CHAPTER 13 Analysis of multi-degree-of-freedom systems: Approximate and numerical methods 13.1 INTRODUCTION In characterizing the dynamic response of a system, the frequencies of vibration play a major role. The fundamental frequency of the system is often the quantity of primary interest. A great deal of attention has therefore been devoted to its determination. A particularly effective and simple method of estimating the fun- damental frequency is the Rayleigh method described in Chapter 8. In this chap- ter, we present an extension of Rayleigh’s method. Called the Rayleigh-Ritz method, it provides a means of improving the Rayleigh estimate for the fun- damental frequency; in addition, it permits the determination of several higher frequencies of vibration. While the determination of one or more frequencies may be sufficient in some cases, in others, a complete history of response over a given period of time is required. Response history can be obtained by the mode superposition method of analysis, which was described in detail in Chapters 10 and 12. The method transforms the coupled equations of motion of an N-degree-of-freedom system into N independent single-degree-of-freedom equations. The response of the system is obtained by solving the N uncoupled equations and superposing the solutions. In the mode superposition method of analysis, if all N mode shapes of the system are used and the resulting uncoupled equations of motion are solved exactly, the exact response is obtained irrespective of the number of degrees of freedom the system may possess. In practice, even with modern powerful com- puters, the dynamic response analysis of a very large system with thousands of degrees of freedom is a very formidable and expensive task, In the mode superposition method, however, it is possible to obtain reasonable accuracy in the solution by including only a limited number of modes. How many modes need to be included in a particular case depends on the characteristics of the system and the applied load. In this chapter, we discuss procedures for estimat- ing the errors introduced by mode truncation and for determining the number ‘of modes that must be included in the analysis, so that a reasonable accuracy is obtained.702 Humar The mode superposition method described in Chapters 10 and 12 is, in fact, a special case of the more general method based on the transformation of coordinates using appropriately selected Ritz shapes. Like mode superposition, the Ritz shape methods permit a reduction in the size of the problem. The generation of suitable Ritz vectors therefore plays an important role in the numerical analysis of the response of multi-degree-of-freedom systems. In this chapter, we discuss several methods for the generation of such Ritz vectors. We also point out that many other methods of reducing the size of the problem, such as static condensation of the stiffness matrix and the mode acceleration method, belong to the category of Ritz vector methods. The Ritz vector methods lead to a reduced set of transformed equations of motion which must be solved in order to obtain the response of the original sys- tem, In special cases, for example when undamped vibration modes shapes are used as the Ritz vectors, and the system is either undamped or has proportional damping, the transformed equations are uncoupled and can be solved by an appropriate analytical or numerical method of solving single degree-of-freedom equations. Several such methods were described in Chapters 6 through 8, When the transformed equations are coupled, they may either be uncoupled by a sec- ond transformation or solved by a simultaneous direct integration of the entire set of reduced equations. The methods of integration that may be used in the latter case are similar to those described in Chapter 8 for the solution of single degree-of-freedom systems. In this chapter, we describe the application of sev- eral such methods to the numerical integration of multiple coupled equation, It should be noted that direct numerical integration can be applied equally well to the original system of equations of motion without any transformation. 13.2. RAYLEIGH-RITZ METHOD Rayleigh’s principle and its applications have been discussed several times in previous chapters. It is instructive to summarize the different contexts in which the Rayleigh method was discussed. In Section 2.7.4, we described the applica- tion of an assumed shape function weighted by a generalized coordinate in the Tepresentation of a continuous system by a single-degree-of-freedom system, For example, by assuming that the displacement shape of a vibrating beam could be represented by u(x,1)==(t)Y(x), where 2(1) was the generalized coordinate and (x) a shape function, we derived the following equation of motion 1) + k*2(t) =p” (13.1) where : 7 -[ ix) (Wx) } deAnalysis of multi-degree-of-freedom systems 703 L kts [ EL)" } dx 0 and L p= [ Bux) dx 0 For free vibrations, p* is zero and the solution of Equation 13.1 leads to the natural frequency of vibration w. Thus oe =5 Le EY fo Equation 13.2 was independently derived in Section 8.3.1 (Eq. 8.28) from en- ergy considerations. As shown there, for free harmonic vibrations at the natural frequency, the maximum potential energy is given by o (13.2a) DU (13.20) mix (Wx) } Ix L Vorax = (U nas : PY BI(x ){W" CoP dx (13.3) 0 while the maximum kinetic energy is given by / Tox = 520" [ mix){Wx)P dx (3.4) 9 In the absence of any damping force, the energy must be conserved and hence Voygx Must be equal to Tinax- The application of this condition leads to Equation: 13.2b. The examples cited above are, in fact, applications of the Rayleigh method. The expression on the right-hand side of Equation 13.2b is called the Rayleigh quotient. Rayleigh’s principle states that this quotient takes its minimum value when (x) is equal to the true vibration shape and that the minimum value of the quotient is equal to the square of the fundamental frequency. For any other value of (x), the Rayleigh quotient is larger than the square of the fundamental frequency Similar considerations apply to a multi-degree-of-freedom discrete parame- ter system. The application of a generalized coordinate and assumed vibration shape in the representation of such a system by an equivalent single-degree-of- freedom system was described in Section 2.8. As for a continuous system, the displacement vector in this case too is given by v= (ty. where y is now a vector. The equation of motion of the single-degree-of-freedom model is found to be mit+kz (13.5)704 Humar where m* =~'My kay Ky and pa=y'p An estimate for the fundamental frequency of the original system is obtained by solving Equation 13.5 with p* =0. This gives (13.6a) (13.6b) Equation 13.6 could also be derived from energy considerations as illustrated in Example 8.3. The expression on the right-hand side of Equation 13.6b is the Rayleigh quotient and, as in the case of a continuous system, its minimum value obtained by varying y is equal to the square of the fundamental frequency. In Section 10.5, we presented a formal proof of the fact that Rayleigh quotient provides an upper bound estimate of the lowest cigenvalue or the square of the fundamental frequency. We further proved that if the arbitrary shape vector W is selected from a subset of vectors that are orthogonal to the first s — 1 eigenvectors, the Rayleigh quotient provides an upper bound estimate to the sth eigenvalue. Our discussions indicated that the quality of the estimate of fundamental frequency depended on the choice of shape function : the closer this was to the true vibration mode shape, the better was the frequency estimate. In Section 8.4, we discussed a method of improving the frequency estimate. An extension to the Rayleigh method suggested by Ritz and known as the Rayleigh-Ritz method provides an alternative method of obtaining a better estimate of the fundamental frequency. At the same time, it can be used to ob- tain estimates of several higher frequencies. In the Ritz extension of Rayleigh method for a discrete parameter system, displacements of the system are ex- pressed as a superposition of several different independent shape vectors, known as Ritz vectors, each weighted by its own generalized coordinate. Thus = z(t), + 220s + + zur ay =z . (13.7) where ¥ is the matrix of Ritz vectors and z is the vector of M generalized co- ordinates. If we treat u as a possible displacement shape, the Rayleigh quotientAnalysis of multi-degree-of-freedom systems 705 corresponding to that shape is given by u’Ku ° = aFMu (13.8) aK 2!Mz where K= "KY and M=f"MW. The value of Rayleigh quotient will change if the displacement shape is var- ied, which is equivalent to varying one or more of the generalized coordinates 21, to zy. We know that in the vicinity of an cigenvalue of the system, p takes a stationary value. For a discrete system, the stationary value is a minimum near all eigenvalues except the highest, where it is a maximum. The conditions of stationarity can be stated as .M (13.9) For ease of reference, we denote the numerator of Equation 13.8 by v and the denominator by w. Note that both v and w are scalars, Equation 13.9 can now be expressed as ce (13.10a) or as Mt (13.10b) Since K and M are symmetric, the complete set of M equations represented by Equation 13.10b can be expressed as 1% ke UR z! Mx Now recognizing that when the condition given by Equation 13.9 is satisfied, p takes the value «?, where « is one of the frequencies of the system, we have Mz=0 (13.11) ale z™Mz Substitution of Equation 13.12 in Equation 13.11 gives Kz=0°Mz (13.13) p (13.12)706 | Hwmar Equation 13.13 will be recognized as a linearized eigenvalue problem. The frequencies © obtained from its solution will be approximately equal to the frequencies of the original system, while the mode shapes z will be orthogonal to the reduced matrices K and M. Denoting a normalized value of z by ¢, we have ifj (13.14) gimig, = 0 where ¢, is the ith normalized mode shapes. Mode shapes ¢ are of size M and are not the mode shapes of the original system, which is of size N. It is, however, possible to obtain from a the mode shapes of the original system. To do this, we apply the transformation given by Equation 13.7: g=VO, i Mi (13.15a) or o=¥o (13.15b) Vectors are approximations to M mode shapes of the original system and are orthogonal with respect to both the K and M matrices. To demonstrate this, we note that Kg, G7 V7 KYG, GRO iFj (13.16) 0 I Se where the last step follows from Equation 13.14. In a similar manner $7 Md, = #/Mg, ifj (13.17) Also $7 Kd, 4) Md, =} (13.18) Again, the last relationship holds because g, and «, are the eigenpairs obtained from the solution of Equation 13.13. The frequencies and mode shapes obtained as above by application of the Rayleigh-Ritz method are only approximations to the true frequencies and modeAnalysis of multi-degree-of-freedom systems 707 shapes. The quality of the approximation depends on the selection of the as- sumed shapes ; the closer these shapes are to the true vibration mode shapes, the better are our estimates of the system frequencies and mode shapes. As proved in Section 10.5 (Eq. 10.38), the frequency estimates will always be larger than the fundamental frequency and smaller than the highest frequency. The Rayleigh-Ritz method will also provide estimates for intermediate frequen- cies, but what particular frequencies are estimated will depend on the selection of the Ritz shapes. In addition, the estimate of an intermediate frequency may be smaller or larger than the closest true frequency. For a complex multi-degree-of-freedom system, the selection of vibration shapes to be used in Rayleigh-Ritz method is not simple. It is, however, possible to improve an initial estimate of the vibration shape by following a procedure very similar to that used in the Rayleigh method for obtaining the fundamental frequency of a multi-degree-of-freedom system, In the improve- ment to the Rayleigh method described in Section 8.4, we reasoned that the deflected shape obtained by the application of inertia forces resulting from an initial assumption of the free-vibration shape will provide a better estimate of the true free-vibration shape. Similar reasoning can be applied in application of the Rayleigh-Ritz method. Thus, if the initial assumption of the vibration shapes is ‘Y), the deflected shapes under the action of inertia forces resulting from ¥? will be given by an equation parallel to Equation 8.36 P 20'K- MP (13.19) Since w is not known, we use vibration shapes "') that are proportional to P'" and are obtained by dropping «* from Equation 13.19. Thus wh KIM pO (13.20) and Pa orH (13.21) Use of ¥" in place of Y in Equation 13.7 leads to the improved Rayleigh-Ritz equations KO z=0°M 2 (13.22) where KO? = poop = yO'MK- Myo (13.23) = yO! Emp708 Humar and (Dpto? yp = ¥ MK 'MK~'MY) (13.24) = ¥"MFMEM'P) in which F is the flexibility matrix. The procedure outlined by Equations 13.22, 13.23, and 13.24 permits im- provements in the calculated vibration shapes, so that reasonable estimates of frequencies can be obtained from crude initial assumption of the vibration shapes. In addition, it allows use of the flexibility matrix rather than the stiffne matrix in the computations, which may be an advantage in certain cases. An explicit evaluation of the flexibility matrix is not, in fact, needed; calculation of the deflections caused by applied inertia loads equal to MY) is all that is required. As a final comment, the procedure will be recognized as the first step in the subspace iteration method described in Section 11.5.4 Example 13.1 Obtain the stiffness and mass matrices for the five-story building frame shown in Figure E13.1a Using the Rayleigh-Ritz method and the following displacement shapes, obtain two frequen and the corresponding mode shapes of the building. Then by using an improved Rayleigh-Ritz Ineria force, Slory Sheows——nfrstry Totaly level Nomad Me, cetacters “detectors aflestone xi x00 1.000 16089 +0000 ne 1.000 0.2500 2600 ones 13889 1238 1.0020 oor 7 one? ones had ona omens 4.096 oasts oat 2200 01980 6120 ‘02200 Inertaforce, Story Shears ——_Inlerstry Tala sterylevel_ ovate a, detectors “detetars——Gatlecions : “ooo x00 +000 oz 4.0000 1.000 0.2500 7 ad oar” 07s o2a10 as7 oa @ ae -01678 0.5084 205 7 aed 02423 07366 1089 oon coe ois 0420 2200 sais 0 Figure E13.1. (a) Five-story building frame; (b) displacements caused by forces Mqy: (c) displacements, caused by forces Mq3Analysis of multi-degree-of-freedom systems 709 method, obtain better estimates of the frequencies and mode shapes. 02 -05 04 -10 06 -05 ok 05 O10 Solution Corresponding to the degrees of freedom shown in Figure of the frame are given by Ja, the mass and stiffness matrices 2 M= 2 2 I 2800-1200 0 0 0 —1200 2400 — 1200 0 0 K= 0 1200 2000 -800 0 0 0-800 1200 —400 0 0 0-400 400 ‘The transformed mass and stiffness matrices are obtained as = yy" 34 02 (a) 02 48 = (vy) Kw? [* ) () 40 1900 The reduced eigenvalue problem of Equation 13.13 becomes 34 02 d z=0 (©) 02 45 [208 40 2 40 1900 The eigenvalues can be obtained by solving the characteristic equation of the eigenproblem. Thus 208-342 40 -0.22 =0 @) 40-024 1900 — 4.54 or # — 483.64 + 25,790 =0 (ce)710 Humar On solving Equation ¢ we get Ay = 61.04 0 =7.81 (wy 422.6 on = 20.56 Substitution of A; and J2, in turn, in Equation ¢ give the corresponding eigenvectors in the reduced space af] (e) ay _ | -0.03623 . 1 The eigenvectors of the original system are obtained from graye o Substitution for z from Equation g in Equation h gives 12.196 0.5072 — 24.392 —1.0145 qi? =| —35.588 qi’ =| -0.5217 (i) —46.285 0.4710 —52.481 0.9638, When normalized so that the last element of the vector is 1, the eigenvectors qi and q2 become 0212 0.5263 0.424 1.0526 qi" =| 0.619 {=| -0.5414 @ 0.805 0.4887 1.000 1.000 | For the purpose of comparison, the exact values of the first two eigenvalues and eigenvectors are given below Ay = 0039 = 7.77 3604 w2= 18.98 0.199 0309 0.445 —0.536 a) = | 0.645 0.440 (ky 0.849 0.995 1.000 1,000 ‘The third eigenvalue is 23 = 765.08 or co = 22.66. We have obtained a good approximation to the first frequency. The second frequency estimate lies between the second and third true frequencies, but is closer to the second true frequency. The second frequency estimate is not as good as the first; and the estimate for the second eigenvector is, in fact, quite poor. To obtain an improved estimate of the eigenvalues and eigenvectors, weAnalysis of multi-degree-of-freedom systems 711 subject the frame to inertia forces caused by vibrations in each of the two mode shapes just derived. These inertia forces are proportional to Mg, and Mgq,, respectively. Next, we obtain the displacements caused by these inertia forces. The computations for obtaining the displaced shapes are straightforward and are shown in Figure E13.1b and e. The calculations in Figure E13.1b and c are self-explanatory. Since we are interested only in 1 displacement shape rather than in the absolute value of the displacements, we have normalized the displacements so that the deflection at the top-story level is 1. This keeps the numbers within reasonable bounds, The resulting displaced shapes are 0.1990 0.4296 0.4423 0.7356 q)'=| 0.6417 0.5094 0.8456 0.2410 1.0000 1.0000 Next, we use the displacement shapes just obtained as the new Ritz vectors to transform the problem to that of a reduced size, This gives pipe -| 3.7241 and =0.0679 3.0865 RO = pe Ry 225.13 —3.21 wo 3.21 1149.97 in which we have used ¥'"’=[q{"’ q}!’], q{"’ and q'’ being the latest values of Ritz vectors. The characteristic equation of the reduced eigenvalue problem becomes — 433.124 + 22510=0 (m) Solution of Equation m leads to the following eigenvalues Ay = 60393 w=7,771 dy = VIZ w= 19.306 (ny Substitution of 4) and 22, in turn, in the eigenvalue equation gives the following eigenvectors in the reduced space r ef (0) eo [ors] = 2 1 ‘The eigenvectors of the original system are obtained from gave? ©)712 Humar After normalization, the new eigenvectors are given by 0.1996 -0.4174 0.4435 07131 qi =| 0.6443 —0.4874 0.8461 0.2526 1.0000 1.0000 The frequency estimates have improved for both the first and second modes. Example 13.2 Obtain initial estimates of two of the frequencies of the system of Example 13.1 by using the following assumed vibration shapes in the Rayleigh-Ritz method = Seer ae Solution The transformed mass and stiffness matrices are given by M=¥'MY [13190 0.0139 7 (a) [0.0139 1.1944 K=¥'KY 1.0366 0.0833, = 400 (b) =0.0833 2.7778 ‘The reduced eigenvalue problem becomes 1.0566 —0.0833 1.1319 0.0139 400 a-2 z=0 () —0.0833 2.7778 0.0139 1.1944 On setting 1= 4/400, the characteristic equation of the eigenvalue problem can be written as — 2.84267 + 1.7753 =0 (d) Solution of Equation d gives 4, =0.9255 4) =370.22 6 = 19.24 9161 42= 766.43 G2 =27.68Analysis of multi-degree-of-freedom systems 713 The exact values of the first four frequencies are «9; = 7.77, w: = 18.98, on =27.66, and os = 36.39, The estimates that we have obtained, i and G2, are closest to the true frequencies « and cs. It is apparent from Examples 13.1 and 13.2 that the eigenvalue estimates obtained by the Rayleigh-Ritz method are greatly influenced by the selection of Ritz shapes. Example 13.3 The two starting Ritz vectors used to oblain frequency estimates for the system of Example 13.1 happen to satisfy the following relationships Y= adi + bby cbs + dbs where a, b, c, and d are arbitrary constants. (i) Prove that the first frequency estimate will lie between the first and the second true frequencies, while the second frequency estimate will lie between the third and the fourth true frequencies. (ii) On selecting a=02, b= 0.9, c=0.9, and d=0.2, the following trial Ritz vectors are derived 0.20 0.8 0.32 031 ¥ 0.23 0.06 0.18 0.61 0.84 0.61 in which the results have been rounded off to two decimal digits. Using these trial vectors obtain two frequency estimates. Solution (i) Using the orthogonality relationships the transformed mass and stiffness matrices can be shown to be (a) 0 (b) 0 Con + Po} Because the reduced mass and stiffness matrices are both diagonal, the two frequencies of the reduced problem are obtained quite readily and are given by Pol Bod ath714 Humar Equation c can be expressed as @(wi/o) + 0° ate a wy (e) Since « is smaller than «2, the numerator in Equation ¢ is smaller than the denominator. As a result, di is smaller than >. As an alternative, Equation ¢ can be expressed as B(o}/wi) e +6 Again, because cz is larger than co), the numerator in Equation f is larger than the denominator and hence © is larger than «. Thus the first frequency estimate lies between the true first frequency and the true second frequency. In a similar manner, we can prove that the second frequency estimate G> will lie between the true third and fourth frequencies. oo} wo Gi) For the supplied Ritz vectors the transformed mass and stiffness matrices work out to 1.1610 0.0052 = (g) 0.0052 1.3805 3997 1.0 = (h) 1.0 1101.6 which are very nearly diagonal. The solution of the reduced eigenvalue problem provides the following two estimates. =1856 — &=28.25 a 3 The first estimate is very close to the second true frequency of 18.98, but is smaller than the true frequency. The second estimate is close to the third true frequency of 27.66, but is larger than the true frequency. It is evident that the Rayleigh-Ritz method may provide estimates for intermediate frequencies, but which true frequencies are matched depends on the selection of the starting Ritz vectors. Also, the intermediate frequency estimates may be higher or lower than the closest true frequencies. In our example the first starting vector was close to the second mode shape, hence it led to a good frequency estimate for the second frequency. However, because of contamination from the first mode shape, the estimated fiequency was lower than the true frequency. It may be noted that, as proved in Section 10.5, a frequency estimate provides an upper bound to a true frequency only when the Ritz shape used to obtain the frequency estimate is orthogonal to all mode shapes lower than the one for which the frequency is being estimated. In our example the second trial shape is orthogonal to all modes lower than 3; as a result the estimate obtained for the true third frequency is an upper bound. The Rayleigh-Ritz method is also applicable to continuous systems. Similar to Equation 13.7, the deflected shape of a continuous system can be repre- sented by a superposition of M shape functions each weighted by a different generalized coordinate. As an example, for the lateral vibrations of a beam, the deflected shape is represented by u(x,t) =z (a(x) + z2(t ale) + + + zu (r(x) =n (13.25)Analysis of multi-degree-of-freedom systems 715 where y;, i=1 to M, are Ritz shapes which are functions of the spatial coor- dinates x; z;, i=1 to M, are the generalized coordinates; y is a row vector of shapes yj; and z is the vector of generalized coordinates. The Rayleigh quotient corresponding to the displaced shape u is given by Jo EU)" "COW" Conde (13.26) Jo xO) Woe dx We now introduce the notations _ al k-[ E(x yw" xy" (x) dx (13.27a) A 7 -. w= [ mx)Wx)) Wx) dx (13.27b) J so that ‘ ff Bowenfeoas (13.28a) b L ty = [ ritsywlcony(oy a (13.286) lb With the notations given by Equation 13.27, Equation 13.26 reduces to the form of Equation 13.8. Application of stationarity condition on the Rayleigh quotient then leads to the cigenvalue equation (Eq. 13.13). Example 13.4 For the lateral vibrations of uniform cantilever beam shown in Figure E13.4a, determine two frequencies and mode shapes using the shape functions given below and shown in Figure E13.4b, 1 cos 2 cos 1 ~ cos 22 2L Both shape functions satisfy the two geometric conditions at x=0. They also satisfy the zero moment condition at x-=Z but not the zero shear condition at the free end of the cantilever. Solution The eigenvalue problem is given by Equation 13.13 Kz=0'Mz (a)716 Humar a ‘ol ’ 20h : (1 = cos 38%) 1.0F- ae ol > A Mode shape 1 ry Mode shape 2 : ,_—_—____| Figure E13.4. (a) Uniform cantilever beam; (b) vibration shape functions; (c) mode shapes for the lateral vibrations of uniform cantilever. in which the elements of the stiffitess and mass matrices are obtained from Equations 13.28a and 13.28b, respectively. We thus have Laer ft ax kn = 36 i (cos) ax 1 WEL 2D ip 3 eaeAnalysis of multi-degree-of-freedom systems 717 81 EL (: uy’ in = Oe cos 5) dv wr J, Ty = = SLE 27 Also | mx my = f wi (1 cos 5°) dx ; c #) =i 2% | ax 3nx ma = f fi (1 ~ cos) ¢ cos =) dx © amet Oa] 322 lo gif ia 7 On setting Z 1= 0.22687 0.57564 | 0.5756) 81 — 1.92444 : or # — 192.9483 4 770.074=0 Solution of Equation f gives 40775 on =3523 2 i [Er 188.87 co» = 23.988) mL The exact values of the first two frequencies are reall] ° (32mL* /x* El oo", we get the following characteristic equation from Equation d te) (fy (g) (hy718 Humar The approximate frequencies are fairly close to the exact values of the first two frequencies. Also, as expected, the approximate values provide upper bound estimates of the true frequencies. Substitution of 4; and 22, in turn, in Equation d provides the following values for the generalized coordinates @ 1 0.3848, The mode shapes are now obtained from Equation 13.25 as a = cos $*) +-0,0321 1 cos 3 2 ao = 1.0321 — cos 2* — 1.0321 — cos IL 0.0321 cos SL @ mx 3nx = (1 = cos $*) - 0.3848 (0 cos 3) mx Bax = 0.6152 — cos 37 4 03848 cos ‘The two mode shapes have been plotted in Figure E13.4c. Example 13.5 Assuming that the cantilever beam of Example 13.4 is of nonuniform section so that its moment of inertia and mass vary as follows, obtain estimates of two frequencies of the beam. woy=n(1-3) Solution ‘The elements of stiffness and mass matrices are again obtained from Equations 13.28a and 13.286, respectively. ThusAnalysis of multi-degree-of freedom systems 9 Eh (1 16 (ae = ha ‘ x) 81 xEl 3x we= [ (5) Ra (cos 3) de a 18m? _ 81 Eh ~ 16 1 (i+ 2) : 8 Also me faa og (9k TL =O 8 tet a x ; 3nx my = [ fin (1 = 57) (1 c08 F) (: = 008) a = iy (32 _ 28 _ ME = 4” 3x 8x? = mn a x 3nx ms = [iin (1- %) (os FE) ate The eigenvalue 16L* or 0.4257 0.4559 0.1337 0.3633 0.3633 1.2980 Elo 16L? [ [ee som | 0.4559 30.8310 719 (a) (by (c)720 Humar On setting 7=(16iioL*/n*Ein oo", Equation ¢ leads to the following characteristic equation iz a 1g 4 | 0.4257 - 0.13374 0.4559 — 0.36337, : | 0 0.4559 — 0.36334 30.8310 — 1.29804 | or — 104.634 + 311.176 =0 «@) Solution of Equation d gives the two frequencies Ay = 30638 =4319)/ 22 Ls fe) 2, = 10187 on = 2487) mala The discussion in the foregoing paragraphs and Examples 13.1 through 13.5 demonstrate that the reliability of frequency estimates obtained from the Rayleigh-Ritz method depends on a proper selection of the Ritz shapes. Unless there is some indication of the nature of the vibration shape of the system in the desired mode, the frequency estimates can be very inaccurate. In general, the Rayleigh—Ritz method is used to obtain the lowest few frequencies of the system. The selected Ritz shapes should therefore resemble the lowest modes. For complicated systems, it is extremely difficult to construct such shapes. Despite these shortcomings, the Rayleigh-Ritz method can be quite useful for estimating the lowest few frequencies whenever good Ritz shapes can be derived on the basis of experience and judgment. The method is also very Useful for continuous systems, particularly for continuous systems having nonuniform properties where the exact eigenvalues are impossible to determine. 13.3. APPLICATION OF RITZ METHOD TO FORCED VIBRATION RESPONSE The Rayleigh—Ritz method, in fact, represents a transformation of coordinates in which the transformation matrix consists of a series of linearly independent vectors called Ritz vectors or Ritz shapes. If the number of such vectors is equal to the number of degrees of freedom in the system being analyzed, the solution of the eigenproblem in the transformed space leads to the exact cigen- values and eigenvectors of the original system. The value of the Rayleigh-Ritz method, however, lies in the fact that with appropriate choice of Ritz vectors, only a few of them may be used to represent the original system adequately. The transformation matrix is, in such a case, rectangular and the size of the transformed problem is considerably smaller than the original problem. Solution of the reduced problem then provides approximations to the true eigenvaluesAnalysis of multi-degree-of-freedom systems 721 and eigenvectors of the original system. The position of the eigenvalues that will be approximated and the accuracy with which they are calculated depends on the choice of the Ritz vectors. The fact that with appropriate selection of the Ritz shapes, only a few of them can be used to represent adequately the response of the original sys- tem can be utilized very effectively in the forced response analysis of multi degree-of-freedom systems. The use of Ritz method leads to a significant re- duction in the size of the problem and therefore in the computations involved in the solution. However, because the quality of the results obtained is in- fluenced strongly by the selection of Ritz shapes, methods for selecting such shapes are of considerable importance. In this section, we discuss several dif- ferent approaches used in the selection of Ritz shapes, the details of the solu- tion procedure in each case, and where applicable, the errors involved in the solution. 13.3.1 Mode superposition method The mode superposition method of solution of the forced vibration response, discussed in Chapter 12, will readily be recognized as a Ritz method in which the undamped mode shapes of the system are used as the Ritz shapes. It was shown that the application of the method leads to N uncoupled single-degree- of-freedom equations given by By + nn Sy + In = PEP NAVD (13.29) in which it is assumed that mass orthonormal mode shapes have been used as the Ritz vectors and that the damping is proportional, so that the transformation diagonalizes the damping matrix. Once the single-degree-of-freedom equations given by Equations 13.29 have been solved, the response in the physical coordinates is obtained from \ u= > bi Sn (13.30) it in which we have superimposed the contributions from only the first M mode shapes. This implies that we need to evaluate only the first M eigenpairs and further that only the first M equations from the N equations represented by Equations 13.29 need be solved. Obviously, an important consideration is how many mode shapes should be included in the computations so as to obtain rea- sonable accuracy. To find an answer to this question, let us first assume that the forcing function is of the form p=f sin, where f is a time-independent am- plitude vector and sin 94 represents the time variation. The steady-state solution722 Humar to nth equation in Equations 13.29 is then given by (Eq. 6.27) _ ft 1 or JB + Qe in which f,=Q/o, and tan 0 =2€,f,/(1 — 62). It is obvious that the characteristics of the forcing function that affect the response are its amplitude vector f and the frequency ®. The effect of amplitude is represented by the term git (13.32) sin(Q — 0) (13.31) which is called the participation factor. The effect of the exciting frequency Q is reflected in the term 4p = 1/\/ — BY + 2,8, )- This term is plotted in Figure 6.4 as a function of i, for several values of the damping fraction é,. For small values of f,, that is, when @, is much larger than 2, say four times © or more, Ap is very nearly equal to 1. Also, as seen in Figure 6.5, the phase angle @ tends to zero as f approaches zero. Hence, the modal response Jn reduces to of = sin Qe oe ky Equation 13.33 is readily seen as the expression for static response to load @)p. Since a general function p can be expressed as a superposition of its harmonic components, it is apparent that in the higher modes, for which «, is much larger than the highest frequency content in p, the response of the system is essentially static. Furthermore, from Equation 13.33 it is evident that since , increases with n, the displacement response decreases as the mode number increases, so that the contribution of the higher modes is comparatively small. However, since the modal contribution to spring force is equal to the product of the displacement response and the stiffness k,(= 2), higher modes make a more significant contribution to the spring forces than they do to the displacements. From the discussion in the foregoing paragraph, it is clear that while using the mode superposition method, all modes for which the participation factor @,f is significant should be included, particularly if the spring forces are to be evaluated. For modes with frequency «, equal to or greater than about 4Qmax+ where Qnax is the highest frequency content in p, the modal response can be taken to be equal to the static response. The number of modes to be included in a particular case will depend on the spatial distribution and the frequency content of p. If the forcing function NKor, (13.33)Analysis of multi-degree-of freedom systems 723 is orthogonal to a particular mode (@,f=0), that mode will not be excited at all. For earthquake forces, the participation factors for the higher modes are generally small and a major portion of the response is contained in only the first few modes. On the other hand, blast or shock loading may excite many more modes. To determine whether a sufficient number of modes have been included in the analysis, it is necessary to define some form of error measure. The participation factor $/f provides a measure of how significant is the contribution from a particular mode. In those cases where the forcing function is known to excite only the lower modes, the participation factor will decrease as the mode number increases. Therefore, the modal analysis can be truncated when the participation factor of the last mode included in the analysis is comparatively small, and at the same time the modal frequency is greater than, say, four times the highest-frequency content in the applied load. In a more general case, calculation of participation factor by itself will not indicate whether the modal analysis can be truncated, because even if the par- ticipation factor of a certain mode is small, a higher mode may still have a larger participation factor. It is then useful to determine how well the forcing function is represented by the truncated series of mode shapes. This is achieved as follows. The equations of motion to be solved are Mii + Ca + Ku=fg(¢) (13.34) ‘A modal coordinate transformation using M undamped mode shapes can be represented by uy = Dy yay (13.35), in which @,, is the matrix of first M mode shapes and yy is a vector of, M generalized coordinates. We use the subscript M on u to indicate that the displacement vector obtained by solving a transformed problem in which only M of the N modes are included will not be equal to the exact value denoted by u. Equation 13.35 is, of course, identical to Equation 13.30. Substitution of uy, for u in Equation 13.34 gives Miiy + Cay, + Kay =fyg() (13.36) Vector fyg(t) is the representation of a forcing function obtained by using a truncated series of modes. Since uy, is not exactly equal to u, fy is not equal to f and the difference between the two gives a measure of the error involved. Equation 13.36 gives fg) =MOyyy + COs + KOuywr (13.37) ‘Also, with M-orthonormal modes we have Ky =MOy Ay (13.38)724 Humar and CO, =MO,Ay, (13.39) where Ay is the diagonal matrix of the squared frequencies, «2, and Ay, is a diagonal matrix of terms 2é,.,. Substitution of Equations 13.38 and 13.39 in Equation 13.37 gives fiyg(t) =M@y Fy + M®yAuyyy, + M@y Ayu (13.40) ‘The transformed set of equations given by Equations 13.29 can be expressed as Yar + Audag + Anryar = OL g(t) (3.41) On multiplying both sides of Equation 13.41 by M@,, and substituting the resulting equation in Equation 13.40, we get fg) =M@y@ifg(0) (13.42) Equation 13.42 is an expression for the representation of forcing function obtained by using a truncated series of mode shapes. When M approaches N, fy will approach f. For M iggy = 15 0.9308 1000 aoa Tapyr sin Qt (7898" 1 (1.1597 = 7.527 sin Third mode: 2 = so 0.79 B= srg = 0.7953 as614 e100 (27.66¥ 1 — 0.7953)" = ~1.997 sin OFAnalysis of multicdegree-of-freedom systems 729 Fourth mode B 2 5 = 0.6046 0.5375 1000 v= (36.39) T= (0.60465 sin Or = —0.6397 sin Qt Fifth mode: p= 22 noses a 0.3194 1000 sin 01 © 435.71P 1 = (O4813P = -0.1990 sin 04 The displacement response is now given by u=S oy a 0.6622 1.5792, —0.5368 0.2849 14777 2.7361 Seal 0.0353 =}21448| +] 22491) +] 01260] +] 0.2921 2.8217 0.5081 0.9242 —0.1837 3.3211 5.1056 1.0139 0.0797 0.0831 1.3366 0.0957 3.7071 + | —0.0588 sin Qt = 4.7532 | sn Or 0.0164 3.0705 0.0039 2.7226 ‘The force response is given by =Ku= SuiMgy 79.96 1137.76 821.36 —754.60 178.40 1971.28 867.82 —— = 258.96 | + | 1620.42 | + pee res 773.58 340.70 —366.06 1414.20 486.42 200.58, 1838.96 =775.80 105.54 cual —705.5 400.00 1588.32 + | —245.86 sinQr= 2600.06 | sin Qe 68.36 970.76 -81l = 2317.75730 Humar Table E13.6, Error measure in mode truncation = 7 Number of modes iF ey my Er) M LF me 1 7.425 0.175 2 8.291 0.079 3 8.607 0.044 4 8.896, 0.012 5 9.000 0.000 The spatial distribution of the forcing function given by f=Mfr is such that the participation factor y, decreases with increasing mode number, j2 being 34.2% of 7; and ys being 20.6% of yi. However, the exciting frequency lies between the second and third mode frequency. As a result, response amplification is quite high in these modes, counterbalancing the decrease due to lower participation factor. It may, however, be possible to obtain reasonable accuracy in the calculation of response with less than the full five modes. It will be of interest to calculate the error norm given by Equation 13.48 to obtain some indication of the error caused due to mode truncation. The calculations are shown in Table E13.6. On the basis of error norm given in Table E13.6, we may choose to include only three modes in our calculation, The corresponding displacement and force responses will then be as follows 1.7046 3.6467 u=| 4.5199 | sin Or 3.2378 2.7984 396.36 1281.86 fs=| 2072.20 | sin 1388.84 2414.18 The errors in the displacement response are acceptable, but those in the spring force vector are quite high. One reason is that the higher modes are needed for an adequate representation of the frequency content of the forcing function. We may be able to improve the accuracy of the spring force veetor by adding static correction for the modes not included. The correction vector fs. can be obtained from Equation 13.58 fs. = (m« - $ wedi) (1000 sin 2r) = (m- Sim) 1000 sin 2)Analysis of multi-degree-of-freedom systems 731 Substitution for M, r, 7, and @ gives 246.9 [as f= 301.9 | sin Or 255.5 60.0 ‘The corrected response obtained by adding fs calculated earlier and fs. calculated above is — 350.44 1528.76 fi 2374.10 | sin 0 1133.19 2354.19 ‘The corrected response is scen to be closer to the exact value. 13.3.3 Static condensation and Guyan’s reduction It is of interest to note that the static condensation described in Section 3.7 can be viewed as a special case of Ritz procedure, in which the original problem of a size equal to the sum of the translational degrees of freedom in u, and rotational degrees of freedom in uy is reduced to that of the size of u,. The transformation is expressed as uy, [R)-™ (13.59) in which the transformation matrix T is obtained by using the relationship given by Equation 3.106 I T= (13.60) [cae] When the transformation is applied to Equation 3.103, we get (13.61) M=M, (13.62a) K=K,, — KoKy) Ku (13.62b) Dy (13.62c)732 Humar Since the degrees of freedom eliminated from the formulation by the fore- going procedure do not have any inertia or external forces applied to them, the static condensation process does not involve any approximation. However, as an extension of this procedure, the transformation matrix given by Equation 13.60 can be used even when there are inertia or external forces acting along the eliminated 0 degrees of freedom. The transformed and reduced mass matrix is in such a case given by Mi Mo I Ma Moo | | —Ky!Ku M=[I ~ K(K jy) 7 = Mn ~ Maka Kar + Kin Koy Y MK 5 Ko. ~ KiKi!) Mor (13.63) For symmetrical mass and stiffness matrices, this reduces to M= Mz ~ MoKyy Ku, + KK! Mw Ky! Ku — (MyKa! Ko)? (13.64) The reduction of mass matrix as in Equation 13.64 is called Guyan’s reduction, The reduction process now introduces approximations in the formulation, and the reliability of the results obtained depends on a judicious selection of the degrees of freedom that are to be eliminated. Example 13.7 The uniform cantilever beam shown in Figure E13.7a is modeled by two prismatic beam elements as indicated. Using the beam clement stiffness matrix given in Section 3.6.1 (Eq. 3.93), obtain the stiffness matrix of the cantilever beam corresponding to the four degrees of freedom shown in the figure. Then calculate the eigenvalues for the lateral vibrations of the cantilever by each of the following alternative procedures. (i) Using the element mass matrix given in Equation 3.99 and a static condensation of the stiffness matrix, obtain a second-order eigenvalue problem and solve its characteristic equa- tion. (ii) As in part (a), except that for the element mass matrix, instead of using Equation 3.99, use the lumped mass matrix of Equation 3.101 (a) tb) Figure E13.7. (a) Uniform cantilever beam and global coordinates; (b) beam element and local coordinates,Analysis. of multi-degree-of-freedom systems 733 (iii) Obtain the mass matrix of the cantilever by using the consistent mass formulation (Eq, 3.96) for each element. Then, using Guyan’s reduction, obtain a second order eigenvalue problem and solve its characteristic equation, Solution Figure E13.7b shows an element of the cantilever beam. Also shown are the local degrees of freedom. The stiffness matrix for each of the two elements corresponding to the local degrees of freedom shown are obtained from Equation 3.93 and are given by x ea i tnt xu 4 HH _% ey Ke (a) 4 we ws -# -3 ali 3 1 Boe alle # 3 ! 4 8 4 () Lu Lm os 2 i 4 2 Against the stiffness matrix of each element we have indicated the global degrees of freedom that match, in position and direction, the corresponding local degrees of freedom. For example, the local degree-of-freedom 3 of element 1 corresponds to the global degree-of-freedom 3. We have therefore placed the number 3 against each of row 3 and column 3 of K'"'. In a similar manner, local degree-of-freedom 4 of element | corresponds to global degree-of-freedom 1; number | therefore appears against row 4 and column 4 of K'"’. The 4x4 global stiffness matrix is obtained by assembling the local stiffness matrices given in Equations a and b. To carry out the assembly, cach term of the element matrix is considered in turn and placed in the global matrix at the position indicated by the correspondence numbers appearing against the row and column ‘occupied by the term in the element matrix. Thus, the term —24E//L? appearing in row 4, column 3 of K''’ has correspondence numbers | and 3 and will be placed in row 1, column 3 of the global matrix. If a particular term in the element matrix has any of the row and the column correspondence numbers missing, that term is ignored in the assembly. The assembled global stiffness matrix is given by (©) (i) The element mass matrices obtained from Equation 3.96 are shown below along with the correspondence numbers relating the local degrees of freedom to the global degrees734 Humar of freedom es Og M"=nL|0 0 0 0] 3 d) tO! 31 oo 0 0 5] of 0 1 M”’~nl}0 0 0 0 4 (e) 0 of) 2 3.14 2 @ ‘The global displacement vector u is partitioned as ~( where 1 -[" | tepresents the translational degree of freedom and 7 [2 ] uy represents the rotational degrees of freedom. The rotational degrces of freedom are now elimi- nated from the equation of motion, The condensed stiffness matrix is given by Equation 13.62b R=Ky = Ko Ky Ky (g) whereAnalysis of multi-degree-of-freedom systems 735 Kw ~ EL [ i Inversion of Ky gives — RET 4 Substitution into Equation g now leads to nl oe The eigenvalue equation becomes EL In comparison, the exact values are EL me o = 3516) (ii) The global mass matrix is, in this case, given by $000 o}oo0 0000 0000 After static condensation, the eigenvalue problem becomes w@736 Humar Solution of Equation j gives the following frequencies r on = 3.156. Vv on = 16.258)/ V ml ‘These values are less accurate than those determined in part (i). iii) In this case, we use consistent mass formulation for each of the two elements. The element mass matrices are shown below along with the correspondence numbers 420 | The global mass matrix is partitioned along the translational and rotational degrees of freedom. Guyan reduction given by Equation 13.64 is then applied to obtain a 2 x 2 reduced mass matrix M mL | 187.102 36.887 420| 36.887 97.674 The eigenvalue problem is now given by cmt [187.102 36.887] fz, ]_[o | 420° | 36.887 57.674 a0 °Analysis of multi-degree-of-freedom systems 737 Solution of Equation 1 by the characteristic equation method gives the following frequencies ‘On comparison with the exact values, it is seen that in this case, a consistent mass formulation, even with the approximation involved in a Guyan’s reduction, gives a much improved estimate of the vibration frequencies 13.3.4 Load-dependent Ritz vectors The use of undamped mode shapes of the system as Ritz vectors offers sev- eral advantages, First, the mode shape vectors are independent. Second, they automatically satisfy the geometric boundary conditions of the system. But the most useful property of the mode shapes is their orthogonality to both the mass and stiffness matrices. As a result, under a normal coordinate transformation the equations of motion become uncoupled and their solution is greatly simplified. Notwithstanding these advantages, there are several difficulties associated with the use of eigenvectors as Ritz shapes. First, the computation of cigen- values and eigenvectors of a large system is expensive and time consuming. Second, because the mode shapes of the system are not related to the applied load vector, a large number of shapes may be required to represent the load adequately. Several of the mode shapes may, in fact, be nearly orthogonal to the load vector and may contribute very little to the response. The effort ex- pended in the evaluation of such mode shapes will be of no benefit, yet it is not possible, a priori, to detect whether a particular mode shape will be orthogonal to the load vector. Obviously, a desirable set of Ritz vectors will be one that can adequately represent the spatial distribution of load by the superposition of a minimum number of shapes. This criterion has motivated the development of methods for the generation of load-dependent vectors. ‘A method proposed by E.L. Wilson et al. begins with the assumption that the load can be represented as the product of a spatial vector and a time function, so that p(t) =fg(t) (13.65) The first vector, %), in the series of Ritz vectors is then obtained by solving the equation Kx, =f (13.66) Vector %}, which essentially represents the static response of the structure to the applied load, is normalized so as to be orthonormal to the mass matrix. If738 Humar x; represents the normalized vector, we have x © Ga MR)? Subsequent vectors in the series are members of the following sequence, referred to as the Krylov sequence x1, K7'Mx), (K7'M)?xi,....(K7'M)/x; (13.68) x (13.67) These vectors are obtained from the recurrence relationship Kx;=Mx,;-; i=2,...,N (13.69) Each vector %; is then orthogonalized with respect to the vector determined previously. To achieve this, %, is expressed as ict Hak + Vgx; (13.70) a where X; is the pure vector, orthogonal to all previous vectors, and terms ¢x; represent components of such previous vectors present in X;. To obtain c,, both sides of Equation 13.70 are multiplied by xfM. By definition, x/M&; must vanish. Also, all terms x7Mx, vanish except x7 Mx;, which is equal to 1. This is true because the previous vectors are supposed to have already been mass orthonormalized. Multiplication of Equation 13.70 by x?M thus gives cy =xf MX; (13.71) The orthogonalized vector X; is now given by (13.72) where c; for j=k is obtained from Equation 13.71. Finally, %, is normalized so that it is mass orthonormal x= (&TMR;)I? (13.73) Suppose that M Ritz vectors x;, i=1,2,...,M, have been determined as above. The following coordinate transformation is then used to reduce the set of original equations Mt u= xy (13.74a) a or u=Xy (13.74b)Analysis of multi-degree-of-freedom systems 739 in which X is an N x M matrix of the M Ritz vectors and y is a vector of M generalized coordinates. The transformed equations are given by (13.75) where M = X’MX=I € =x'cx . (13.76) K = X'KX pb =X'p Note that the transformed mass matrix M is an identity matrix because vectors x; are mass orthonormal. However, in general, both C and K are full matrices. Equation 13.75 represents a set of M coupled equations which can be solved by direct numerical integration. Since M is expected to be significantly smaller than N, the effort required in the solution of the re- duced set is considerably less than that required in the solution of the original equations. In the case of proportional damping, it is possible to uncouple the reduced set of equations by solving an eigenvalue problem of size M. This eigenvalue problem is obtained from Equation 13.75 by omitting the damping term and setting p=0. This leads to Kz=0°2 (13.77) where z represents an eigenvector and & the corresponding eigenvalue. If Z is the matrix of vectors z, i=1,2,...,M, and if the z;’s have been properly normalized, we will have ZZ =2'2L=1 (13.78) and ZRZ=A (13.79) when A is a matrix of the frequencies @’. We now obtain a new set of Ritz vectors X° from the relationship X°=XZ (13.80)740 Humar It is easily deduced that vectors represented by X° are orthogonal to both the mass and stiffness matrices of the original system. Thus K* =(X°)"KX® = ZX! KXZ = Z'KZ (13.81) =A M*=(X°)'MX° = Z'X™MXZ = Z'MZ (13.82) =I The frequencies obtained from the solution of Equation 13.77 are approx- imations to the true frequencies w of the original system, while X° provide estimates of M eigenvectors of the original system. For proportional damping, matrix C* = (X°)"CX® will also be diagonal, The transformation of the equations is then given by u=X°y? (13.83) 1y° + Ay® + Ay® = p'(r) (13.84) in which A is a diagonal matrix of terms 2¢;;, A is a diagonal matrix of frequencies , and p’ is given by p* =(X°)’p (13.85) The algorithm for the generation of load-dependent Ritz shapes has been sum- marized in Table 13.1. As in the case of a mode superposition method, the contribution of a particu- lar Ritz vector to the response can be measured by calculating the participation factor, 7 =x/f, for that vector. If the participation factor is small, the vector will contribute little to the response. For certain types of loads, for example those due to earthquakes, a small value for }, may indicate that 7,,, will be even smaller and that a sufficient number of vectors has been included. In a more general case, error norms derived from Equation 13.45 may be used in which ej is given by ey = f —MX°X"'F = f —MXZZ'X'f (13.86) = f—MXX’f The load-dependent orthogonal vectors generated as above have several ad- vantages over the traditional method of using undamped shapes as the RitzAnalysis of multi-degree-of-freedom systems 741 Table 13.1. Algorithm for the generation of load-dependent Ritz vectors. 1. Triangularize stiffness matrix K=L'DL 2. Solve for the first vector solve for X find mass orthonormal vector X) 3. Solve for additional vectors i= 2,....M_ Kx; =Mx,— solve for % ej =x MX; compute for j=1,2....,i-1 — SC] ex) find mass orthogonalized vector % = Gaye ‘ind mass orthonormalized vector x; MIX)" where K =X’KX and eigenvectors z are normalized so that Z'Z=1 5. Obtain the final Ritz vectors X°=XZ vectors. The computational cost of generating the load-dependent vectors is sub- stantially smaller than that for calculating the mode shapes. Also, because the special vectors are generated from the applied load, they form a more efficient basis for representation of the load. As a result, the number of load-dependent Ritz vectors required for an adequate representation of the load may be sub- stantially smaller than the number of mode shapes needed for the purpose. Example 13.8 Obtain the response of the frame of Example 13.1 to a support motion given by 1, = 1000 sin 12r using two load-dependent Ritz vectors derived by the method of this section. Solution The spatial distribution of forcing function is given by 2 fa)