure word + Verbal measure word” which indicate the total number of times of an action done by a certain number of agents (persons or things). For example: BK BRERA COLMA CAT HUCK, The total number of flights made by a certain num- ber of aeroplanes. AK. RERRABAIK The total number of times of an action done by a certain number of people. (=) Sati “op” ZERO Position of the measure word when used with the numeral > 1. Mae “+” WA, REPRE Z—. pilin, Followed by a measure word, >4 means “half of the total quantity or amount”. For exrmple; (1) “26” +dtind+ (ial) 4+ measure word + (noun) + (BF) Fk (MR) i CH) #R (RS) FAS (ER) +4 (BI) (2) “OB” + PRE 2 il ‘+ noun of quantity 84HEH WA +E FR 2, RAMWABEN, “Et” ERERDAD, RRRA—D Zo fa: °F occurring after a measure word preceded by a whole number ex- presses the meaning of “...and a half”, as in: . (1) B+ beh + “Ae” + (ial) whole number + measure word +2 + (noun) RAB—KF (A). xRAB EK (AK). RUTET T TEAM BR) o x MMATST TART (BR) o San: =H CB) x= CA) iT (EB) xPPER (CEA) (2) HBC + APR IAIPENDS fa + “OR” whole number + noun of quantity + > Re xR Wee x PES PEK x eS (1G) BAAD “2” eR Position of the measure word when used with the numeral &% MARS E AI “2” LEAP: Two points should be noted when the measure word is used in com- bination with 4% (...and more) : 1 REST “+ ALF.” SOR, 2" Ree KM, AERERASHRBLOS AA. vin. & immediately follows the whole number +, H, 7, Ji, etc. and precedes the measure word or noun of quantity, as in: 85meme (1) a (MiB “0") + SB” + + (4) whole number (the unit place is “0”) +2 + measure word + (noun) FOL BER = X OWE HERE. SRREKT HABA (A)o xSREBERTHAATS (A). San: FS CR) AB Fe WP STRE (Hi) RASA (FA) RABAT XBHARZ (4A) —F Fm CR) AB Fe BAF x— Fs CR) (2) BR (MBH “0") + “2” + HEALER il whole number (the unit place is “O”) + 2% +noun of quantity bo#To xo +H To RN=S+ SAT . x RNS TESRABT 2 Sau: Here are two more examples: W+S#— (41~49#) xp+ee MABE (81 ~894F) x A4E 2 RRA “—” OHH, PARKER “SZ” Zia, Pala: In order to express an approximate number below —, the measure word should be placed between the whole number and 4, as in; (1) BR (MBO 1 ~9) + ind + “2” + (Gil) whole number (the unit place is a number from 1 to9) + 86measure word + 4% + (noun) HATE TTS Det. x MME TA tint. FIM SABA, x toB Apia wa. Sa: - Here are some more examples: GAS (FP) x Hea (Fh) EAS (HECHT) x SBA (StH) (2) 7 (MBA 1 ~9) + FRE A T + “2” whole number (the unit place is a number from 1 to9) + noun of quantity + 4 RIGWEST . x ROINBLAET o AEA $ » x PEDALS Mu: Here are some more examples: HRS Wie S (BL) “UL” Al “se” By The use of —s3JL and —#6 THESAMMER. piu: They can be used before a noun as an attributive. For example: PUBTE— A ILYER. | ERA EYE, RA SILDGA. RA EDGE. 2. TERA ARRAN. file: They can be used after an adjective as a complement. For example; HHMI — BLT RE NDERE— 2 T SRIBA—BILT. SRA. 3. FEMERBABAWN, Tak “—". pilin: When preceded by a verb or an adjective, — can be omitted. For example: 87SPAS FRAT RLBERL SRM To 4. FRAABAA Ra AACR. flu: __ It cannot be used as an adverbial adjunct to premodify an adjective (or verb). For example: x WER KULY x REA GEAR x fth— BILE. x thE Aho CA) Bab ea Counting Chinese money 1. PRRDBARH. ARMMITRAME “Tt. HD” ‘The Chinese currency Renminbi (RMB) has three units; Ji, f% and 4} or #R, 2B and 4}. 2. AMMARFS SHEKHAR, SUMP EA-ZEA “Je” o fala: : Ji: is always used after an amount of money written in Arabic numer- als. For example: 0.01% 32 —4P (4) 0.20% Jz Bis (eR) 6.75% FE ATCA (AR) 8.00% fe Act (&) 53.49 4 fi A+=TO SAID (&) BRUT UNH WE “Ee”, RANA, In spoken Chinese, #% in the above examples is often omitted. 3. OBES “R. 2.9", BERBERA -THTH. pila : 38, % and 4} are more used in spoken Chinese and last measure word can be omitted. For example; 880.2076 fF We x SY x +a 9.5076 FE PUR (4) x IH 1.207 # —RIO (4) 3.507¢ fF SRE (4%) 2.2276 fe PRBMLX (F) 5.3576 fb BRELH (4) 9.5075 FE JURE (4) (42) YTB Re aR Expression of times “ 1. 4. A, BR RRR Expression of year, month and date as a point of time (1) 4B: Fe + “4”, Bil: Year; ordinal number +44, for example; 19494. D. Se2S7C—FUMUILAF. x GUM 2006A.D. BATIFSANE, x STIS BEA ME 2008 4FRMOBEVE, x BULBS ME *2¢ AF (All four years in a university) ; D-RRAER, BOE, BERSERK, AE FEVER x i— MER — TER, BO MELI MER, P= MERE MER, FUME R MER, “fe” A — ERA IN “AN”, 4£ cannot follow the measure word 4. (2) As e+ “A”. pala: Month; ordinal number + J, for example: RATIO, ROTA WMP: The names of the twelve months of a year are: —A, =A, =H, WA, HA, AA, 89SHELA SADE | oo tH, AA, WA, FA, +-A, OA (3) A: Fe+ “A” RS"; OS NE". BALAN F TERY 2006 42 3 A A: Date; Ordinal number + fl or 4-, preferably “3 in colloquial lan- guage. For example; the calendar of March in 2006. AA | B— | eo | = | | | BA 1 2- 3 4 —F ae ay poss 5 6 7 8 9 10 iW ae jas jts fas fas fea [TO » 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 Jjto [te [+m |+z w~ [bt [FA mH | (oH fon jon fo |cp 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 +h ot a i er es m |p |p fo fo [oH fom 26 27 28 29 30 31 atx [ore fata jora fat | se (Ss) (3) (8) (&) (Ss) (3) Bi“ t-A (S)” B“St—H CS)" ft, Waa “A C5)"s (AARREI “R". “ACK)” BREAD] “4”, PaaN When you say “-}+-—‘5” all the way to “=--—}”,, & can be o- mitted in spoken language. But you can never use % with “date” as a 90BH | - point of time. For example; HERS, SRE, WRAS. xIPRY, SKE, WRX. WRO+F (). x WBR-+OR. SROALTA (A). XFROA XPATH (4) BM: —PEWACK, MERWE: ‘The names of the seven days of the week are: ASI, BI, B=, BI, Ba, BN, BA (BSR) “SW” 4BDE “ALAR”. BAN: ALAR, FLAS. “ALAR” th BTL SUM EL, (9 “S33” ANA SUE. SUH can also be called #LF£. For example: #L#—-, #LFEH etc. “GLFE” can also refer to Sunday, but “J#/§” can not. (5S) DUH ELS AUPE: 42#—-A—A. Bi: A date is given in the following order; Year—Month—Date. For ex- ample; —RAAEEAFIA (4) ——1986/05/12 TEEKE-AOTHA (-) —2006/01/29 SEEMENMA STO (-) ——2008708/22 (6) —PAHE LIBRA “HERA AAE”. ile: To express one’s birthday: HL4EH JIC A:. For example; fi 1988 425 18 HAE. WOME He: 1985 4211 3 A, 2. 4. AL ANB RR Year, month and day as periods of time (1) 4B: Sea + “4E") AEB “4E” ZR ABD “AN”, 91SRB AS ADGA ‘aN : Year; numeral +4F, “cannot be inserted in between. For example: 5 4 —$_ Fi 1h T PLE. x fee T MED. 12 46+ = ETI AT x WOE TOME T 0 (2) As See + mi “ph + “RR” Month; numeral + measure word 4+ + 4 =StA AA AEE TI+A ap —FBTOTA (3) A: e+ “RR” MA", TAR” MMA” S MARAE “4S”. bald: Date; numeral + K or H, 4 cannot be inserted between the nu- meral and X or (1. For example; —tHHET RK. x—thABESTHR. ARR SAATHR, = x—PASBATHTR. hia T ARK. x MWA TK (4) BY. + Bia) “e+ “LY” Week; numeral + measure word 4+ + BEd. B+ 29 (14 KR) SHB (21K) AP EM (56 K) TEMBER. (5) “URAL FP. Bk” BRAS ial, UD A eae BRI “7” BE, BRN: Nouns expressing points of time such as £4, FF, I, ete. , can also be used after numerals and measure word 4+ as units of periods of time. For example: he aare 92Bi 3. SH NRA Expression of times of the clock C1) “A”, FRO # means “o'clock”. Boi) (1~12) +A “OR” + (4G) “Bh Numeral (1 ~12) + measure word 4 + (noun 4H) 1,00 fh aR C4 : 2; 00 ft 3,00 # 10:00 # 12:00 # “AV” Aa) “OR”, CEL —ARL $f is often left out in spoken Chinese. (2) “ar”, bE “ma” AIDA, ZEARIRE 4} means “minute” indicating a point of time. Biel (1 ~59) + Bia] “4p” + (Giad “BP”) Numeral (1 ~59) + measure word 4} + (noun #1) 1: 0L = (#) -4, —At-# 1:05 —-8 (#) £4, —Aitay 1:09) = (®) AD, — AAD 1; 10 ATS, —Att+> 1:15 -—8+k9, —&—2l 1,300 -K24+4, —AE 1,450 —Rwe+asy, —Heal 1:55 -RE+ED, BLD 1:59 —KE+AD, B-DBA FRA, WB SA"; O-PS, wR SAI", 93SNBASCADGER ‘dU : —¥ is often substituted for -- 744) and =H for PU-+ FAP Hh. For example: 2:15 Wik—-2l 6: 15 AR al 9:15 TuR-al 3: 45 1, 2-208 7 2450 tMeal, BAR 12:45 +os2a, B-a—K Soyo, WBb: Boal + Bd “oR” + OR", fle: For =+-4}4}, we use this formula; Numeral + measure word 2 + 24. For example; 2:30 Bigi-F (HH) x Bi AAI 5:30 Him (FH) x ERBAl 11, 300 +—sk-F (4) x t-PA (3) “BP”, He “AP” NEEL, Zea # meaning “second” is a unit smaller than 4}, indicating a point of time. , Bei] (1 ~59) + Bei “BD” + (ial “BR") Numeral (1 ~59) + measure word #> + (noun $f) REST ERA 4. “Net” Seaer AT ER “it (hour) , etc. indicating periods of time (1) “ain”, “Bpsi” FAITE Dit. DAL “UAE” Be “BRL” deat Et. Bil: : There are 24 hours in a day. In Chinese, /iit or ##5& is used for “hour”. For example: 94ee . SoM | WAS — (4%) avat (60 44) =D) bat (180 44H) SEP (30 a+) xB Bia (120 SH) x PUBS eat (90 4}8H) xe / Naf BAB aP (150 44) x PRE BS FA “BHA” tt, BoA “eps” Zl — eB 4S" 5 FA “it? it, Balan “oyiet” ZT AR ia) “4h”, The measure word “4+ must be used between the numeral and #}'3s, whereas 7 is optional when /|\Ift is used instead of #f15&. (2) “5b”. “Be” —/ NATAL 60 S}Eh, — 24 60 BH, fd: There are 60 minutes in an hour and 60 seconds in a minute. For example: Ha (FH) —300 4 (4H) + (Ht) (3) “Al” —aleh (15 4} 4H) =a ep (45 Sy) K_ial SECTION VII PRONOUNS —. RATE AE Definition and types of pronouns Real. shied, AA, Bama STA, ARAL AT LD AME. 95SEAS AOE A pronoun is a word which can take the place of a noun, a verb, an adjective, a numeral or an adverb. Pronouns can be divided into three kinds. (—) Atel Personal pronouns RAR tie Ae tial. fald: A pronoun which refers to persons or things is called a personal pro- noun. Here are some examples; ea HL Singular Plural & BAT BAD i a eA & te $bAt te ae s eH AL HA AK [AE (=) Haftia Demonstrative pronouns RAAB MC Mai. BLN A pronoun which is used to distinguish people or things is called a demonstrative pronoun. For example; KK RB RIL RA eH FB EBER ABIL AKA ABER & & (=) BRA Interrogative pronouns POSSE HAM SERRA, BiH: 96HEH AK A pronoun which is used to indicate interrogation is called an inter- rogative pronoun. For example; He A OB BE BIL JL BY (EA (GRE EAH =, RR Grammatical features (—) —ARERAAEBEEE. Personal pronouns cannot be reduplicated. (=) APR TATRI RARE HAS EE Personal pronouns cannot take words of other parts of speech as pre- positioned modifiers. (=) Bor Erttin Pe BOBR. Some personal pronouns have plural forms. =. RiaM Ae Functions ALAN E ARE AG TASS HO ETA HA Pronouns serve basically the same function as the words which they substitute. (—) BEER. As a subject. PORT MERE, PAY FB ARIUS MBSE? EMT. HA RRHEIL? (=) eee. As an object. . EARS. ROTEAB ILS 97SRA SADA {his ABBA. ABR ICA: FEB? BAEZ. WES I? (=) WGEie. As an attributive. eH AS EE BESS 0 HTT FIRE AR LAST ILERSE 0 UR HMA? ARRAE WAL AR No ARAL RAD LEE? (Bo) Bee. As an adverbial adjunct. METTLE 2 Bo URE 2 BAPE? RAYE BL APA (HL) (GENE. As a predicate. TENSE 442 YORE (ARAF4Ti8 used only in telephone calls) hea? (A) BANE. As a complement. WATE EZ AE? {S18 Z HF7 DL, GEIR Points that merit special attention (—) sien The plural forms of pronouns 1. ASR “BU, dei], HH, HUI” BRS, B DTN AR “RR th He” BIR IN” #8 ARN. BL, EARNS RIES BBovsR. fil: 98a aH AK The personal pronouns F4{iJ, 4s{/], {thfT] and dbf] are all plural in form. They are formed by adding the suffix {{] to the singular forms of pronouns #%, (x, {, and it. So pronouns should be used either in the singular or in the plural according to circumstances. For example; RRREA. TE HBA. AP ARTBCE IB. REET, FERC FR IE, TBAB 2B, ald: The form of a personal pronoun, whether in the singular or plural, remains unchanged when it is used as an object. For example; HBR BATRA. 2 6" RRB, OPRARAH. Generally , the pronoun #f, a respectful form of adress, is not used in the plural. 3. “EC” BALSMOSON, “SC” MR “AN” hab RAR “EN, “e". “EN” ARSLAM “th”. “th i” FH, AUARBF BH. ‘E refers to things rather than human beings. With the suffix {I], it be- comes the plural form ‘¢{f] which, however, appears only in written Chi- nese, because ‘& and (th, or ‘E{i] and {thf are the same in pronunciation. 4. “RR RTRM, MAS". “BMA” MAAR’ BR FRRRRB TA, BMS RA. fl: KR indicates plural while HE, HA and A Zé may express ei ther singular or plural. The number shown by 1 or Jl A. depends on the context. For example; +e 8 ORE. (FAD) (singular) 99SPBASIADGH RAVES BZ (880) (plural) 5. Ratti “GR. AR” PORE “OB” Tabada “He” RAK. pi: The demonstrative pronouns 3X, I$ and the interrogative pronoun 1B can indicate the plural with 4& added to them. For example; ee CHEE) (as.a subject) MALATE (HiT) (as an attributive modifier) MH LIF A? CABG) (as an attributive modifier) (=) Abe aA HER The gender of personal pronouns TEE, “Hh” FRYE, “ah RTT” HE, (EI MFR, WAKES In written Chinese ft refers to a male person and ith or W{'] fe- male, but the difference is lost when spoken because of their same pro- nunciation. “HUT” BABE, Waa. BA: {t1{1] generally refers to the male but may also include the female. For example; 404 CHERAB) KT ANB Ge CARE ATA) (=) Rina ese pronouns and sentence elements 1. SRARABEMEB. RMT. The three kinds of pronouns can all serve as subject, object or_at- 100BS tributive modifier. 2. AMAR AREI AE MORIA: 18 “iE” A “tA” ARERR filtn : Some demonstrative pronouns and interrogative pronouns can also serve as adverbial adjuncts. But “iff” and “{{2” cannot serve as ad- verbial. For example; HAYES BRAK A AS9 WBF ERE? X KNB FAS? DORE 2 HERE? x DATTA AR RE? 3. RARMAKA “SAH” AMIRI EINE. Pili: Of all pronouns the interrogative pronoun 7 AFF is the only one that can be used as the predicate or as a complement of degree of a sen- tence. For example; SCH % 42 CBE) (as a predicate) BABE EAH? CARNE) (as a complement ) (WE) Rina ABA “ay (de)” A pronoun used as an attributive modifier and the structural particle fy (de) 1. ARRANGE A RU REIA (Rial “TE” AUEIE, TPL BR TRBARRAASUAZAN, M-RAAB “A”. Pd: Usually ff) is not used after a personal pronoun or #, an interroga- tive pronoun referring to person, used altributively modifying a noun of kinship or institution. For example: AGW EE RBAW TLE. BH HT? RARAUAMA. WAR WRAAN SE “A”. falhn: 101HBAS DG However, when they express possession , ff is obligatory. For example: RAT AIRE HL, AHMAR AR? 2. RR “ik. MR” ARR “RR” AERA RAAT ACEA, A “85”. Gin: When the demonstrative pronouns jX, J and the interrogative pro- noun Mf serve as attributive modifiers of numerals or measure words, (4 is not used at all. For example: RSS. OR ERE ELINA RET TRRIEIMN. Soft an CRETE, — ARE “AN” 5 Bald: When other demonstrative pronouns are used as attributive modifi- ers, fi is usually required. For example: LH AUR! FARE MH 84 HL. 3. ltd “ta”, “Sb, SERRA ES MME 1, TAH”. flan: The interrogative pronouns {+Z and 4/>, when used as attribu- tive modifiers, always go directly in front of noun. For example: TERE A MTT? SY KSINR? (In) Beit “ab” A “OL” The interrogative pronouns 4%/I> and JL. 1. “SB” KORA TAD; “SL” BRR 1 ~9 MRF Bian The number expressed by 4/ may be great or small; JL often in- dicates numbers from 1 to 9. For example: RPKEHSY (4) BED TTA BY (4) AP WH SY (AL) PSC? WRALOAP 102{HSE IL ILE? BOLA TF LA? 2. “Sd” AZATARRRKA, PAIRARA; “JL” A Sze EA BA. Pi: There must be a measure word between JL and a noun while 45> can be directly linked to a noun. For example: OMTIBE BY (AS) TAA? UATE 2 WAS (AL) ICH? WEA ? PREMP HUI? WET LA? x MILA? x UES Bal? X WRITES? : x (eA JL a? CW) Bait) “4R” The demonstrative pronoun 4 1, “@" HRSA HEI. “" MARR HAHA ARER, ROBB “A”, Roy “PMR”. faa : 4% refers to any oné of the whole, generally placed as an attributive modifier before a measure word or a noun with the quality of a measure word. It is often accompanied by #8, meaning “all”. For example; {BAEK ARIE Lo AP RATE REE BA Li. AEP LAR. 2. “8” A" ARRAS FS, fila: WARE X IW AAG AS BOLE Kh OE RELMREBAL, x RELMBE EDEL, REAR, 103SPB ASSAIGEE ae (4a) Aafia) “Bet” A “HEAT” The personal pronouns #&{{] and WAT] 1. “Ri” HARREARANBA FA, —RABEMA (PriGHA) o fila: #2411 generally stands for a number of people including the speaker except the other party (the people spoken to). For example; BUTE BUT FAVER (URATSERE) « 2. “MEAT” HewIBA ( “HR” BR BRAN") AA ( “AR” Be eR”) o Bil: IAP] includes both the speaker (#8 or F¥{f]) and the other party (48 or iti]. For example: PAA ABE — PAE LEN CQSHOR,) 9841-1 BGR. PE ANTE — FRAT HY BAER 0 OV) BRIAR IAS AS sea BE LA], Sometimes interrogative pronouns do not anticipate questions. 1. RARE. BRIAR “ET” ARB, RRB “SRSA”, RAGS. TAR “A” BR “th”. “th” & AFBE*). win: It can refer to anything. You can replace anyone or anything with interrogative pronouns to emphasize “all” without exception, often ac- companied by adverbial #8 or tl. #1 is often used in negative sentences. PATSE, BAA RE IM HZ VaR AB LE AY LA AR BAY EMT, MARAT St. AR UBB IC FP BRE. 104_ BH AK ABE WW Zt. 2. SRR. PRAIRARTTAENAREY. Bilt: It can refer to something or someone in general, things or persons you are not so sure of. For example; BURT, MUAH A. (ARNE SAAR DY) USER BAI, (ABR EI ORT) NV bil ial a SECTION VIII ADVERBS —, BAEK Definition —AUATE Sa, Tea iim zean mt tal, FRBE. WE, HEAL. TF fe, PORE. TEAC, SEMAN Bia), pln: A word generally used in front of a verb or an adjective to express time, degree, scope, repetition, negation, possibility or tone of speech, etc. is called an adverb. For example; © ZORMAY: Adverbs expressing time: A eh fl CA WH Ee © #ARPABEM: Adverbs expressing degree: Rm kK BH 46% HH HH BA) © ZARIENY; Adverbs expressing scope: a AR st i & © HAHA: Adverbs expressing repetition; XR FF KW th © HRB: Adverbs expressing negation: A wa al OA 105SPAR @ RAWE. hit). Adverbs expressing estimation: oN en a © AIBA: Adverbs expressing tone of speech; y A fl ORE BUR © AKEIAIAY, Adverb expressing inquiry ; z& =. HMB RBA Grammatical features (—) —RRAEHE. They cannot be reduplicated. (=) ARBRE AE Most of them cannot be used alone to answer a question. (=) —RORREIB HPA), They cannot be used as a modifier of a noun. (A) SARE ESE HT. Most of them cannot precede subjects. CH) BR RIRAR RE. Bilan: Some adverbs can function as link words. For example; ADFT SERRE 0 AVA LO RB ARRT, + ait pA. =, BNA AE Functions HUTIAVAEAS AE WCRI 0 Bild: The basic use of an adverb is to serve as adverbial adjunct. For ex- ample ; 106RoR we WRT CART. RSI. PHIRI 0 VE AIB— TK MESA AF Bo RES. A, CHAnBSteH—Hae Points that merit special attention (—) SIL teahTa), BA ARIS, RRC BSW a. pM: As an adverbial adjunct, the adverb is always placed before a verb or an adjective and not after them. For example; HEATT— FLEX JLo x PUNTER ILE. FETTER A x FETE Kt. SRAMAARAEEIB MW; RARD RR (BUR, FE. TAR. HE) ACEH. Bilin: Most adverbs cannot precede subjects with the exception of only a few: BIE, FEI, AME, thi. For example: UMS (33) BRK] BR (RE) WME? thei (AM) BAMBT. eH (AR) HEART. LATA LRT x ABA TPREURT o BTL ARE x PERMEATE NAT RRR. KIT ROR. WEB T x BAe To THAT BANE. BUM: WIR; BERT. Only one or two adverbs can serve as complement. For example; IR, TERT o (=) Bil “em” The adverb #f 107SPA SEDC 1, BA B” WARD. Bid “a” —ERE AEE AH. pa: #6 is often used to sum up the preceding elements, it can never be placed before the subject. For example: BORMAN, x PIA RAVF. BAM AMBUR AR. x BRARUR Ht. BAVERAG DUE) Ho x BAER DUE) 2. fl “th” SERBS, “th” SEA TAB” AYBTIO. pM: When #8 and “1 are used together, tH, comes first. For example: SEMEL AEE, UME TE LARA AAT DAA), BUN AEA TIES. (=) “AR” Al “Be” AK and BE “AR” Al OR” ABLE Bean eA ld, FARRAR; WEBRWMAT: “AN” RAR, WH “RM” RAK. AK and ¥ are both used to negate, but they are used differently: 7S is used to negate actions at the moment or in the future. % is used to ne- gate actions in the past. 1. “OR” FRB: A is used to negate; C1) RRA HATA fen: Verbs expressing mental activity. For example; BRA T ALMA HARDY AS HAR NEE 6 (2) BWA RMA. Bild: Frequent or habitual actions. For example; ADA A BEES BATHE HE A HEF BE. ABS TAIRA SE RE RE 108_ a |W (3) PARASITE. Pld: Actions at the moment or in the future. For example: SEF FFE 0 BASE {th 75 HES Al Eo SRA bo (4) Whahial, fala: Auxiliary verbs. For example: BANTAM AA, WR ARKH WREADIRE 0 (5) “de. A. TE, FE” GACH. FETE SIT, PAN: Verbs expressing judgement or existence, such as f:, (%, 72, # etc.’ For example: {HARA BB BR FEE RBA WR eh ay (6) FeastE. HRASHIB ATA. LN: Adjectives expressing character or state. For example: WAAR Ko RPERAM (7) HREM ATE Aaa. fn: The adjective phrase with a adverb of degree. For example: IBWIAKK. DBL AYSCH A +4377 (8 0 EIS AL (8) WHAM sia. pian: The verb phrase with an adverb of scope. For example; KRAVE. TTA ARSE LA. AT AR eR HET HABE 0 2. “Rk” ARB: 2 is used to negate; C1) ARS. FEM ahil “A”. Hil: 109SRB ASAD The verb 4 expressing possession and existence. For example: SERA A AM Al. BFRRAA. MRA COAT) (2) RRAERAR TERN fd: Verbs expressing occurence or completion of an action. For example: WER RASTHER ILI. HERBIE. HUA ATR IER L (WY) “Be” Fl “BAR” %K and RA 1. RASMABRIWMRBE HMA, Bem AR ase Bo HM: Both the adverbs %& and ¥& can serve as adverbial adjuncts to qualify verbs. They are used to negate the occurence or the completion of the action expressed by the verb. For example; whe (CH) SHAS. HERB (A) Bik, 2 “es” ASECRE RA"; “A” PRIN, HTWR Te OR". fila: The negative form of #7 is 3447. When #f takes an object, BE a- lone can express the negation. For example; Pk (A) PCH BEF BR (A) RH CHL) Bie “AR” ABT “AB” ae” BR AR” Se Alt, “AN” WG MTD Ze “ak” ABHOR, (HZeROO I The adverb 7X, when used with the adverbs #8, 4 or 4, may come either before the adverbs or after them, but with different mean- ings. 1101. “OR” Ze SR” Sa. fala: AB comes in front of #§ etc. For example: PAA BAS BUNS BE EA PHB —TAA—H, AMEE, A Ako) (This means that people in the same group are different, some will take a bus and some will not. ) DEVINE FIRE 0 CSR” Be “AE”, Rm UB) “Ee” EE.) (AS negates 44F, meaning that something has not yet reached the extent of 4/4. ) 2. “A” FE “SB” SG. pik: AB comes after #$, etc. For example; FETA ABA RAIS RBE CEA Ef — 7 FR) (This means that people in the same group are the same. ) BEA IDEA AE» ( SAR" Fae “OR”, “ABR” BRI “ORE” ARE.) (A negates kf, while #2 intensifies the degree of XU. ) CN) “SO” A HR” SX and FF RIT ABR EMT, LAAT. Both X and i are used to express the repetition of an action, but with different meanings. 111SREBA SEARO 1. 'Q” rat, WREBER. wn: &X indicates that the action or situation has repeated, For example; Lh T ARH, FRET HERR, SRE. THE RIBOK, BORA RBDK. “RQ” EMDR. LR AEE. Bal: XM indicates that the action or situation is definitely going to recur. For example; WRAEEMRT o SHREW T 5 2. "RRA PRRER. pia: 48 indicates that the action is going to recur. For example: RARA-FREWER, ARM RBE A. RAAB UT (+e) ARB BENTEM IA] “2 (A) AM “FR, ABE API, AK, HL SHR EAR, Similarites and dissimilarities between the adverb 4 (4) and oth- er adverbs of degree 48, EX, #28, K, HL, etc. 1. AAD: KHER EB AB OT Lh EE HO i a, PHBE. pM: Similarities; These adverbs of degree can all stress a great degree by qualifying directly some adjectives or verbs. For example: BA) ABE BA) Ril ae eH a AL 3 (4) AIRE RAKE— BIH 2. Rel: “S (4)” HERMNAILRTEN, IRA a ‘R” ARMS; “Rh FRAEMRAL, GABRAS. Ba: Dissimilarities: 4 (4), used in an exclamatory sentence, ex- presses exclamation and the sentence usually ends with a modal particle Tf] and an exclamation mark; 48, etc. are used in a statement and there is usually a full stop at the end of the sentence. For example; ABH LS (A) Beowhy ABR LE AML T RPMS MS (4) | MOA * Ba AML RelA. “% (A)” ARCA AW ALE RM ZED. BBN: # (4) cannot be used together with other adverbs of degree. For example; XPM LE (4) ADO x Ws (A) AP APDRALIES I! OO Bia eS, WA Res AN. wl: When an adverb is used together with an auxiliary verb, the adverb usually precedes the auxiliary verb. For example; BIEL ARK. RATCAR RDG T 0 WA GRIME CAL) Be An He Te) AYE Bl AY — 2 Bl a BY LE a AT OK. ‘IaH: Some adverbs of time or degree can be placed before a numeral- measure word as an adverbial modifier. For example: 2BIAT. -RETFtCRAEE (44%). A—-THo 113SPRASSADGHB (+h) “aR” A “ar” Mand 7 1. “ER” RRAERESHE, “OF” REAERESH. ‘Bilan : WE indicates that the action happens very early, 7 indicates the op- posite. For example; RC MBIT, SUE LEA TV Tve. EUR, URE to DEAL “Rie”; AIEEE A FEMS Bile: The above is object situation, whether late or early; sometimes 4 or Bh indicates speaker's subjective feelings. For example: METPE, PREZ RETR T 2 MBI, WEBER EA AR? 2. “BE” RITER, “A” Seah. PMI: i indicates quick actions, while indicates slow actions. For ex- ample; Uae sey , Hpk. RETA A HSE, KIT. EWLASARAEAT BAST). Pil MI: Subjective feelings may vary greatly. For example: URES R AT RSET, OKT. RET Bik st See, FU. 3. “Bl” RRMEAD, “A” REBEL. wi: BE indicates that things needed are few, while A indicates that things needed are great many. For example: WU ROR CHE, Kaha T RARE, ata, 4.7" MRED, MRWSHH, bRA PE. H 114__ mae as hs. bilan: A also expresses the meaning of early (in time), a few (in quan tily) preceding time words or numberal words. For example: APART o ARE RERHT (4+—) PEAT DL ph eS a, IR, BAT, AB, iit, HIRE” 4. A few adverbs can stand for an answer by themselves, such as 7, WA, BE, thYE, TTAB, etc. (4) PATABATUBANE, MOM “HR” OE “TT (le)", Be “AR” ZEB] “48 (de)” Jad, ATLIBOE AIA (oRRE ARB WAI) KANE. Bilin Only one or two adverbs can serve as a complement. For example, the adverb # followed by { (le), or 4if preceded by the structural par- ticle 7% (de) can be used as a complement of an adjective (or a verb denoing degree). For example: OKRA T MET RATE RAT BEDE MEARE. (TE) RARE AIBA FLERE: The uses of the correlative adverbs are as follows: 1. BUG FAAS. Bilan: To be used independently. For example; {hii T ii 2 — ja, (“R” Re) (& indicates repetition) Ts AR, ( “A” ANB EAE A) : (A indicates late occurence of the action) 115SPL A Se ADEE | a - 2. WERE AA. Bilan: To be used as correlatives. For example; AAR HAK fh—brat HAA. : FA Iti SECTION IX PREPOSITIONS —. SAE Definition IEA i, (CARO MS a, RARER I, AF Fill, HR. UR, D7 SK, Be, HORE ial, mY dp i, flan: A word , which can be put before a noun or a pronoun to form a prepositional phrase indicating time, place, direction, object, reason, manner, the passive, comparison, or exclusion, etc. is called a preposi- tion. For example: © ARNE, UH. WMA: Indicating time, place, direction; et K FW f& B © RAMANA: Indicating object; RR ¢ BF MPF RF HB o RTRA, BMWA: Indicating reason; A AY WF 116pM © RATKWA: Indicating manner; HR AE © RABAWA: Indicating the passive: we mM it & © RRMA: Indicating comparison; te BE © RAHA: Indicating exclusion; Be ORT =. PEA Grammatical features (=) ARAB AAA. They cannot be used alone. (=) >hEB. They cannot be reduplicated. (=) Aer temabasahial “TB. at”. They cannot normally take aspectual particles J, #, et. (VE) AAS RE FATE 2 2] ‘They cannot normally be turned into an affirmative + negative ques- tion. 117SHAS ADE | =. TAMAR Functions (=) SHAE FES IF AP Generally speaking, a preposition cannot be an element of a sen- tence by itself. (=) BAS BSA A Zia, in esr aE RIB. ANAT. MM: Most of the prepositions have to take a noun or a pronoun to form a prepositional phrase to serve as an adverbial adjunct, complement or at- tributive. For example; {BAK AG 3K 0 CBRE) (as an adverbial adjunct) BHAT ATER. | CBGETE) (as an attributive) RAKEFHE LH CHAE) (as a complement) A, CATAMARAN Lae Points that merit special attention (=) JLASSr ile HE Usage of several prepositions 1. “#e" ARB: ZE and its object: (1) Sriel “4E" RBA ALITA: ‘The objects of the preposition 7 usually indicate locality. For ex- ample; FEARED FER WHE 118Bow WA FEM EEE TERRE a ETRE (2) BAMA RIA, ARBRE Sh ial “HE” WRT 7A, Faia — ERIE “RL” Bea “HBL”. fala: Nouns or pronouns denoting persons cannot be used independently as the object of the preposition 7£ to show locality. They must take 3X JL. or HBL. For example: ERZILG EL x TERA AL FEAR LBESE x RSE 2. “iA” ARIE: Hand its object; (1) “OR” Jai ERR Ab TAA], BAN: The objects of the preposition }\ may be words denoting locality. For example: RIE PBR (2) BAW A MRR, BABA Sh “WM” NOSE, RAL, FEM “IL” BE “ABIL”. Bilan: The nouns or pronouns denoting persons can not be used independ ently as the object of the preposition J{ to show locality. They must take BOL or ABJL. For example: WRRBILE XR JBORALARILIE x ARATE (3) “OO” JaUO FAT DURRANI TAL AYA. Bild: The objects of the preposition }\ may be words denoting time. FTUVA RIFE ER. ATE FA 8B 9 RE I RG 3. “MY A BR”: DK and BF: C1) “A” Rash rene. Bild: 119SHAS ADA | A denotes the beginning of a certain action. For example: PES, BCMA x RA LM, SPA. BUA RITE x PUTS ILRI (2) “" AAR. Bia: # denotes the distance. For example; PATE REMMIAA AZ, x PTF BUMIMITIA AA. ThE ERIE x (EE BCE BIE (3) “OK” Al “BS” JRL ARST AT Lede on et Te TG The objects of the preposition JA and B may be words denoting time. “OR” Zen FRI ETT], “TA” Zea PSEA, BLA: AA denotes the start point of an event, while #§ denotes the length of a period of time. BTA BAER, Al, BEA RIDA — HUGH FI RAR 4. SF” Al OTF and Xf; C1) OR" A ORE" ABA LAM Ese aS, G] xt KR. Bild: Both X}=F and Xf with an object can form a prepositional phrase to introduce the object. For example; Fb SHAT SFRP AG at Mala Fak at atk {2 “OM” AND TERELG “ORES” dee, However, the preposition Xf is more motional than Xf. (2) “xt” AID “Ty”, “RN” AR ALAN: Xf may carry the meaning of [a] or J. For example: 120SLT RAD, x PAD HERE XO FRE (3) “OM” ATLA “RRR” A. BAHN: Xt may have the meaning of X}7. For example; BE a ABUR 5. “SR: . C1) dri “ER” ASL BPE MRR, BEAN “Veli” BE TRAE. Pil: The preposition 42, meaning to engage in an action together with someone else, often introduces the partner (s) or opponent (s). For example ; REREAD ABATBASRAR S ASEMERR ’ (2) “HR” TTD “Xt. a” AR. Bil The preposition {ff may have the meaning of Xf, [fi]. For example; WHERE, PORF PANE. PRR: “APR.” 6. “": C1) Shia “28” WS] EMR OR, A RY RE Bo AM: ‘The preposition #; may introduce the object of an action and has the meaning of “for” (4, ##). For example; hee A aE, {he ROP ABE (2) “3” WSR OEMR, AL AL RE. faldn : The preposition 4 may introduce the object of an action and has the meaning of #], [4], Xf. For example: 121SOBASAUGHRE | BEM AIP EG. BRASAE AE REL HG DAT HLT (3) “8” AS hah zea ei. A: 4; can be used to introduce the agent to express the passive. For example; FARA ET INE KABA T ABABA AMHIET 7. “iE”; Shield “HE” 7 “EAR” VE, TEAR “Eat” HL, “HE” JSST — TS eB I, Pers RCA AY FAD “Utara”, HOGER EIT. lan: ‘The proposition # indicates “$£25”. In the commonly used pattern structure “jE+++-- + #8/ +t,” , the object of the proposition # is often an ex- treme case, meaning if it worked in such an extreme case, let alone in other situations. For example; 3E) BOLAAR RE, EVA RUE BAI, LEE RMY? ({) Rata, Wn “ak” ALR ARB aY “eR” LEER PEP TLR PN: Only one or two prepositions, such as $¥ and the passive 44, can independently serve under certain circumstances as an adverbial adjunct. For example: MARAT HIT « ATEAMET. (]) DEBAPAAMA RM inSa REM RN, AY Se iAAN ATA FE BSE, WOKS BR OR. ER. a” 122. _ HxM |W {AA AA AIA, gn “Ze. Hh. th” SH. HM: Most of the prepositions in the Chinese language come from verbs that have lost their original meanings in classical Chinese, As a result, there are prepositions such as 7, #4, Lt, etc. , which are at the same time verbs. Such words as KK, @, XIF, KF, HF, ete. , howev- er, are distinctively prepositions. For example; Bhi] Verbs | fPia] Prepositions {hte Ro HERS. RA th. RRA. HATTER Hg HERA BABA KK FANE A EA. BAG _ial LG] SECTION X CONJUNCTIONS —. BANE Definition ERB Mal. AIS, RAI, BR, AE, (RB BRAM MEI, PL A conjunction is a word, which can join two words, phrases or sen- tences to indicate the grammatical relation of coordination, causality, condition, supposition, ete. For example; © RRA: Indicating coordination; AR AS kW © RTRARWA: Indicating causality; 123SHA SCD | By PRA ae © RRA: Indicating condition; RE RH AE © RAIBRIWNA: Indicating supposition: WR Bede ABN BRT ABR > RHA : Indicating inference: BERR DRE BBA © Ama: Indicating transition ; He (ARE WE BEE © RMILDWA: Indicating concession ; - BN BRE © RmMBHWA: Indicating alternative ; Bi Re © BRIEF : Indicating enumeration ; plan rea an BET © RRABMARA : Indicating succession : Bae Tak a © RUBIA: Indicating progression: HA AT Wa 124oe _ _ ___ Baw =, Ba A A Grammatical features (—) 7RABAURMEE AA, ASAE ARIEL ia, Conjunctions can not be used by themselves, and they cannot be used alone to answer questions. (=) *WiewE. ‘They cannot be reduplicated. (2) BABHIVER, RAERIE, RRS ARN LAE RRo They are only connectives expressing different grammatical relation- ships and can never serve as modifiers. =. SAR Functions (—) ARE ADRIEM AF St. Conjunctions cannot serve as any sentence element. (=) BE, TARA, ARERR. lO: They are used to connect words, phrases or sentences to give certain grammatical senses. For example: BA Pt LER GER iA) (connecting two nouns) BMWA LEN TRAE. Geb) (connecting two verbs) FTHERS ABR, (AB EESK. Ce Beial48) 125SRA oo (connecting two phrases ) RAMA, WA. CEBAT) ? (connecting two sentences ) HHA ML, TL BERGE AE. (EBA) (ditto) , CARA RES HLS ae Points that merit special attention (—) EIR ABIRK RAVE Conjunctions show types of grammatical relations 1. HWAR Coordination BURR Ma, AUER GH, RE, AWE RAT WHR, EKA. The two joined words or phrases are equal to each other with neither being primary or secondary. Sometimes the order of the two parts can be reversed, though the meaning expressed remains the same. C1) RRA i, Rid ae EAE “A, BR TAL 5. BR’. Conjunctions joining nouns, pronouns or nominal phrases are #il, WM, ll, 5 and &. A. “AL RR” ZAP OS. PM: Hil, Hi are commonly used in spoken Chinese. For example: LARA RAEI T GEES tl) (connecting nouns) 126ae SF AK RRA LSM KG IR. CEB) (connecting pronouns) ROAST» GER PEA ) (connecting nominal phrases) B. “5. &” SAP. plan: fl, 43, Bare chiefly used in written Chinese. For example; . BAKARE TS Rib, CEB i) (connecting nouns) PDB RRE. HB MATIC. GERM iA) (connecting nouns) (2) Seah, WAM OFA”, BEES “Fe”, BAI: Conjunction 3H, joins verbs, phrases or clauses, also known as 3: in written language. For example; EWR RAF (H) RR. GER) (conneéting verbs) RAMAMT CH (1) —BCEUTRER, Geile ) (connecting phrases ) BAMA (AL) AEE SERIES GERDA) (connecting auxiliary verbs) G3) ERBAARNBA MAA ME A “ii, TA”. 127SPBLA SPADE ‘plan: Conjunctions joining adjectives or adjective phrases are iff, iif A. For example; BFAD RR ra Se NE Th A hh DME MT Bate. (4) WHERA aE RA”, BPS “Be 5 Bild: BK can be used to join all kinds of words or phrases, often short- ened as 3% in written language. For example; UMRAITR, RAM, RAT ARBE, HBT. 2. TIEXR Subordination : BERN, MAMAFZAMRRE—W—-iE, AEKZAD, BUA “Md”, Jee “TE”, th Kio TH FMEIAA “ONR, B {A.A BE. (” EAE. Bild: The conjunctions a, AH, A, BUM, {E4e, etc. are fre- quently used if the relationship between the joined words, phrases or clauses is that of subordination. In this ease, the first clause is subordi- nated to the second clause, where the key message often lies. Some of these conjunctions are often used in pairs. For example: RAAT, rw. SRERAM, 2A. AE PHAROS BA, PALM: Some of these conjunctions are often used together with other ad- verbs. For example; REBA, RVG MA. BLAKT , AAA, 128RoE WK (=) JL RE Usage of several conjunctions 1. “#0”, C1) “Al” RT WEA A, Bane ALARA Sb, RAT DE Bal, BAMA. PAO: The conjunction fl is often used to join nouns, nominal phrases, pronouns, as well as verbs, adjectives and verbal phrases. For example: Here TAB Fe Be Gétkahia) (connecting two verbs) SEH Mite B37 Fo BL GEBIE A) (connecting two adjectives) SAR MRK Ae MCLs GE Beall) (connecting two phrases) BURL BH RR CEB) (ditto) (2) FA “An” ERE, FER EERIE HY, “FA” RANEY A). LN: The elements joined by Al are coordinate and they often belong to the same kind. Generally, it is not used to join clauses. For example: RREBREN EK. x ROERRARN SR. PABA RK Bok Ae — Hh? X DAMASIO R— LA BKED RIK? KAAR-LY HAD: “BRM NEZG, , XKRER— MG AGL: “BER MPIEDG, + ” 129SPRASIAUGR (3) Fl “A” R= PRA alae, “A” — ABE VaR Bk: When #iJ is used to join three or even more than three words or phrases, it is usually put in front of the last. For example: AFLAG, AF. WEB, tA DUABES “A” eee “mm”. pion: A slight-pause mark can be used to stand for the conjunction fi. For example; RF LAB. AF. AE, Bok. 2 “R": “KR” RATE, RARER BI, “Rk” SERN TERR EA ERA, ERE “OR” BT. PRN: The preposition X is only used in written Chinese to join nouns. The primary part, if it can be differentiated from what is secondary in the joined parts, should be placed before J. For example: RURAL, $4, BACH A o 3. “#R": SA” BACAR AAMAZ A, RARE RRC. Bile: 3. is often used between two verbs or verbal phrases and indicates that two actions are in progress simultaneously or sucessively. For.example ; KARAM Ht ABORT RM PTH RE WKAR MAR ER. 4. “ER” Al “ae”: SPAT ETA ARB a, ABA + Both Wt and ELF indicate alternative. However, they have dif- ferent uses. CL) “GRRE” SERENE DF) aR HE ay HBR A EE 130See | SE on: 3&4z is mainly used in an interrogative sentence or in a declarative sentence with the implication of uncertainty. For example: PAEERNA? RAMEE FERRE E (2) “SR” REAP). Bid: HLF is usually used in a declarative sentence. For example; SREA ARAM 0 Ui KALA DRE Bi) _ i a] SECTION XI PARTICLES —, HAWEN MB Definition and types of particles BYTE, RMAF a, RAS AIM. RRR AY Ba, MATA} MEA, A word which is added to another word, a phrase or a sentence to indicate various supplementary meanings, grammatical relations or mood is called a particle. The particles can be divided into three kinds. (—) Sophia] The structural particles DAN PET aN) es RAN TE EA OY SD TY ST BH FD SDAA : Particles added to words or phrases to indicate grammatical relations are called structural particles. The most important structural particles 131SAS ADGER | i (de) 3h (de) 4% (de) (=) shasBnia The aspectual particles REE SH Pe TI BY ASB. SHASTA: Particles added to verbs to indicate a supplementary meaning are called aspectual particles. The aspectual particles are: T (le) # (zhe) zw (guo) (=) eu The modal particles WED FARRER SABAH BE, BABA Particles used at the end of a sentence to express moods are Ry (ma) We (ne) MH (ba) TF (le) Mi (a) AY (de) BR (ma) BE (na) wi (la) WF (ya) we (wa) =, MBER Grammatical features (—) WARERM. They do not have any concrete meaning. (=) AREA. They cannot be used alone. (=) ieee. They are read in the neutral tone. =, Dia Rie Functions (—) BRAG FE AIF Head. Particles can not be used alone as sentence elements. 132__ PIR AK (=) SAREE, TASER ER. HM: In a sentence, particles always occur after other words or phrases or at the end of a sentence. For example: . Wis 8 RBS PAM APARIE DEFER REA HIE 2 BoeEm! CHES ta a3) (attached to a noun) CREE) (attached to a phrase) CHAYES SY ) (attached to a verb) CHAE BUA a3) (ditto) CBE ZE AI FB ) (attached to a sentence) CHREE ALE) (ditto) A, CARA EESU TILT aa Points that merit special attention (—) Seshiad “W, sh, 4B” The structural particles AY, 4b and 7} 1. eow ia “A. th. 4” WSK, KE MAMMA EP, AEE “de”, (AEB HBA ES Ho With the neutral tone “fj”, the pronunciation of the structural par- ticles fi}, Hb and 49 is exactly the same. However, they are respectively written as Hf), Jt, and 74 and are not interchangeable. 2. AM “nO” STE AUDI, AL ABE REEVE. BMI: 133SOAASHOGRR Structural particle ff only occurs after an attributive modifier. It is the signal of attributive. For example; TK IRB. (BiaGETE ) (noun a8 attributive) Hh IR BSCE ANGE CARiaEIS) (pronoun as attributive ) rH MR BETES Lo OBA WGEIE) (adjective as attributive ) Fico DR BEER ISK T (Bhi TE) (verb as attributive ) RUE R AIRES? (ALTE) (phrase as attributive ) fC A5 IR BEAST. CELE) (ditto) 3. Ba “ib” BENNER RUN, LIKE Wan. Pn: Structural particle iti only occurs after an adverbial adjunct. It is the signal of adverbials. For example; KEMBAALK OS BK 0 OBA WE ) . (adjective as adverbial adjunct) RATA ETF CATA RIB ) (ditto) PERV ITA. “URI RE ARE?” GALORE) (phrase as adverbial adjunct) UPR-S—Bw'S. (AAAS) (ditto) 134i HEA 4. Boa “8” ZENKNEHARVA AR. Me aria, HATHA. Pd: Structural particle 7% only occurs in between a verb or an adjective and a complement. It is the signal of complements. For example; TAT CBE Saal a) (attached to a verb) Base he CBEST ) (ditto) ARSE CBRE Bh iA ead ) (ditto) Nae CBT CESITA a ) (ditto) BRAMB CARTE A GW ) (attached to an adjective) (=) BABI “T. 4, et” Aspectual particles [, #, it DUAWHAMAW AA. Bia SWAB “T. B ” TRAE PHI Mo (IEA EDTA OSA “THE” 6 Chinese verbs do not have inflection in form. A verb often takes af- ter it the particles [, # and if to indicate various additional mean- ings. However, not every verb can take { and #%. 1. mwa “7” AER, SRE. HM: The aspectual particle { is suffixed to verb, indicating the comple- tion of an action. For example; REI —A CIA), (“RL ABER ARM) (The action 3 has completed. ) MET CHUA TF RR HE T ) (She has left. ) 135PRR ASOHDGHAR FEE TBE, weet. | ( “PRE” Mah PeHe Se 5c) (The action F HE is about to finish. ) SUCH T ARERR. ( “Wea” ABP EREBE SE RR) (The action {C44 is about to finish. ) CG) masa “T” ARR “CA” AER. Bilan: The aspectual particle [ is often used together with adverbial BA. For example: RTE, WEA T KA. REARWRT HF AMET 0 HABE T Bebe TM? (2) FUL SSR ASI “TT” WY: The aspectual particle J is not suffixed to the following verbs. Ox SEA TEI TA PY EME TEA. HE: The action of the verbs may not finish in a short time. For ex- ample; RR MS CA Re RH QsifeHe RHR. HM: Verbs which cannot express actions. For example: de 7E ER BR OrWAM AIAN. HM “BEDE, “ME”, “Sie” AE, Verbs which take before an auxiliary verb such as 2 0F, 48 #, BB, ete. 2 Shi “AH KEMAGL, RRBERTAERER TPE TELETT, RADFIRARAAS, ALAA ZETSSE. Bilin: When added to a verb, # indicates that an action or a conduct is in progress or in a certain state at a certain time, or a certain state contin- ues, For example; 136Boe WA HUMIER AF 0 ( SYP TELEREAT) (The action is in progress. ) fae SAE (TALE) (ditto) Trae, ETRE. ORASHEHFEE) (The state continues. ) FUT AR CGRP APRAS) (to be in a certain state) C1) SeASBAI “2” AHR “TES CWE)” “SPE we)” Rae. pilin: The aspectual particle 2% often pairs up with adverbial “JE -+---- Wg”, *{E----0B”. For example: AER, BIER ALB (YE) 0 WES AAV, BAIA AT BE HE (2) FRULAR SALAD AB ASIA “2” AY: The aspectual particle # cannot be suffixed to the following catego- ries of verbs. OAR AI, WR, TE. SFL BR, 58. itt. HR, HL wbL WEL a a” | Verbs which cannot by themselves express a continuous aspect such as 2, 42, “EF, AR, oe, MEM, THR, Bh, we, UE, dh, #, ete. OARA AHS SIEM, WN “HR, TA, MU, BL UW WA AP, POR, AR” F. Verbs which contain a continuous aspect such as 7, 1H, SiH, Bh, HE, VN, HP, HA, WARE, etc. Ori Babies, Wn “REDE”, “BS”. “ASR” He Verbs which take before an auxiliary verb such as FEL, 25, Hi 137SBA SOULE | XK, ete. @QRAAHRAN, fn “FT, FT. HERA BUH” EO Verbs which take after a complement such as #7], 479K, +281, PLA, etc. 3. MAS “LW” WEA, RTE RTA, AH RRA. WB. wd: When preceded by a verb, iit indicates that an action took place in the past. Some phrases of this kind may show experience as well. For ex- ample; BURZI PAE FEET ht AE BH. tht LIE. SrSwi] “it” WR “BA” HERS BN: The aspectual particle if is often accompanied by 144%. For exam- KBAR DEER, PUI BAW TR. 4. Hawa w “T. "WBE The negative forms of verbs taking particle [, #, it teat BEER Affirmative form Negative form ANT AMRF XAT AMR ANA (BRL OR") (keep #7 in the sentence. ) KIEFER AMRIFH KT TBGEIPA. KMVAFRE (BARE “RL”) (Keep itt in the sentence) KMRL 138Bow (=) JUAN A BAY A Usage of some modal particles 1. “mg” “1G” FERNS MIA. RARE AA ME, FAAS BI BIS, FERRARI “5”, fala: 1 is a modal particle showing interrogation. When not knowing something and expecting an answer, the speaker can put 3 at the end of a statement. For example; BARBS? DB AY REED? EBL — PBB RTS? 2. “HR” (1) “We” ATEAFATESERI MAE, RARSEAIAA. BG is often used at the end of a question to indicate a tone of interro- gation. O “WR” AUAKER MOA, BURR EMER ‘Bild : 4g can be used at the end of an affirmative-negative sentence to in- dicate a tone of uncertainty. For example; HARA BEAL? KARE UMA 7 PETAL A RE ROE VE .2 @ “Oe” WLR AE, ED AP Bilan: ¥é can be used at the end of a question with an interrogative pro- noun to indicate a tone of conjecture. For example; ABR NFER? SEALER IL? 139DBAS ADE - BRPFEARR? @ “WR” TATE REE DARE, HB EEA TE Filo lan: We can be used at the end of an alternative question to suggests a tone of releasing or urging. RAO, BR RI? WF MFERGE RE? WEKANZ ERR 2B? @ “We” RAT ARE RT LEA, FEB “GEE”, BM: WE can be used at the end of the two or more than two alternatives in an alternative question, with the conjunction 3&4 preceding the last al- ternative. For example; WERE, BRAG B BE? PATER, (BR) FHV, RIT ERR? PAAR, (ER) AGAVE, BALM? © “we” AEFAZE “05” Jai. PM: Ye cannot be suffixed to M4 in an interrogative sentence. For example: RIM ARBMW RES? x CEMA IAA SKM? ABET ATR? x AE MOP TNT MQUE? (2): FESTA , “WR” HTD RUE ial, PR UT RACIAL, fa] “EBL”. GU: In a clear context to ask “where”, Wé can be used after a noun or a pronoun to form a one-member question. For example: TEA (lI) 2 (lal: YEA #FZEBIUL?) (Where is {E/) #77) fh? Cla}: {ty ZE88 JL?) (Where is he?) 140So BYE (lal: BS ZEMRIL?) (Where is the chalk?) FLEE? Cal: SFE EL?) (Where is the dictionary on the desk?) EWR, “OR” WORE isa, fal ARNG. Bilan: In a certain context, Wé can be used after a noun or a pronoun to ask related question. For example ; RATER, 16? MEMES?) HERE, RADA, MI? MATA?) FM, ATIVE? CASTE?) REM, RHE? (RANE FEMI?) FATHERS HET, the? (HATE a T BAT?) (3) “We” NY FA CERRIB AIRF, ZAR Sh RR PE EFT BE 20 lM: Wg can be used at the end of a statement to show that an action or a state is in progress or continuation. For example; INEM PRE, MET, Fai. AAT TEBE SE WO (4) SRABSHREERM, WA OR” RRTBORA ‘Bild : When you cannot make a decision, you can use WZ to indicate the reason for your hesitation. SRESERIRERE: HR, ARBT; BER, RK io AME, Rie; AMAR, BARN, EAM? 141SPEARS oa 3. “ip” (1) “HE” TFA ZE MGR ARE, ZeARER, aS. AP aba We an: fll can be used at the end of a statement to express request, com- mand, consultation or proposal. For example; HEMT — ite! SEG re! HB! (2) “08” FD AEMRR AAR, ZAR. Baldi: HEL can be used at the end of a statement to show agreement. For ex- ample; Here, BS MAIER « KERB PO! (3) “IR” FFE AE, AANBLR ARTS A fit, 1B. ECE E. RNAS, EAB. Pld: MI. can be used at the end of a statement to indicate that the speaker has an estimate of something but is not very certain. There is usually a question mark at the end of such a sentence indicating a mild tone. For example; DBE Te REAM Te? FTIR Te? BOHR e? 4. “15” (1) “Hi” FT AICEMRR ARE, ZAR, BilM: If can be used at the end of a statement to show exclamation. For example: ZY! YORRT. SR RIEGETT! KPa pe! (2) “HD” TE MR AR, AE, HEE, A Xo Bila:BIH | Thi] can be used at the end of a statement to indicate a tone of cer- tainty, urging or exhortation, etc. For example; de, BARET. WKB! peer! — GB) I” ADF AETE 2 sR Te a), PES Ma BIE Ba TR SORE, CBSE “UR” AGE E, alan: i] can be used at the end of an affirmative-negative question, an al- ternative question or a question (to indicate interrogation). Its tone is more urgent than the sentence with Yé. For example: DCRR ASL AY T? ASME 2 BESET 2 PENA IL 85 ET? 5. “7” C) “7” TEMPE, RATAN. Bilan: T can be used at the end of a statement to show emergence of a new situation. For example: BRT. KT o FEF T o SIENA CABIN T (2) “1” FUAEMRR MARIE, ZARVGR, EIK, HR, Fah PAR. ld: T can be used at the end of a statement to show a change in under- standing, opinion, ideas, or action, etc. For example; RUM RIRT ROELAM , KER EURM T HHT REMI KMD IRA T (3) “YT” ATRIA, Sane, USM, Gla: T can be used at the end of a sentence to express urging, advice or reminder. For example: 143SHBASADGRE | HY, HT, HIBS. MT, REBT. HRT , AAIETERE. LRT, PRHEZCEEIC, WRT, HST. (OO) IBABBIA) “Oa” ABE IANA The modal particle 4 in a question BMEAW ABE EM DRE RAR— ENT. “MB” A RFD EW 38 40) AS Pg a), AS J ZS ft BT A J Ho Bian: Each modal particle must be used in a certain kind of sentence to express a certain mood. The modal particle 1 can only be used at the end of a statement to form a question, not after other kinds of interroga- tive constructions. For example; {th de RBI? RERHA? x ARH? FREER? RATHER AR? X ARBAB FPR AREY? WERE? WRIEELLRE? x PRL RARE? (E) Swen Several other modal particles 1. OR: HFRRMGEM BT HL. IM: 5K; When something is obvious and easy to understand, the speaker can put Sf at the end of a statement. For example; EBA, BATH. SRRAARER, WTAE 144— __ aI | 2B: WE—-TFHMRE “n” Ht, “Ba” RR B na” Fo fila: 8: When the ending sound of the preceding syllable is “n”, par- ticles Ii] turns to Wf. For example; | REN, KEMOITT! PA BURR A RPE 3. te: “7 le” A “Ba” HAAR “lo”, pilin: tht; It is a sound when “J le” and “Ij a” are spelled together. WOT, FRE. MAMMA, HRY. 4.7; “Wl” GME—-TFHRBE “a, ec, U, i” BY, BI KK “Wya” To fia: Wf; When the ending sound of the preceding syllable is “a”, ” or “i”, particle Mf tums to WF. For example; PALM HLA A, KRABI VATA RAA? . 5 mE: “WE” ER — TS MRE “u, 0” H, MERT “i wa”, fila: n&: When the ending sound of the preceding syllable is “U” or “o”, particle fi] tums to Ii. For example; WARE | WEL FARAH ED 145SASSO —, MWHER _ Definition BASILE OF GI AH TAI Oi] HA An interjection is a word which can express an exclamation, a call or a response. For example: We (wei) (A) AE (a) eFC Giyay WE (0) mR (0) =. Mie A Grammatical features (—) BARI, Ae — AR — PA ERA FB No interjection has a concrete meaning. It only indicates a kind of feeling or a sound that draws attention. , (>) BOcHAENS, AVF SURE BA a LNIER Interjections are quite independent and have no grammatical rela- tionships with other parts of the sentence. (=) ASE FH. Interjections usually occur at the beginning of a sentence. =, Mia Ae Functions (—) RAAF Rest. They cannot be used as a sentence element. 146— — SII | AR (S) MFA FSH, RAMP, ME FRR ‘pla: They are separated from the sentence, and indicate a call, a re- sponse, surprise or admiration, etc. For example: RL PR ALTK HAN? (CATH TEEY FR ) (to use during a phone conversation) “a! RMT. (Baws) (a response) LF, RAE VE? (BR) (indicating surprise) AT! a SLR! (RAHM) (indicating admiration) A. SAMS ESL Points that merit special attention (—) SES, ASABE, Each interjection expresses a certain feeling or imitates a certain sound , so it cannot be used indiscriminately. (=) ILS FA Usage of some interjections 1. “OR” FOFRST RIGA, Bila: ff is used when answering a phone call. For example; , UME? RK, RHE? 2. “W” FRA PRT, lin: WY is used when friends say hello-to each other. For example: BL, USEF! : Bt, USAWILING EERE, 147PBASSHUGH) 3. WR" “BR” RAM. HM: Wl or HSE indicates response. For example: Psat TUS? 8, MET. MRI. «= ——%, RAL. 4. “iR” RAR. HMM: IY is the sound of sighing. For example: el ELSE! , XAT. 5. “ON”. “I (G)” Re. PilLN: IWF or Hf (@) indicates surprise. For example: SF! PRETIBS (6), BARRE? - 6. “Il (a)” FeaHeON, fildn: Hi] (GQ) indicates admiration. For example: (0), RRMVLART! HT (G), MECH! 7. “i”, “UR” ARMS. AHR. PAR: Pf or I indicates realization and awakening. For example: #, RHAT. , FORRRR. 8. “lh (0)” ART. flan: " (6) indicates understanding. For example: RK, FARE. a, DRM. (|) A-*RTRA, ROU. Bld: The same interjection can express different feelings on account of its different tones. For example; 148