Ancient Rome - An Illustrated History - Marshall Cavendish PDF

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Ancient Rome
AN ILLUSTRATED HISTORY
Marshall Cavendish
Reference
New York

Marshall Cavendish This publication represents the opinions
Copyright 2011 Marshall Cavendish Corporation and views of the authors based on person-
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CONTENTS
Foreword 4 Expanding the Empire 100
Early Rome 6 Daily Life in Rome 116
Rome's Early Wars The Edges of the

and Conquests 24 Empire 126
The Punic Wars 32 The Decline of Rome 134
Revolution and Reform 44 The Disintegration of the

Empire 148
The End of the Republic 56
Glossary 160
The Age of Augustus 72
Major Historical Figures 163
The Julio-Claudian
Emperors 84 Index 164

FOREWORD
T o begin a study of Roman history is to

begin the study of Western civilization,
and this introductory work provides a fine place
1815 was compared to that of Scipio and
Hannibal at the Battle of Zama in 202 BCE.
Parallels such as these have been drawn regu-
to start. In truth, all roads lead not only to larly over the centuries. George Washington has
Rome, but from Rome. Upon Romes extensive been compared to Cincinnatus, and Theodore
system of roads moved not just the building Roosevelt has been compared to Tiberius
blocks of society and commerce, but also an Gracchus. In an essay published in 1909,
invisible cargo of ideas that connected Roman Consuelo Vanderbilt, the Duchess of
society and later the Christian Church, early Marlborough, likened the suffragist Christabel
modern Europe, and all that followed. Pankhurst to Hortensia, daughter of the famous
Roman culture was syncretic from the republican orator Hortensius. Hortensia fol-
beginning. The early years of monarchy lowed in her fathers footsteps and delivered
(753510 BCE) witnessed the amalgamation of a speech to the members of the Second
Etruscans, Oscans, Sabines, and other Italic peo- Triumvirate in 42 BCE that succeeded in gain-
ples. Bit by bit the Romans of the republican ing a reduction in taxes on wealthy women.
period (510 BCE27 BCE) extended their British statesmen such as Winston Churchill
imperium. By 270 BCE, Rome controlled the and Harold Macmillan were steeped in Roman
entire Italian Peninsula. The expansions contin- history. Churchill said he had devoured
ued and established the foundation for an empire Edward Gibbons Decline and Fall of the Roman
that by 116 CE would encompass more than 6.5 Empire as a young man. In 1995, U.S. Senator
million square miles (16.8 million sq. km) under Robert C. Byrd (who celebrated 50 years of
the emperor Trajan.At this time the empire cov- service in the Senate in 2009) published his
ered the full perimeter of the Mediterranean thoughts on the Roman senates actions dur-
Sea, stretching north to Scotland, south to ing the years of the republic. Nineteenth- and
Arabia, and east to Mesopotamia. twentieth-century historical and cultural studies
Few Westerners today, be they from the are couched in references to Americas Rome
Americas, Russia, or Europe, misinterpret the and Britains Greece, and those ideas in turn
meaning of the nouns czar, kaiser, or refer back to assumptions and conclusions
caesar, the last being the Latin root of the first formed during the Renaissance and Middle
two words, as well as the name of the man many Ages concerning Roman civilization.
deem the most famous in history. Napoleon and Popular culture has its own adaptations of
the Duke of Wellington both carried copies of Roman history that are enjoyed the world over.
Caesars Commentaries on their campaigns, and Visual interpretations are especially popular as
their engagement at the Battle of Waterloo in widespread interest in films such as William

FOREWORD
Wylers Ben-Hur (1959), Federico Fellinis the roots of modern institutions such as the
Satyricon (1969), and Ridley Scotts Gladiator current calendar, the development of spectator
(2000), as well as the HBO television series sports, and the origin of the Romance lan-
Rome (20052007), attests. The comic book guages. It is no exaggeration to say that the his-
series Astrix, concerning the adventures of a tory of Rome has served for better or for worse
proto-French hero who fights against Caesars as a metaphor and reference point for world his-
assaults on Gaul around 50 BCE, debuted more tory.With that in mind, let us follow Augustines
than 50 years ago (in 1959), and the 34th volume famous imperatives: Tolle et lege. Take up this
of Astrix was published in 2009. book and read!
In 12 chapters, Ancient Rome: An Illustrated
History takes the student through the basics: Michele Ronnick
Romes origins and its early period of monarchy, Michele Ronnick is president of the Classical
the rise of the republic to the heights of its Association of the Middle West and South and a pro-
empire, and its subsequent transformation from fessor in the Department of Classical and Modern
pagan polytheism to Christianity.The volume is Languages, Literatures, and Cultures at Wayne State
illustrated with strategically placed maps, time University, Detroit, MI.
lines listing key dates and events, boxed sections
of text for elaboration, and color photographs Additional related information is available in the
depicting various ancient artifacts as well as rel- 11-volume History of the Ancient and Medieval
evant images from the Renaissance and more World, second edition, and the corresponding
recent times. Students will come away with spe- online Ancient and Medieval World database at
cific knowledge that will help them understand www.marshallcavendishdigital.com.

EARLY
ROME
ccording to legend, the city of Rome was ruled by seven
TIME LINE
c. 900 BCE
A kings, before the last of the line, Tarquin the Proud, was
deposed. Rome then became a republic governed by a variety of
Etruscan civilization assemblies and elected officials.
develops in
central Italy.
The early history of Rome is shrouded the Vestal Virgins (see box, page 9), the
753 BCE
in mystery.The origins of the city are the priestesses who tended the sacred hearth
Traditional date
given for founding
subject of many myths, which have of the goddess Vesta.They were all forbid-
of Rome by become inextricably interwoven with den to indulge in sexual intercourse.
Romulus; event historical fact. Several of these stories Nevertheless, Rea Silvia was seduced by
almost certainly promoted the idea that the Trojans were Mars, the god of war, and gave birth to
mythical.
the ancestors of the Romans. These twin boys in the sanctuary of Vesta.When
c. 625 BCE myths were gathered together and the children were discovered, Amulius
Large settlement embellished by the Roman poet Virgil threw Rea Silvia into a dungeon and had
forms between (7019 BCE) in his epic poem the the infants put in a wicker basket and set
Palatine Hill Aeneid. Other stories regarding the adrift on the river. The basket became
and Capitoline
Hill; gradually founding of Rome by the twins caught in the bulrushes, where the babies
develops into Romulus and Remus were relayed by were suckled by a she-wolf until they
city of Rome. the later writers Livy (59 BCE17 CE) were found by a shepherd. He took the
c. 510 BCE and Plutarch (c. 46120 CE). twins home, adopted them, and named
Rome becomes them Romulus and Remus.
republic after The origins of Rome When the twins reached adulthood,
overthrow of According to legend, the story of the they met up with the deposed King
last king, Tarquin founding of Rome begins with the fall Numitor and, through a series of coinci-
the Proud; city
now ruled by of another great ancient city, Troy. After dences, discovered their true origin.
two consuls, Troys destruction, the Trojan hero Romulus and Remus then initiated a
elected annually. Aeneas escaped with a small group of revolution in Alba Longa, and Amulius
471 BCE
followers, eventually managing to reach was killed. Eager to found their own city,
Concilium plebis
the coast of Italy, where he landed on the the brothers retreated with other pio-
tributum, assembly estuary of the Tiber River and made a neers into the Tiber hills, around 12
of plebeian new home. He married a local princess, miles (19 km) to the northwest.
class, officially and their son, Ascanius, founded the city Before starting to build, Romulus and
recognized.
of Alba Longa on a site just southeast of Remus decided to consult the augurs
366 BCE present-day Rome. Ascaniuss descen- (priests who interpreted the wishes of
Sextius becomes dants reigned there for 14 generations, the gods) to determine which brother
first plebeian until the ruling king Numitor was would be king of the new city. However,
consul. dethroned by his brother Amulius. when the augurs presented their conclu-
Amulius arranged for Numitors sions, a fight broke out, and Romulus
daughter, Rea Silvia, to become one of killed his brother.

EARLY ROME
So, according to tradition, Romulus however. Romulus was forced to devise a This bronze statue,
became the first king of Rome, founding cunning strategy. He invited all the known as the
the city in 753 BCE. Legend also has it Sabines to attend a religious celebration. Capitoline Wolf, was
that he marked out the citys boundaries The Sabines eagerly accepted the invita- made by the
by plowing a furrow around the site, tion, bringing their families along to Etruscans in the
using a bronze plow pulled by a white ox enjoy the festivities. At Romuluss signal, early fifth century
and a white cow. In this way, he demar- every Roman seized and abducted a BCE.The suckling
cated the sacred precinct called the Sabine woman. infants, representing
pomerium and the Palatine Hill. This act led to a savage war, in which the twins Romulus
the Sabines tried to win back their kid- and Remus, were
The rape of the Sabine women napped women. Eventually, however, the added around 2,000
The city of Rome prospered, but its Sabine women themselves pleaded for years later.
population consisted only of men. To the two sides to be reconciled, to stop
overcome this problem, Romulus the bloodshed. The Romans and the
attempted to persuade the neighboring Sabines agreed to form a single state,
Sabines to allow some of their women to which was jointly ruled by Romulus and
marry Roman men.The Sabines refused, the Sabine leader, Titus Tatius. Romulus

ANCIENT ROME
THE ROMAN WORLD
PS
AL
Po
e
Villanova
R hon
Ariminum
Ad
r ia
t
Metaurus River i c S e
Lake Trasimene a
T i b er
Etruscans
Tibur
Tarquinii Sabi
CORSICA Rome nes
s
tin
Samnites Cannae
La
Capua
Ostia Malventum
Alba Longa Naples
Cumae
SARDINIA
BALEARIC ISLANDS
Mylae
Sea Drepana Panormus Messana
M e d it e rra n e an
Aegates Islands
SICILY
Lilybaeum
Agrigentum Syracuse
Bagradas Carthage Economus
Zama
survived Tatius and ruled until 715 BCE, ly king who established many of the
KEY when, according to legend, he was taken Roman religious institutions. Numa
Roman territory up to heaven in a chariot driven by his Pompilius was said to have been instruct-
in 500 BCE father, Mars. ed by a wood nymph with whom he
held regular conversations. His peaceful
Major battle
The early kings of Rome reign was in contrast to that of his
The tale of Romulus and Remus is successor, the belligerent Tullus Hostilius,
almost certainly purely mythical, but who ruled from 673 to 642 BCE and is
from this point of the story onward, thought to have destroyed Alba Longa.
some historical facts may start to be Tullus also founded the Curia Hostilia,
mixed in with the fiction. After the an early meeting place of the senate.
disappearance of Romulus, Numa Hostilius was succeeded in 641 BCE
Pompilius was elected king by the senate by the fourth king of Rome, Ancus
(a council of wise men). He was a priest- Marcius, who was a grandson of Numa

EARLY ROME
THE VESTAL VIRGINS

The Vestal Virgins were six between the ages of six and ten
priestesses whose main function when they were selected.They each
was to keep alight the eternal flame served for a total of 30 yearsas a
that burned in the public shrine of novice for the first 10 years, as a
the goddess Vesta.Vesta was the Vestal Virgin proper for the next
goddess who presided over hearth 10 years, and then as a tutor to the
and home, and every Roman family novices for the final 10 years.
made offerings to her at mealtimes.
Every city also had a public hearth, The Vestal Virgins had to take a vow
This mural from kept in a temple dedicated to Vesta. of chastity, and if this vow was
the first century CE The fire in this hearth was never broken, the punishment was severe;
depicts the wounded allowed to go out; it was the symbol the offender was buried alive.
hero Aeneas, whose of the citys spiritual heart. However, if a Vestal Virgin survived
followers were her 30-year term of service, she
believed to be The Vestal Virgins were taken from was released from her duties and
the ancestors of patrician families and had to be permitted to marry.
the Romans.
Pompilius.Ancus Marcius ruled until 616

BCE and is famous for a bridge, the Pons
Sublicius, that he had built across the
Tiber River. A notable conqueror, he
seized a number of Latin towns and
moved their inhabitants to Rome.
The Etruscan kings

The first civilization on the Italian
Peninsula had been established by the
Etruscans (see box, page 13) and was
centered on Etruria (roughly present-day
Tuscany). According to tradition, the last
three kings of Rome were Etruscans.The
first of these Etruscan kings was Lucius
Tarquinius Priscus. Legend has it that he
was the son of a Corinthian nobleman,
Demaratus, who had immigrated to the
Etruscan city of Tarquinii. Tarquinius
Priscus, however, decided to move to
Rome with his wife Tanaquil. As they
approached Rome, the story goes, a
screaming eagle swooped down and
seized the cap from Tanaquils head.
Tarquinius Priscus interpreted this as a
favorable omen. Once established in

ANCIENT ROME
Rome, he quickly acquired a reputation personal guard, pronounced judgments

as a notable citizen. at random, and ignored political institu-
After the death of Ancus Marcius tions. Tarquin distracted the people with
in 616 BCE, Tarquinius Priscus was This statue from the military adventures and monumental con-
crowned king. Rome prospered under 17th century CE struction projects. He is famous for having
his reign. During this time, he was depicts the Trojan built a temple to Jupiter on the Capitoline
responsible for the construction of a hero Aeneas Hill and paving the major streets of the
number of public buildings. Tarquinius carrying his aged city with blocks of granite. He is also
Priscus is also said to have initiated the father Anchises. credited with building the citys first pub-
Roman Games and to have constructed lic sewers, including the great Cloaca
a drainage system in the city. His Maxima, which still function today.
conquests of neighboring peo- However, in spite of these
ples added considerably to the achievements, the people of Rome
population. were not prepared to tolerate such an
Tarquinius Priscus died oppressive government. The crisis
in 575 BCE during a palace came in 510 BCE when Tarquins
revolt. He was replaced son Sextus raped Lucretia, the wife of
by a favorite of his his own kinsman; Lucretia later
wife TanaquilServius committed suicide. Tarquins
Tullius. A man of ob- crime provided a focus for dis-
scure descent, Servius sent, which surfaced soon after-
had previously been ward when a number of lead-
the head of Tanaquils ing aristocrats, led by Lucius
household and proved Junius Brutus, another dis-
to be an able king. tant relative of the king,
He created new rose up in revolt against
classes of citizens the tyrant. Tarquin and his
and built a new for- family fled from the city,
tified wall to protect and although he later tried
the city. Later genera- to reclaim the throne, all his
tions of Romans were efforts failed. The people
to honor him as their of Rome subsequently
favorite king, and they turned their backs on
believed they owed many monarchy as a system
of their political institu- of government; from
tions to him. that moment on,
Servius was murdered in the Romans would
534 BCE by his son-in- always abhor the
law and successor, Tarquinius basic idea of king-
Superbus (commonly known as shipthe words
either Tarquin the Proud or king and tyrant
Tarquin the Younger).Tarquin, who became virtually
was either the son or grandson of synonymous in
Tarquinius Priscus, seized the Latin. Instead, the
throne, murdered many support- power was placed in
ers of the previous king, and pro- the hands of the sen-
ceeded to rule as a tyrant. He ate and a number of
surrounded himself with a elected officials.
10

Latium est settlement associated with this culture This fresco from
The semimythical account of the early that has been excavated dates from the the14th century
years of Rome left by poets such as Livy 16th century BCE. CE depicts the
and Plutarch is not the only source of Shortly after 1000 BCE, other popu- execution of Rea
information about Romes development. lation groups appeared. In contrast to Silvia, the mother
Archaeologists and linguists have been their predecessors, they buried their of Romulus and
able to piece together a parallel history of dead. It is possible that these groups were Remus.
Rome that is more firmly based on his- related to the Sabines of legend. They
torical fact. They have established that were also an Indo-European people who
the plain lying between the Tiber River spoke a Latin dialect. It is evident that,
and the Apennine Hills was once popu- between 900 and 600 BCE, many Latin
lated by people who called their land settlements existed, each with its own
Latium, and themselves Latini, or Latins. funeral customs.
The Latins were probably descended Until the end of the seventh century
from a people who invaded Italy during BCE, Latium remained an underdevel-
the course of the second millennium oped rural area.The Latins lived in small
BCE. These people spoke an Indo- hilltop villages, which may have been
European language and held elaborate surrounded by wooden palisades. Their
funeral ceremonies, in which they cre- primitive huts were made of twigs sealed
mated the bodies of their dead.The old- with pitch and had only two openings, a
11

ANCIENT ROME
This painting, by door and a hole in the roof to let out the oppida formed themselves into federa-
French artist smoke. Urns shaped like these huts have tions, which originally had only a reli-
Jacques-Louis David been found holding cremation ashes. gious purpose but in the end became
(17481825 CE), From the late seventh century BCE political as well.
depicts the Sabine onward, the area started to develop.
women and their Latium was in contact with some highly The birth of Rome
children attempting sophisticated culturesthe Etruscans to Around 625 BCE, political unity among
to intercede in the the north, the Greek colonies to the the oppida-dwellers gave rise to a city the
battle between their south, and Carthage, whose sailors size of Romuluss pomerium in the valley
own soldiers and regularly visited the coast. From the polit- between the Palatine Hill and the
their Roman ically dominant Etruscans, the Latins Capitoline Hill.The city, called Roma (a
abductors. acquired technical skills, artistic styles, and name of Etruscan origin), was initially
political and religious practices. As the ruled by kings. The rex, or king, per-
poplulation of Latium grew, farmland formed the function of supreme judge,
became scarce. To increase the area of high priest, and commander-in-chief of
viable agricultural land, dams and water- the army, and he led his army in person.
works were built, some of which still The king was advised (on his request) by
survive.The hill villages gradually evolved a council of elders known as the senate,
into oppida (small fortified city-states), and which also chose his successor. The
12

EARLY ROME
THE ETRUSCANS
T he Etruscans were a people who occupied

the area of central Italy that is now Tuscany
from around 900 BCE. No one is quite sure
and were either simple rectangular two-story
dwellings or based on a more sophisticated
design that consisted of a set of rooms arranged
where they came from. One theorythe around a central courtyard. Originally, each city
autochthonous theorysuggests that they were was ruled by a king, but in the fifth century BCE,
the descendants of the earliest known population the kings were replaced almost everywhere by
of north and central Italythe Villanovans. governments of aristocrats.
Another theory suggests that the Etruscans were
immigrants who came from western Anatolia. Not a great deal is known about the Etruscan
The fifth-century-BCE Greek historian Herodotus religion. However, one aspect of it did involve a
maintained that the Etruscans were descended process of divination by studying the internal
from the Tyrrhenians, who had come from the organs of sacrificial animals.While the functions
east via Lydia, and this theory is borne out by the of many of the Etruscan gods are not known,
fact that many of the Etruscans characteristics, their deities often resembled the gods of
such as their religious customs, seem to have Greece and Rome; for example, their goddess
eastern origins. Menerva was closely related to the Greek
goddess of wisdom, Athena, and her Roman
Wherever they came from, the Etruscans counterpart, Minerva.
established a distinct culture that
flourished from the beginning of the The Etruscans were traders and
seventh century BCE.They had their conducted much of their commerce by sea.
own unique language, but their They exported materials such as iron
culture showed much Greek ore, which was mined on the
influence.They adopted many island of Elba, and craft items
Greek myths and legends, and made from bronze and gold. In
because they imported many return, they imported exotic
Greek vases, their potters goods from Africa and craft
soon began imitating Greek items from mainland Greece.
ceramics. In the seventh
century BCE, the Etruscans The height of Etruscan power
adopted the Greek alphabet. came in the sixth and fifth centuries
BCE.Thereafter, their influence declined, and
Etruscan cities were carefully laid out they came under frequent attack from
and enclosed by a pomerium (sacred Greeks, Latins, Romans, and Gauls. After
boundary). Later cities were laid Etruria was seized by the Romans, the Etruscan
out on a grid system.The temple language gradually disappeared. Eventually,
occupied a special area.The front of by the first century BCE, the Etruscans had been
the temple had two rows of totally absorbed into the Roman culture.
columnsa feature of the
so-called Tuscan style of This bronze Etruscan statuette of a warrior
architecture. Houses were dates to between 420 and 400 BCE. Its style
built of sun-dried mud bricks is influenced by Greek sculpture.
13

ANCIENT ROME
beians were generally peasants and had

little political power.This class distinction
probably originated during the time of
the monarchy, but it gained far greater
political significance after the last king
was deposed.
In Rome at this time, the head of a
family wielded particular power. He was
called the pater (father), and his authority
over his wife, children (whatever their
age), and slaves was initially absolute. A
Roman pater had the right to kill his wife
or sell his child as a slave without break-
ing the law. Fathers who were related and
bore the same family name formed a gens
(clan). In the beginning, the king ruled
the clans through the senate, which was
composed of the fathers of prominent
families. It is likely that the fathers who
sat on the council began to distinguish
themselves from the family heads who
did not.
The patricians comprised the populus
(people), from which the army was orig-
inally drawn.The king called out the pop-
ulus as needed and then led the army
himself, preceded by his guards (called
lictors) bearing the fasces. The fasces
According to legend, senates nomination was accepted or symbolized the kings regal and later
Numa Pompilius rejected by acclamation in a public meet- magisterial authority and consisted of
was the second king ing or an army assembly. The populus cylindrical bundles of wooden rods
of Rome. He is (people) were also consulted in matters wrapped around an ax and tied tightly
depicted here in of war and peace. together. The fasces symbolized unity as
a 16th-century-CE Before the Etruscan domination of well as power. Servius Tullius is usually
woodcut. Rome, the monarchy is thought to have credited with a major reform that per-
been largely ceremonial. Under the mitted plebeians, who by that time could
Etruscans, it assumed greater importance, hold property and wealth, to serve in the
but by 509 BCE, the Romans had put army. They were assigned to a rank in
an end to both Etruscan power and the accordance with their wealth.
monarchy itself.
Class struggle
Roman society The class struggle that characterized the
In early Rome, there were two social patricianplebeian relationship was cen-
classes, excluding slaves. These classes tral to Roman social history and the
were the patricii (patricians), who origi- development of government organiza-
nally were the only ones with political tions. Gradually, the social and political
rights, and the other free Romans, the barriers against the plebeians were erod-
plebes (the masses, or plebeians).The ple- ed, but for a long time, the plebeians
14

EARLY ROME
continued to exist as a separate and sub- called clientes and may originally have
ordinate class. Marriages between patri- been tenants of the patrician, but as time
cians and plebeians were not recognized went on, this was not always the case.The
by law, and the children of such mar- patrones (patron) could demand obedi-
riages lost their patrician status. ence and service from the clientes, but the
The patricians formed only a small bond of the clientela had mutual benefits.
minority of the free population, howev- It was the patrons duty to help the
er. The fact that they managed to keep clientes in time of need, if they were
power in their own hands for as long as involved in a lawsuit, for example. This 16th-century-
they did was largely due to an important CE painting by
social institution called the clientela The early republic Perino del Vaga
(client system). Under this system, it was Once the kings were driven out of depicts Tarquin the
customary for free but powerless citizens Rome, the city became a republic, mean- Proud founding the
to bind themselves to a powerful man of ing a state governed by the people. Temple of Jupiter on
the patrician class. These people were In practice, however, the government the Capitoline Hill.
15

ANCIENT ROME
largely lay in the hands of the patricians.

THE LARES A great deal of the power resided in the
senate. Just as it had previously elected
Among the most important gods worshipped by the the king for life from the patrician class,
Romans were the Lares, protective spirits who presided the senate now chose two chief execu-
over a number of different areas. For example, the Lares tives to serve on an annual basis.
viales looked after people traveling by road, while Originally called praetors (leaders) and
the Lares permarini watched over seafarers. For most selected exclusively from among the
Romans, however, the most important Lar was the Lar patricians, these executives were later
familiaris, the family Lar. given the title of consul.
To some extent, the praetors inherit-
The Lar familiaris was unusual in that he was seen as an ed the power and pomp of the kings.
individual figure when most Lares were worshipped as They wore the royal purple on their
pairs of twins. He was worshipped in the home, often at togas and were preceded on ceremonial
a shrine that took the form of a miniature temple.The occasions by the lictors and fasces. They
Lar familiaris was believed to live in the house itself, led the army to war and wielded absolute
watching over successive generations. Lares were often power over the citizens. However, as each
represented by figurines of dancing youths. praetor had the power of veto over deci-
sions made by the other, neither had the
kind of autocratic authority once held by
Romes position on the Tiber River linked the city to the port the king. Furthermore, their power was
of Ostia, and the connection facilitated Romes development limited by the fact that their term of
as a city. office ended after one year.

EARLY ROME
The senate and other assemblies

Much of the real power in the republic
resided in the senate. The members of
this assembly were drawn from a few
leading patrician families. These patres
were lifetime members, and their senate
seats passed to their heirs as an inherited
right. Under the monarchy, the mass of
the plebeians were unrepresented in the
government, but in the days of the
republic, a second group of senators,
drawn from the plebeians, was appoint-
ed. These senators were called the con-
scripti (enrolled), and the senators as a
whole were called the patres et conscripti.
Although the conscripti also held the
office for life, they could not pass it on to
their descendants.
The early republic also inherited a
popular assembly from the time of the
monarchy. The comitia curiata was origi-
nally made up of curiae (clubs) of war-
riors. The number of curiae was fixed at
30. Under the monarchy, the chief func-
tion of the comitia curiata was to confirm
the election of a king. Over time, the
assemblys meetings became purely cere-
monial, and by the time of the republic,
its function had dwindled, so that just 30
individuals, each representing a single Every year a legio (military conscription This shrine to
curia, were required to invest the praetors or draft) was drawn from those deemed household gods was
after an election. able to afford military service. Each found in the city
group of 100 men was referred to as a of Pompeii.
The comitia centuriata centuria (century), and from these annual
During the sixth century BCE, Rome conscriptions, a new kind of popular
had adopted the Greek mode of warfare, assembly developedthe comitia centuria-
using a phalanx of heavily armed foot ta. The comitia curiata gradually lost its
soldiers who fought in close formation, position to this new assembly, which
protected by large shields and using consisted of serving soldiers and veterans.
thrusting spears. Armor was expensive, The comitia centuriata met on the
and service in the Roman army was Campus Martius (Field of Mars) outside
reserved for those who could afford to the citys pomerium.The assembly includ-
pay for their own military equipment. ed 30 centuries of men called juniores
For this reason, Servius Tullius had con- (juniors), who were between the ages of
ducted a census to determine the prop- 17 and 46. Another 30 centuries were
erty of every citizen. Wealth, measured composed of seniores (seniors)citizens
almost exclusively in terms of land, who were too old to fight but who
became the sole criterion for enlistment. retained the right to vote. These 60
17

ANCIENT ROME
By the third century BCE, there were

six separate property classes in the comitia
centuriata. The first class consisted of 18
centuries of equites and 80 centuries of
juniors and seniors. The second, third,
and fourth classes contained 20 centuries
each, while the fifth class consisted of 30
centuries.There were also five additional
centuries that were reserved for non-
combatants, such as trumpeters and
armorers. In all, the army was composed
of 193 centuries.
The comitia centuriata had the power
to decide whether Rome should go to
war or not. It also elected magistrates,
acted as a high court, and had some pow-
ers to legislate. Despite the addition of
representatives of the poorer sections of
society, the assembly was still dominated
by the wealthy. The method of voting
was not one man, one vote; it was by
centuries. The votes of the 18 cavalry
units were taken first, followed by those
of the 80 first-class centuries.Voting halt-
ed as soon as a majority had been
reached. If the first-class centuries voted
as a bloc, then the centuries from the
lower classes would not even get a
chance to vote.
The rise of the plebeians

The plebeians never formed a homoge-
neous group, either economically or
This urn in the centuries of foot soldiers, together with culturally. There were poor plebeians,
shape of a hut was 18 centuries of cavalry (equites), formed a middle-class plebeians, and wealthy ple-
made by people of propertied class that excluded citizens beians. The ambitions of the poorest
the Villanovan who were too poor to afford army serv- were limited to owning a piece of land
culture, who were ice and were thus unable to vote. and to seeing the revocation of the strict
predecessors of the By the end of the fifth century BCE, debt law that could have a debtor sold
Romans and lived in the number of Roman citizens had into slavery. The richest plebeians, how-
central Italy. increased to such an extent that 40, ever, had political ambitions.They want-
rather than 30, centuries of juniors were ed a share of the power and the privileges
regularly recruited. The legion also of the patricians. Many of the most
expanded to take in less heavily armed respectable plebeians came from regions
soldiers, who did not need to have as that had been conquered by Rome; these
much property to qualify for army serv- men had held prominent positions at
ice.The army was thus divided into two home and wanted comparable status in
separate classes. their new place of residence.
18

EARLY ROME
Things came to a head in 494 The comitia tributa

BCE, when there was a mass By the middle of the fifth
exodus of plebeians from century BCE, a new popu-
Rome. According to leg- lar assembly had been
end, they withdrew to a formed. This new body
nearby mountain, where was the comitia tributa
they formed an assem- (assembly of the dis-
bly called the concilium tricts), which was set
plebis (council of ple- up on the model of
beians) and threatened the concilium plebis but
to found a separate was an assembly of all
city if the patricians classes of citizens, ple-
refused to recognize beians and patricians
their assembly and the alike. Votes were taken
officials it chose. These by tribes, or districts, just
officials were called the tri- as they were taken by cen-
buni plebis (tribunes of the ple- turies in the comitia curiata.
beians). Eventually, the plebeians However, no distinctions were
were persuaded to return to Rome, made among the districts, while
and two tribunes of the plebeians were within each district, the principle of
recognized. These two tribunes became one man, one vote was upheld.
spokesmen for the plebeian cause and Over the years, Rome had grown too
could intervene if a plebeian was in dan- big to be governed by just two chief offi-
ger of being punished unjustly.The trib- cials. For some time, the consuls had
unes could also override the decisions of been appointing assistants, called
the magistrates by uttering the single quaestors, to handle some criminal cases.
word veto (I forbid). The quaestors were junior magistrates,
The number of tribunes of the ple- and after 447 BCE, two were appointed
beians was gradually increased to 10.The annually by the comitia tributa. Soon after-
plebeians declared their tribunes to be wards, two additional quaestors were put
inviolable, which meant that anyone in charge of public finances. From 421
attempting to arrest or intimidate them BCE, the office was open to plebeians as
could be killed. Soon after the tribunes This bronze mirror well as patricians.
of the plebeians were officially sanc- was made by the Another position to be established in
tioned, an assembly of plebeians, called Etruscans, who were the fifth century BCE was that of the
the concilium plebis tributum, started to be known as skilled aedile (temple functionary).This position
held, and in 471 BCE, it also received metalworkers. was another official magistracy to which
official recognition. plebeians could be elected. There were
Another important victory was won originally two aediles, who were con-
by the plebeians in 445 BCE.The intro- nected with an important plebeian cult
duction of the Canuleian Law repealed centera temple on the Aventine Hill
the prohibition on marriages between dedicated to Ceres, the goddess of agri-
patricians and plebeians and declared culture, and Liber and Libera, a pair of
intermarriage to be legal. This move fertility and cultivation deities.The aediles
meant that rich plebeian families could had considerable economic power. As
now enter into alliances with patricians, state officials, they were in charge of a
a change that was bound to have long- number of public works, the public food
term political consequences. supply, and the markets.
19

ANCIENT ROME
This wall painting The number of magistracies that penalties for breaking it. The resulting
from an Etruscan could be held by plebeians increased compilation was known as the Laws of
tomb depicts steadily over the years. However, the the Twelve Tables, because the laws were
servants and most important postthat of consul engraved on 12 bronze tablets that were
musicians. It remained in the hands of the patricians. placed in the forum.
dates to the first From that point on, the patrician
half of the fifth Legal protection magistrates could no longer make legal
century BCE. An important milestone in the evolving decisions at their own whim; they had to
constitution of ancient Rome was the make their judgments in accordance
setting up in 451 BCE of a special com- with this formal standard. In theory, the
mission of 10 learned men known as the tables granted equal rights to all free cit-
decemvirs (decemvirate or 10 men). This izens, but in practice, the weak and vul-
move followed prolonged agitation on nerable still had to rely on powerful
the part of the plebeians for the laws of patrons for protection or legal redress.
Rome to be defined and written down,
mainly to avoid arbitrary punishments The Licinian-Sextian Laws
being meted out by patrician magistrates. A further development in the struggle of
The task of the decemvirate was to the plebeians for political power was the
record all common law and to define the introduction of a new office, that of
20

EARLY ROME
military tribune with consular power, in The same year, another new official
445 BCE. While the senate refused to appeared: the praetor. The praetor was a
allow a plebeian to act as consul, a ple- consular deputy and was primarily con-
beian could be elected as a military trib- cerned with the administration of justice,
une. From 445 BCE onward, either two but he could also take command of an
consuls or two military tribunes were army. Like the consuls, the praetor was
elected each year. This practice contin- elected by the comitia centuriata, the old
ued until 367 BCE, when two tribunes, military assembly. For 20 years, the office
Licinius and Sextius, presented a bill to remained in the hands of the patricians,
the comitia tributa proposing that the but in 337 BCE, the first plebeian was
annual consulship should be restored and elected praetor.
that one of the two consuls should be In 356 BCE, a plebeian, Marcius
plebeian. The following year, Sextius Rutilus, was appointed dictator.The role
became the first plebeian consul. of dictator had been established at the
THE LAWS OF THE TWELVE TABLES
The Laws of the Twelve Tables were established death. Reflecting the importance of the food
in 451 BCE after plebeian agitation for a formal supply, agriculture was given special protection.
code of law. A decemvirate, or committee of Anyone who maliciously set fire to anothers
10, was given the task of setting down the crops could be burned alive. A debtor who
common law of Rome in clear terms.The could not pay his debts was regarded as a
resulting legal code covered both public and criminal; his creditor could put him to death or
private life and reflected the patriarchal nature sell him as a slave.
of the society for which it was written.The
code covered family law, property rights and These laws reflected the societys predominant
inheritance, debt, funeral rites, legal processes, interest in possessions. Other provisions were
and offenses against the community. more enlightened. For example, one law
stipulated that a marriage could be ended by
As far as family law was concerned, the code mutual consent; if a wife absented herself from
confirmed the almost unlimited authority of the the marital bed for three nights and declared
pater familias (father of the family). He had the herself unwilling to return, the marriage could
power of life and death over his wife, children, be dissolved. Also stipulated in family law was
slaves, and plebeian clients, although he was the obligation of a father to give his sons (but
obliged to call a family council before making a not his daughters) a good education.
life-and-death decision.The position of women
in society was completely subordinate to that of The Twelve Tables contain little legislation with
men. A woman was subject to her father before regard to politics. However, the code did allow
marriage and to her husband after marriage. If a citizens to appeal to the popular assembly
woman became a widow, she was put in the about decisions made against them in the
charge of a male relative. courts.These laws were never formally
abolished, and because they were written in
Crimes against private property attracted Latin, they provided a foretaste of the use of
severe punishments. A person whose property Latin as the language of the legal profession
had been stolen had the right to put the thief to throughout Europe.
21

ANCIENT ROME
beginning of the fifth century BCE,

when military emergencies made it
imperative for one man to have absolute
control of the armed forces. It was a
command that lasted for six months only,
and during that time, everyone was sub-
ject to the authority of the dictator.
In 351 BCE, a plebeian was elected
to the office of censor for the first time.
This was a relatively new office, to
which two men were elected every five
years. The censors were responsible for
conducting the census and registering
new members of the senate. Censors
could also expel unworthy senators,
making the office one of great signifi-
cance and prestige.
The empowerment of the plebeians
brought about a rapid change in the
composition of the senate, which by the
end of the fourth century BCE had
In this 18th-century-CE illustration, a Roman

lictor carries the fasces, an ax contained
within a bundle of sticks.
The Circus Maximus was used for chariot

races in the early republic.

EARLY ROME
become predominantly plebeian. This

development improved the senates rela-
tionship with the concilium plebis, which
was still a purely plebeian assembly. This
body elected the tribunes of the people
and passed resolutions that officially
related only to the plebeians, but in prac-
tice affected everyone.
End of the class struggle

In 287 BCE, a historic law was enacted.
The lex Hortensia, named after the ple-
beian dictator Hortensius, stipulated that
a decree of the plebeian assembly should
have the same effect in law as a decree of
either of the other two assemblies, the
comitia centuriata and the comitia tributa.
This law was a major step in the class
struggle and greatly increased the power
of the richer plebeians. The poorer ple-
beians also had cause for satisfaction,
because over the course of the fourth
century BCE, the cruel debt law had
been modified.A debtor could no longer
be sold as a slave, and land was now reg-
ularly distributed among the less well-to-
do Romans.
The beginning of the third century
BCE saw a new elite emerging in
Roman societythe nobiles (nobles).
These people were a mixture of patri-
cians and plebeians who had held the
highest office (the consulate), or whose
fathers or forefathers had done so. This
new hereditary ruling class of nobilitas of relatively harmonious cooperation The Curia in the
(nobility) controlled the senate and, among the highest circles of Roman Forum Romanum
thanks to their array of clients and their society, the hardships of the poorest was the meeting
own prestige, the popular assemblies as plebeians remained unaltered. Despite place of the
well. Once accorded little administrative the comparative peace on the Italian Roman senate.
authority, the senators now dominated Peninsula and unparalleled expansion
government in both domestic matters abroad, the old class contest was to
and foreign affairs. reemerge in the political arena as the
Senatorial power had increased with aristocratic and populist parties fought
the power of Rome, and the struggle for control.
between patricians and plebeians seemed
to be over, but Rome was never to See also:
become a true democracy. While 287 Revolution and Reform (page 44) Romes
BCE saw the beginning of a period Early Wars and Conquests (page 24)
23

ROMES EARLY WARS
AND CONQUESTS
n the late seventh century BCE, Rome was just a small
TIME LINE
c. 506 BCE
I settlement; by the late third century BCE, Rome was a major
power that dominated almost all the Italian Peninsula. Success in
Etruscans defeated battle was the key to this dramatic transformation.
by alliance of Latin
cities at Battle
of Cumae. In the seventh and sixth centuries BCE, Legendary heroes
c. 496 BCE
Rome was just one of many hundreds of The legendary defeat of the Etruscans at
Romans defeat
small towns and cities scattered over the Aricia was described by the first-century-
united Latin army Italian Peninsula. Rome lay between BCE Greek historian Dionysius of
near Lake Regillus; Latium and Etruria. At various times Halicarnassus. His account placed the
Rome subsequently during the following years, Rome would downfall of the Etruscans at roughly the
makes alliance with
Latin League.
either be ruled by the Etruscans or allied same time that the traditional account of
to the Latins. the founding of Rome placed the over-
c. 390 BCE throw of Etruscan king Tarquin the Proud.
Roman army Greek-Etruscan conflict Other legends give further accounts of
defeated by Gallic In the sixth century BCE, the major Roman resistance. One famous myth
forces at Battle
of Allia River; powers in Italy were the Etruscans, who involved the Etruscan ruler Lars Porsena,
Gauls go on to were settled in the north of the country, who attempted to return the Tarquins to
sack Rome. and the various Greek colonies estab- power in Rome. The Romans reputedly
358 BCE lished in the south. The Etruscans ruled demonstrated great courage in the wars
Rome becomes head the territory between the valley of the that followed. One hero, Horatius, single-
of new Latin League Po River and Campania, while in the handedly held back Porsenas forces while
after overcoming south their influence reached as far as the comrades pulled down a strategic bridge.
alliance of Latin Bay of Naples. Another story concerning Porsena is
towns in battle.
The Greeks in the southern Italian that of Mucius Scaevola, who was cap-
343 BCE Peninsula were constantly on a war foot- tured during an attempt to kill Porsena.
First conflict ing with the Etruscans. Around 535 When brought before Porsena, Mucius
between Romans BCE, the Etruscans allied themselves placed his hand on live coals, to show
and Samnites
begins.
with the powerful Carthaginians in order that he was oblivious to pain and that the
to dislodge the Greeks from Alalia, on Romans would continue to resist how-
280 BCE the island of Corsica. Some years later, ever long the war endured. Porsena was
Greek general the tide turned against the Etruscans so impressed that he supposedly ended
Pyrrhus wins two when an attack on the Greek port of his siege of the city.
Pyrrhic victories
over Rome; Cumae failed. Around 506 BCE, an Mucius Scaevola was just one of a
finally defeated alliance of Latin cities, with the help of number of semimythical heroes who
eight years Cumae, defeated the Etruscans near were later seen as examples of the
later. Aricia, just south of Rome. The victory Roman characteristics of courage, self-
was an important symbol of the erosion lessness, and patriotism. These qualities
of Etruscan power. were also displayed by the Horatii, three
24

ROMES EARLY WARS AND CONQUESTS
This bronze helmet

was made by people
of the Villanovan
culture, who were
predecessors of the
Romans and lived
in central Italy.
heroes from an earlier period of Romes quickly killed. The third pretended to
history. The Horatii were triplets who flee and was chased by the Curiatii.
were said to have lived in the mid- However, because the Curiatii had been
seventh century BCE, when Rome was injured, they became spread out, allow-
at war with the neighboring town of ing the surviving member of the Horatii
Alba Longa. It was agreed that the out- to kill them one by one. When the vic-
come of the war would be decided by a torious Horatius returned to Rome, his
fight between the Horatii and the sister, who had been betrothed to one of
Curiatii, another set of triplets from Alba the Curiatii, burst into tears on hearing
Longa.Two members of the Horatii were of her lovers death. Disgusted by her lack
25

ANCIENT ROME
ROMAN CHARACTER
Rome owed much of its success to the strength Another key Roman characteristic was the
of its traditions, which lasted remarkably late way the city was implacable and unyielding
into the imperial period and which combined to toward its foes. Many enemies of Rome,
create a distinctly Roman identity. particularly during the republic, beat the
Romans in a battle, but few were able to defeat
Among the most important of these traditions them in a war.The great heroes of Roman
was the determination never to be ruled by tradition were those who embodied this
kings. Even during the empire, the forms of unyielding, granite-like attitudemen such as
old Roman government were preserved. Cato the Elder, whose oft-repeated mantra was
The standards carried by Roman legions in Carthage must be destroyed.
imperial times did not carry the emperors
name, but the letters SPQR, which stood for Finally, the Roman system of government
a phrase meaning for the senate and people allowed ambitious men to succeed. During the
of Rome. Posts that originated during the republic, the consular system, in which two
republic, such as quaestor and consul, still had a consuls served in partnership for a year,
meaning and a function hundreds of years later. encouraged each consul to do what he could
Romans felt themselves part of a unique society, to make a success of his year in office.This
not subjects of a monarch. arrangement often led to foolhardy mistakes,
but it also contributed to great successes. In
Family life and family traditions were considered spite of attempts by patricians and senators to
to lie at the very heart of Roman life, and the protect their position, the Roman system
names of eminent families recur over the eventually allowed wider groups of people to
centuries in Roman history. It was very participate in government and to achieve great
important for a man to gain success in war or success. Even during the empire, the net of
civil life in order to add to the prestige of his power grew wider, as people from the provinces
family.The family and the home also played a were able to take on major posts and even to
central role in Roman religion. become emperor.
of patriotism, Horatius killed her on the defeated a Latin army in a battle near
spot. He was condemned to death for the Lake Regillus. Shortly afterward, Rome
murder, but pardoned when he appealed and the league entered into an alliance
to the Roman people. In later centuries, in which the various towns and cities
the story of the Horatii was told to agreed to contribute to an army for
underline the importance of selfless mutual self-defense.
devotion to the Roman state. By the beginning of the fourth cen-
tury BCE, Romes main source of dan-
Alliance and invasion ger came from Celtic tribes who were
At the beginning of the fifth century streaming westward from central Europe.
BCE, Romes ambitions to become the Around 390 BCE, a horde of Gauls
dominant city in Latium brought it into swept through Etruria, and the city of
conflict with members of the Latin Clusium asked Rome to come to its aid.
League. Around 496 BCE, the Romans Rome thought that the barbarians would
26

be easily destroyed, but at the Allia River

north of Rome, a Latin-Roman army
was nearly annihilated.The defeat was so
complete that most Romans abandoned
Rome without further resistance.
However, a few defenders took up a
position on the Capitoline Hill, which,
with its temple and fortress, was the only
part of Rome that could be defended.
From that vantage point, the Romans
prepared themselves for a siege and
watched as the Gauls burned the city to
the ground.
The defense of the Capitoline Hill
gave rise to many legends. According to
one story, the Gauls tried to take the hill
garrison by surprise, through a badly
guarded entrance. However, the sacred
geese in the temple warned the Romans
of the attack with their honking. It is not
clear whether the Capitoline Hill was This 16th-century-
ever taken.What is clear is that the Gauls CE sculpture depicts
were more interested in booty than con- the Etruscan king
quest. They were eventually bought off Lars Porsena, the
with a payment of 1,000 troy pounds subject of several
(375 kg) of gold. famous myths.
In the end, the Gauls settled only in
the northern Italian Peninsula, an area
that the Romans did not consider part of
the Italian Peninsula proper. They called
it Gallia Cisalpina (Gaul on this side of
the Alps) to distinguish it from Gallia
Transalpina (Gaul across the Alps).
The defeat at the hands of the Gauls
severely dented Romes prestige.To pro-
tect themselves against future threat, the
Romans reorganized their army and
built a defensive stone wall, 24 feet (7 m)
tall, around their city. However, for some
time to come, it was not the Gauls they
had to fear, but their neighbors in
Mucius Scaevola thrusts his hand onto red-

hot coals, impressing the Etruscan king Lars
Porsena with his courage. Mucius became a
hero to future Roman generations.This is a
detail from an illustration in a 15th-century-
CE copy of Dantes The Divine Comedy.
27

ANCIENT ROME
Apennines, the Latin cities supported

Rome in repelling the invaders.
Rome came into conflict with the
Samnites for the first time in 343 BCE.
The rich city of Capua was being threat-
ened by the Samnites and appealed to
Rome for protection. Rome sent a large
army, which succeeded in driving the
Samnites from Campania. Immediately
after the war, however, the Latin League
rebelled once more against its Roman
masters. The struggle continued for two
years, but Rome, now allied with the
Samnites, was ultimately successful in
subduing the Latin resistance.
In 338 BCE, the Latin League was
abolished, and Rome finally became the
undisputed ruler of central Italy. A num-
ber of Latin cities became part of the
Roman state, and in many cases, their
citizens were awarded Roman citizen-
ship. Other cities retained their inde-
pendence but were still allied to Rome.
The Samnites did not remain allies of
Rome for very long. Hostilities were
resumed in 327 BCE and raged until 304
BCE. In 321 BCE, the consuls initiated
an offensive campaign, marching an army
of 20,000 men into Samnite territory.
At the Caudine Forks (a narrow valley
These iron swords Latium.After the Celtic invasion, a num- between two mountains), they were sur-
and bronze helmets ber of Latin cities rebelled against what rounded by Samnite warriors and forced
were made by the they thought was a weaker Rome. It to surrender after a few days of fighting.
Celts and date to took decades of warfare for Rome to The captured consuls had to sign a peace
the third century restore the supremacy that it had once treaty, awarding several Roman posses-
BCE. A century enjoyed. However, in 358 BCE, follow- sions to the Samnites. Before the army
earlier, a Celtic army ing the defeat of the cities of Tibur and was allowed to retreat, it was subjected to
had sacked Rome. Praeneste, a new treaty was signed that the humiliation of passing under the
established Rome as the head of a new yokea low gateway of enemy lances.
Latin League, for a time at least When the consuls returned to
Rome, the treaty they had signed was
Wars against the Samnites rejected by the senate, and the war con-
Although the Latins had few reasons to tinued. Another consul was defeated by
be satisfied with Roman rule, tribal the Samnites in 309 BCE, after which
interests had to be sacrificed when the Romans changed their tactics.
Latium was threatened from outside. Instead of going on the offensive, they
During a war with the Samnites, warlike decided to await attack by the Samnites.
mountain tribes from the southern This assault came in 305 BCE, when
28

the Samnites invaded Campania. The Rome became involved with the
Romans proved victorious in the ensu- Greek colonies when the Athenian
ing campaign, and a year later, they made colony of Thurii sought its support
peace with the Samnites, putting against the Lucanians. Soon, other Greek
Campania under permanent Roman cities were asking for Romes protection.
control. Even so, hostilities were resumed This alarmed Tarentum, which was the
in 298 BCE, and it took the Romans richest and most powerful Greek city on
until 290 to eliminate the last Samnite the Italian Peninsula.
threat in one final great war. Only the The inhabitants of Tarentum, who
Greek colonies in the south of Italy considered the Romans to be barbarians
remained independent of Rome. and believed that they should not med-
dle in Greek affairs, mobilized an army
Greek colonies and Pyrrhus and drove off the Roman forces that had
This 18th-century- The Greek colonies could have been for- come to the assistance of Thurii. The
CE engraving midable enemies of Rome if they had Tarentans then hired a Greek general to
depicts four Samnite acted in unison or if they had received command their army. Their choice was
warriors.The assistance from their mother city-states in Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, a kingdom on
Samnites came from Greece. However, by the time Rome had the west coast of Greece.
a mountainous defeated the Samnites, the mother cities Pyrrhus was an extremely ambitious
region in central had long since severed contact with their warrior who dreamed of creating a large
Italy and fought a colonies in the Italian Peninsula. empire for himself. He gladly went to the
series of wars with Therefore, the Greek colonies were aid of Tarentum, taking with him a high-
the Romans in the forced to hire mercenary generals (who ly disciplined army of 25,000 men and
fourth and third usually came from Greece) to command 20 elephants. When he arrived in Taren-
centuries BCE. their armies. tum, he set himself up as a dictator.
29

ANCIENT ROME
He ordered the theaters and gymnasia to At one point, when Rome was ready
be closed and forced the citizens to eat to make peace with Pyrrhus, a former
military fare and engage in military exer- censor, Appius Claudius, paralyzed and
cises. These moves did not make him blind, was brought into the senate in a
popular. However, Pyrrhus did succeed sedan chair. He told the assembly that he
in saving the Tarentans from Rome, for a had never reconciled himself to being
time at least. blind, but he would now prefer to be
deaf as well, so he might not hear the
Pyrrhic victories terms of the disgraceful treaty that Rome
The Romans fought hard against was about to conclude.The senate was so
Pyrrhus, yet he twice emerged victori- impressed by his words that the treaty
ousat the Battle of Heraclea in 280 talks with Pyrrhus were called off.
BCE and at the Battle of Asculum in 279 After the heavy losses incurred in his
BCE.At both battles, the Romans put up two victories, and his failure to secure a
fierce resistance, and the Greeks suffered peace treaty with the Romans, Pyrrhus
heavy losses. Pyrrhus is reputed to have withdrew his forces from southern Italy
exclaimed, One more victory like that and transferred his attentions to Sicily.
and I will be lost! The battles ensured There, he scored great successes against
that Pyrrhuss name would remain the Carthaginians, who were the domi-
famous; a victory that proves so costly as nant power on the island. However, dur-
to be tantamount to a defeat is still ing Pyrrhuss three-year absence from
known as a Pyrrhic victory. Italy, the Romans drove the Tarentans
THE ROMAN ARMY

Romes successful conquests in the late fourth By the third century BCE, the armament had
century and early third century BCE depended become generally uniform. It consisted of a
to a large extent on its highly trained and highly bronze helmet, a scutum (large leather-covered
disciplined army. Early in the fourth century shield), two javelins, and a sword.Wealthier
BCE, the army was radically reorganized, soldiers also had a metal cuirass, a piece of
following the disastrous defeat by the Gauls at armor covering the back and the chest.The
the Battle of Allia in 390 BCE. sons of senators and of a growing number of
wealthy citizens who were not senators served
In the early fifth century BCE, the Roman legion in the cavalry200 to 300 men in each legion.
had consisted of 3,000 heavily armed foot
soldiers. Over the course of the fourth century The Romans borrowed the organizing principle
BCE, this was increased to 6,000 heavy infantry of the maniple from the Samnites, and this
troops and 2,400 light infantry. In 366 BCE, the resulted in greater flexibility on the battlefield.
annual draft was split between the two consuls, Under this system, the legion was divided into
each commanding a legion of 4,200 men. During three lines, with the youngest soldiers at the
the great war with the Samnites, this annual front. Each line was not solid, but consisted of
draft was doubled to four legions, two for maniples (rectangular groups) of 120 soldiers
each consul, reflecting the growth in Romes with spaces between them. Soldiers from the
population.The legion still comprised lines of rear could come up through the gaps in the
heavily and less heavily armed soldiers. lines to present a solid front when necessary.
30

Rome. Rome had not always been

successful in battle in the preceding
centuries, but it always continued the
struggle, even after defeat on the battle-
field. Roman armaments and tactics were
constantly being improved and, to some
degree, would be adapted according to
the opponents faced by the army.
When the Romans conquered a city,
they sometimes razed it and enslaved its
citizens. More often, however, the city
and its people would be incorporated
into the Roman state. In this way, the
number of Roman civilians and soldiers
steadily increased, as did the number of
allies throughout the Italian Peninsula.
Eventually, Rome reached a point where
its sheer numerical supremacy ensured
victory in any war.
Most conquered cities and peoples
on the Italian Peninsula retained local
autonomy.When a state had been defeat-
ed, those in power were generally
required to cede part of their territory to
Rome. That land was then divided
among Roman citizens, rich and poor
alike. Sometimes, Rome established a
military colony of able-bodied men to
keep watch over a conquered region.
The Latins, the people most closely
allied to Rome, were treated the most
This bust depicts the into a corner. Pyrrhus returned to the liberally. Latin men were even allowed to
Greek mercenary Italian Peninsula to relieve the Tarentans, vote in the comitia tributa (assembly of the
general Pyrrhus, who and in 275 BCE, his army met the people) when they were in Rome. Other
fought several Romans near Malventum. This time, his peoples, while they were not allowed to
battles against depleted forces were no match for the exercise any influence in the political
Roman forces in the Romans. Pyrrhuss normally indomitable sphere, nevertheless enjoyed many other
third century BCE. elephants were routed by a hail of burn- privileges of Roman citizenship. Cities
ing arrows, turning the tide of battle that had such rights were known as
inexorably against him. Acknowledging municipia (municipalities). The Romans
that his power in Italy was waning, did not think of those people as their
Pyrrhus returned to Epirus. In 272 BCE, subjects; they were termed socii (allies)
Tarentum was forced to recognize and were considered to be sharing the
Romes superiority. interests of Rome.
Rome triumphant See also:

By 270 BCE, all of the Italian Peninsula Early Rome (page 6) The Punic Wars
south of the Po River was subject to (page 32)
31

THE
PUNIC WARS
or much of the third century BCE, Rome was engaged in a
TIME LINE
264 BCE
F titanic battle for control of the western Mediterranean region.
Romes adversary was the city of Carthage. The struggles came to
Siege of Messana by be known as the Punic Wars.
King Hiero of
Syracuse prompts
First Punic War. After Rome defeated the Greek merce- Messana
260 BCE
nary general Pyrrhus in 275 BCE, the The immediate cause of the Punic Wars
Rome defeats
Greek colony of Tarentum was forced to between Rome and Carthage was appar-
Carthage at Battle acknowledge Roman sovereignty. The ently insignificant. The Sicilian city of
of Mylae. victory left Rome as one of the two great Messana, which held an important posi-
powers in the western Mediterranean. tion on the narrow strait between Sicily
241 BCE
The other was Carthage, on the north and Italy, had fallen into the hands of a
Destruction of
Carthaginian fleet coast of Africa. group of Italian mercenaries called the
at Battle of Aegates Mamertines, who had turned it into a
Islands brings Carthage pirates den. Their primary victims were
First Punic War Carthage was founded by Phoenician Sicilian Greeks. In 264 BCE, King Hiero
to close.
traders around the late ninth century of Syracuse laid siege to Messana in an
219 BCE BCE. Sited on a peninsula in the Gulf of attempt to rid the island of the rene-
Hannibals siege of Tunis, the city soon became a dominant gades. In response, the Mamertines
Saguntum acts as player in Mediterranean trade. However, appealed to both Carthage and Rome
catalyst for Second
Punic War. Carthage was also a military power, and for help.A Carthaginian fleet arrived and
by the sixth century BCE, it controlled succeeded in getting Hiero to stand
218 BCE almost the whole length of the north down. However, rather than allying
Hannibal crosses coast of Africa, from the Atlantic to what themselves with their saviors, the
Alps and enters
Italy with army of
is now Libya, and had taken over the Mamertines offered their allegiance to
40,000 men. Balearic Islands, Malta, Sardinia, and parts Rome. With some reluctance, the
of Sicily. By the fourth century BCE, Roman senate agreed to send an expedi-
216 BCE
Carthage had become a powerful com- tionary force to relieve Messana of its
Hannibal inflicts mercial metropolis at the center of a vast now unwelcome guests, thereby initiat-
massive defeat on
Roman army at web of trading posts. ing the First Punic War, which raged for
Battle of Cannae. Rome was naturally suspicious of its the next 23 years.
powerful neighbor, and in all the trading
202 BCE The First Punic War
treaties between the two states, Rome
Roman victory at
Battle of Zama inserted a clause that forbade Carthage The Carthaginians withdrew when the
marks end of from establishing any permanent bases Roman force arrived, but Carthage later
Second Punic War. on the Italian Peninsula. However, the sent a larger army to regain Messana,
Carthaginians control of the western enlisting Hieros support in its struggle
half of the nearby island of Sicily would against Rome. However, within a year,
prove to be the catalyst for war. Hiero switched sides and threw in his lot
32

THE PUNIC WARS
with the Romans. With Hiero as their a fleet of their own, and it became This brass
ally, the Romans advanced across Sicily imperative that they build one to match Carthaginian
to lay siege to the Carthaginian city of that of Carthage.According to one story, breastplate dates to
Agrigentum, which they took and the Romans enlisted Hieros help in around the third
sacked in 262 BCE. designing new warships. According to century BCE, the
Despite these successes, it became another story, they used a wrecked period when
clear to the Romans that they needed to Carthaginian galley as a model. Besides Carthage was at
break the Carthaginians power on the building a fleet of warships, the Romans war with Rome.
seas.The Romans had little in the way of also trained their soldiers in boarding
33

ANCIENT ROME
COMMERCE IN THE EARLY ROMAN EMPIRE
W hile the Romans were engaged in

conquering Italy and parts of the
Mediterranean, their interest in industry and
However, while the Romans were uninterested in
trade, they were to become very active in money-
lending and banking.This development was a
commerce lagged far behind their military skills. direct result of the wars of conquest, which sent
During the third and second centuries BCE, craft a flood of gold and silver into the city.
manufacture remained in the hands of small,
independent tradesmen.There was no Roman Moneylending was a lucrative field of business.
center of industry to compare with the former Although rates of interest were strictly controlled
Etruscan city of Capua, which produced ceramics, in Rome itself, Roman financiers could reap huge
bronzes, furniture, and perfume. profits in the provinces by lending money to
enable people to pay their taxes. Rates of interest
Rome imported far more than it exported. could be extremely high, sometimes 25 percent
Large quantities of grain came from Sicily, and or more. Such practices made some citizens
enormous amounts of silver arrived from mines extremely wealthy, and with the spread of wealth,
in Spain. Slaves were in great demand to work on a system of banking developed. A rich Roman
the growing landholdings of the wealthy and to citizen could have an account with a banker,
service the increasingly luxurious houses of the enabling the citizen to pay large debts with paper,
rich in Rome and other cities. In 218 BCE, the such as a letter of credit.
Roman senate passed a law forbidding senators to
own ships. Because of this law, most of this sea This amphitheater is located at Ostia, the ancient
trade was carried by ships owned by Greek and port of Rome. In the days of the republic, many
Phoenician merchants. imported goods would have passed through Ostia.
34

THE PUNIC WARS
techniques. To do so, they used wooden were astonished to see the Romans These ruins are
boarding platforms with a spike at the lower boarding bridges to connect with located in the
end to hold the enemy ship in place. their ships. Fully armed legionnaires then Sicilian town of
Such a boarding device was known as a swarmed across to the enemy ships and Agrigentum. Known
corvus, the Latin word for raven. massacred the Carthaginians in hand-to- as Akragas at the
hand combat. time, the city was
Early battles Four years later, the Carthaginians sacked by both the
In 260 BCE, the new Roman warships, were defeated in another naval battle, at Romans and the
numbering 140 and under the command Ecnomus, off the southern coast of Sicily. Carthaginians
of the consul Duilius, met the The Romans then decided to take an during the Second
Carthaginian fleet of 130 ships at Mylae, unprecedented gamble, sending an expe- Punic War.
off the northern coast of Sicily.The war- ditionary force to Africa to attack the
ships of that time had a long projecting city of Carthage itself. The venture
beam, called a rostrum (beak), at the turned out to be a disastrous mistake.The
bow, which was used for ramming and Carthaginian infantry had been reorgan-
sinking enemy ships. Ramming was the ized and trained by the Spartan merce-
usual method of naval warfare; boarding nary general Xanthippus, and in the
an enemy ship was not considered spring of 255 BCE, he engaged the
important, so when the Carthaginians Roman invaders at Bagradas in northern
closed in on the Roman vessels, they Africa. There, he inflicted a devastating
35

ANCIENT ROME
This 16th-century-
CE painting by
Jacopo Ripanda
depicts the Battle
of Mylae. In the
bottom right-hand
corner, Roman
soldiers can be
seen boarding an
enemy warship.
defeat on the Romans. The few men played a game of military hide-and-seek
who survived the massacre were picked with his opponents, conducting raids
up by the Roman fleet, which was then against targets both in Sicily and along
caught in a heavy storm that sank three- the Italian coast.
quarters of the ships. By 241 BCE, both Carthage and
The scene of action then reverted to Rome were close to exhaustion. In des-
Sicily. In 254 BCE, the Romans captured peration, the Roman citizens themselves
Panormus (present-day Palermo) on the paid to outfit one final fleet. A fleet of
north coast of the island. However, they 200 ships set sail to close off Hamilcars
were later harassed by the Carthaginian Sicilian bases in Drepana and Lilybaeum.
general Hamilcar Barca, who arrived in The Carthaginians sent a fleet to relieve
Sicily in 247 BCE and established a base their general and met the Roman ships
on Mount Eryx on the west coast. He at the Aegates Islands, just off the coast
36

THE PUNIC WARS
near Drepana. After a fierce battle, the

Carthaginian fleet was destroyed. Forced
to accept defeat, the Carthaginians faced
punitive conditions for peace. When the
ceasefire was signed, Hamilcar and the
Roman consul in command in Sicily
agreed that Carthage would surrender
Sicily, release all prisoners, and pay a total
of 2,200 gold talents to Rome over a
period of 20 years.
Delegates then arrived from Rome
and set even more stringent conditions.
They demanded an additional 1,000
talents, half to be paid immediately and
the rest over 10 years. Carthage had no
option but to agree. The debt caused
enormous financial distress and meant
that the city could not afford to pay the
mercenary troops it had used in the
Sicilian campaign. When these sol-
diers returned to Carthage, they
incited the citys Libyan slaves to
rebel. Carthage called on Hamilcar
to put down the insurrection, but
he was unable to subdue the rebels
until 238 BCE. Rome made good
use of the three years of confusion
by seizing the islands of Sardinia
and Corsica.
Carthaginians in Spain
Carthage made Hamilcar Barca the com-
mander-in-chief of its army in 237 BCE,
and with Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica lost went a long way toward restoring This Roman bust
to Rome, he made Spain the scene of his Carthages power. Seeing this, the of Hannibal was
operations. Hamilcar spent the next nine Romans thought it advisable to stop this made from marble
years subjugating the Celtic tribes on the expansion in Spain before Carthage during the
Iberian Peninsula and organizing them completely recovered from its defeat. Carthaginian
into an army. Accordingly, in 226 BCE, the Romans generals own
When Hamilcar died in 228 BCE, his forced Hasdrubal to sign a treaty agree- lifetime.
son-in-law Hasdrubal succeeded him. ing that his troops would not cross the
The new commander continued the Ebro River in northern Spain.
Iberian campaign with the assistance of Hasdrubal was killed by assassins in
Hamilcars 18-year-old son, Hannibal. 221 BCE, after which the 25-year-old
Their conquests included mining regions Hannibal assumed command of the
that greatly contributed to the army. In the campaigns that followed,
Carthaginian treasury. Together, these the young general proved to have one of
gains in material wealth and manpower the greatest military minds in history.
37

ANCIENT ROME
New Roman provinces sea) for the waters around the Italian
One result of the First Punic War was Peninsula and their new islands. As
that Rome now controlled territories Romes empire grew, so did the area of
beyond the Italian PeninsulaCorsica, sea that they claimed. Eventually, the
Sardinia, and part of Sicily. The Romans whole Mediterranean would become the
called these territories provincia (prov- mare nostrum.
inces), and they did not consider them to
be allies, but subjugated areas. Placed The Second Punic War
under the rule of Roman civil servants, Within two years of taking command
the provinces suffered the same condi- of the Carthaginian army in Spain,
This bust depicts the tions as they had under the Carthagin- Hannibal annexed all the territory
Roman general ians. Every year, two new praetors (con- between the Tagus and Ebro rivers.
Scipio Africanus, sular deputies) were appointed, one to Hannibal had inherited a deep hatred of
who was largely rule Sicily and the other to rule Sardinia Rome from his father, and he was intent
responsible for the and Corsica, bringing the total number on rebuilding the power and wealth of
ultimate defeat of of praetors to four. Carthage, possibly with the idea of chal-
Carthage in the After the First Punic War, the Romans lenging Rome at some point in the
Second Punic War. used the term mare nostrum (meaning our future. That opportunity came when
Rome interfered in the affairs of
Saguntum, a city that lay south of the
Ebro River and was therefore in territo-
ry that Hannibal considered to belong to
Carthage. In the spring of 219 BCE, he
laid siege to Saguntum, which appealed
to Rome for help. The senate promised
assistance, but it never arrived, and the
city fell to Hannibal after eight months.
Declaring Hannibals attack to be a vio-
lation of the Ebro treaty, the Romans
insisted that Hannibal be surrendered to
them. When Carthage refused, the
Romans declared war.
The Romans had seriously underesti-
mated the revived strength of Carthage.
During his time in Spain, Hannibal had
built upon the foundations laid by his
father and recruited and trained a formi-
dable army, larger than any previously
put in the field by the Carthaginians. In
response to this danger, the Romans sent
out two forces, one to Carthage and one
to Spain to engage Hannibal. However,
Hannibal had no intention of waiting for
the Romans to arrive. Instead, he
planned to attack them on their home
ground. He assembled an army of some
40,000 troops and cavalry and, using
battle-trained elephants to carry supplies,

THE PUNIC WARS
he set out from New Carthage (present-

day Cartagena in southeastern Spain) and
headed for Rome by land. He crossed
the Pyrenees Mountains and the Rhone
River and marched east along the
Mediterranean coast.
Hannibal in Italy
To reach the Italian Peninsula, Hannibals
army had to cross the Alps, a feat that has
become one of the most famous in mili-
tary history.The march took 15 days.The
Carthaginians had to contend with
snowstorms and avalanches, as well as
attacks from mountain tribes. Most of
the elephants and some 15,000 men died
from cold or starvation. However, by the
fall of 218 BCE, Hannibal and his army
had reached the Po Valley, around 80
miles (129 km) south of the Alps, and
were prepared to take on the forces
Rome was assembling.
The first Roman general to confront
Hannibal was the consul Publius
Cornelius Scipio. Scipio had initially
been dispatched to Spain, but he hastily
returned when news of Hannibals inva-
sion reached him. The two generals met
at the Ticinus River. Even though they
were considerably depleted, Hannibals
forces had no difficulty in defeating the while the other, Gaius Flaminius, was Hannibals greatest
Romans. Scipio retreated to the base of posted at Arretium in Etruria. As soon as victory over the
the Apennine Mountains, where he he received news that Hannibal was on Romans came at
awaited the arrival of another Roman the move in Etruria, Flaminius followed the Battle of
force, under Sempronius Longus, which with his army. Anxious to catch up with Cannae.This
had originally been assembled for an the Carthaginians, Flaminius made illustration of
attack on Carthage.The combined army forced marches and neglected to send the battle comes
attacked Hannibal at the Trebia River, out scouts to reconnoiter the surround- from a 15th-
but the Romans were encircled by the ing terrain. He was caught in a narrow century-CE
Carthaginians and lost two-thirds of pass near Lake Trasimene, where manuscript.
their men. After this disastrous Roman Hannibals forces suddenly surrounded
defeat, the road to the south was open Flaminiuss army and wiped it out.
for Hannibal. In Rome, a nervous crowd waited for
news. At dusk, the praetor Marcus
Defeat at Trasimene Pomponius appeared before the senate
In the spring of 217 BCE, the Roman building. Without preamble, he simply
senate dispatched one consul with an said: A great battle was fought and we
army to Ariminum on the Adriatic coast, were completely defeated. Although all
39

ANCIENT ROME
Rome was in shock, there was no panic. Roman army was given to two new con-
Instead, the famous patrician Quintus suls, Gaius Terentius Varro and Lucius
Fabius Maximus Verrucosus was appoint- Aemilius Paulus. In the summer, they led
ed dictatorthe special office held only their army of around 85,000 men toward
in time of dire emergency. Hannibals encampment at Cannae.
Contrary to expectations after the Hannibal, with his smaller army of
defeat at Lake Trasimene, Hannibal did 55,000, prepared to fight on the plain
not march on Rome. Instead, he passed before the city.
on to southern Italy, where he unsuccess- The engagement that followed was a
fully attempted to persuade the southern classic example of Hannibals military
cities to defect and ally themselves with genius. Hannibal arranged his infantry in
him. Hannibal was pursued by a Roman a convex shape, with his weakest troops
army led by the newly appointed dicta- at the very center. When the Romans
tor, Fabius, who avoided any direct con- made a frontal attack, the center fell back
frontation. This policy was unpopular in to lead the enemy into a trap. Hannibals
Rome and soon earned Fabius the nick- veteran infantry, positioned on the flanks,
name cunctator (dawdler). Nevertheless, advanced and turned inward to trap the
Fabius eventually inflicted some serious Romans. At this point, Hannibals caval-
The Magnanimity damage on Hannibal, and his presence ry, having defeated its Roman counter-
of Scipio Africanus encouraged the southern Italian cities to part, wheeled around from the rear to cut
by Bernardino remain loyal to Rome. off any Roman retreat. The encircled
Fungai depicts the Roman army was largely destroyed; it
Roman general as a The Battle of Cannae was the most disastrous defeat Rome had
Renaissance prince. Hannibal spent the winter of 217216 ever suffered. Some 50,000 Roman and
The painting dates BCE at Gerontium, moving his army to allied soldiers died, including the consul
to around the Cannae on the Ofanto River in the Aemilius Paulus.Varro escaped with what
beginning of the spring.When Fabiuss six-month term as was left of the army. Hannibal lost only
16th century CE. dictator was over, command of the 6,000 men.
40

THE PUNIC WARS
The tomb of
Archimedes is found
in Syracuse, Sicily.
The Greek inventors
war machines
helped defend the
city against
Roman attack.
Even after this catastrophe, Rome The war continued on three fronts.
would not capitulate, refusing even to On the Italian Peninsula, deserting allies
receive Hannibals messengers.The prog- were gradually resubjugated by the
nosis was dire, however. In addition to Romans. In 212 BCE, Hannibal won the
Romes unprecedented loss of men, important seaboard city of Tarentum, but
another problem for the Romans was the following year, he lost Capua, which
that the southern cities were now defect- the Romans starved into submission.This
ing to Hannibal. Rome raised new loss cost Hannibal the support of many of
legions and prepared for further resist- his other Italian allies.
ance. However, Hannibal himself was in On Sicily, Syracuse had been an ally
need of reinforcements, which Carthage of Rome under King Hiero, but after he
failed to send. Instead of marching on died in 215 BCE, Syracuse sided with
Rome, he tried, and failed, to take Carthage. A Roman expeditionary force
Naples. He then retired to Capua, Italys laid siege to Syracuse in 213 BCE but
second largest city, which opened its was temporarily rebuffed, partly by the
gates to him. Hannibal wintered there, ingenious war machines invented by the
while more cities defected to him. Greek mathematician Archimedes, a citi-
zen of Syracuse. The city finally fell
Fighting on three fronts to the Romans in 212 BCE through
After the Battle of Cannae, the Romans treachery, and in the ensuing looting by
adopted the skirmishing tactics that had Roman soldiers, Archimedes was killed.
previously been used by Fabius, limiting On the third front, in Spain, the
themselves to small battles and expedi- Carthaginian army was now command-
tions to punish deserting allies.They still ed by Hannibals brother Hasdrubal (not
ruled the sea, and this dominance made to be confused with his brother-in-law
it difficult for Carthage to send rein- of the same name). A Roman expedi-
forcements to Hannibal. tionary force under the brothers Publius
41

ANCIENT ROME
Cornelius and Gnaeus Cornelius Scipio Carthaginian forces were enveloped and
harassed Hasdrubal and gained the alle- utterly destroyed. By the end of the year,
giance of tribes north of the Ebro River. Carthage had surrendered Spain to
In 211 BCE, the brothers crossed the Rome for good.
Ebro and took Saguntum. However, they
were compelled to divide their dwin- Hasdrubal crosses the Alps
dling forces.As a result, the Romans were Hasdrubal succeeded in marching over-
defeated in two separate battles, and both land to Italy and, in 207 BCE, crossed the
Scipios were killed. Alps to reach the northern Italian
Peninsula. Augmenting his army with
Carthage loses Spain troops supplied by Gauls and Ligurians,
In 210 BCE, Rome sent another army to he proceeded south, intending to meet
Spain, this time commanded by the son up with Hannibal and mount a joint
and namesake of Publius Cornelius attack on Rome. However, he was sur-
Scipio. This 25-year-old, later to be prised at the Metaurus River by a
known as Scipio Africanus, had served in Roman force under the command of the
northern Italy against Hannibal and had consul Gaius Claudius Nero. In the ensu-
held the office of aedile (magistrate), even ing battle, Hasdrubals army was annihi-
though theoretically he had been too lated, and he himself was killed. The
young to do so. He was granted his com- Romans announced Hasdrubals defeat
mand by the comitia centuriata (military by beheading him and tossing his head
assembly), which also bestowed on him into his brother Hannibals camp.
the rank of proconsul. This honor gave
him the same authority as a consul. The War in Africa
assemblys confidence in the young Scipio returned to Rome in 205 BCE
Scipio was not misplaced; he was to and was elected consul. He then per-
prove himself one of the greatest gener- suaded the senate to allow him to take
als of the ancient world. the war to Africa and punish the
After landing in Spain, Scipio quick- Carthaginians on their home ground.
ly restored the morale of the defeated First, he took his army to Sicily and spent
troops, leading them to one victory after a year training it in the battle tactics
another. In 209 BCE, he led a surprise (based on Hannibals own methods) that
attack and took New Carthage, where had won him success at the battles of
Hasdrubal had his headquarters, arsenals, Baecula and Ilipa.Then, in 204 BCE, he
and main base of supplies.The following landed on African soil, where he was met
year, Scipio defeated Hasdrubal at the with fierce resistance. However, in the
Battle of Baecula, but the Carthaginian spring, he made a surprise night attack
managed to retreat with most of his army on the enemys camps, setting fire to
intact. Hasdrubal decided to abandon them and putting the troops to the
Spain and try to reach his brother sword. The Carthaginians reassembled
Hannibal in Italy. Scipio allowed him to their forces, only to be completely
leave, rather than risk a dangerous pursuit destroyed by Scipio at the Battle of the
through the Alps. Great Plains that same summer.
A new Carthaginian army was then In a last-ditch attempt to retrieve the
assembled in Spain, and in 206 BCE, this situation, Hannibal was recalled from
new force faced Scipio and his army at Italy. In 202 BCE, Hannibal visited
the Battle of Ilipa near Seville.Thanks to Scipio in his tent to discuss a number of
the tactical brilliance of Scipio, the peace proposals. Scipio would not accept
42

THE PUNIC WARS
them, and Hannibal decided to risk amending the constitution and reform- This undated
everything in a final battle.The two sides ing its government and financial system. modern painting
met in October at the Battle of Zama. He became unpopular with some aristo- depicts Scipios
Hannibals new recruits fled, and his crats, who accused him of plotting with victory procession
veterans were cut down by the cavalry Antioch III of Syria to make war on after the Battle of
of the Romans African ally, Masinissa. Rome. Fearful of Romes retribution, Zama in 202 BCE.
The Carthaginian army was almost Hannibal fled to Antiochs court at
totally destroyed, but Hannibal was one Ephesus in 195 BCE and advised the
of the few survivors. Scipios victory at king on war with Rome.
Zama brought the Second Punic War to When Antioch was defeated at
an end and earned him the title Africanus Magnesia in 190 BCE, Rome demanded
the Elder. that he surrender Hannibal. Fearing for
his life, Hannibal fled once more, eventu-
The death of Hannibal ally taking refuge with Prusias II, king of
Under the peace treaty signed between Bithynia in Anatolia. The king could
Carthage and Rome in 201 BCE, barely control the pirates on his shores,
Carthage was required to yield Spain to much less protect Hannibal from the
Rome, dismantle its fleet, and pay the Romans, who again demanded his sur-
sum of 10,000 gold talents over 50 years. render. Around 183 BCE, rather than fall
Carthage was forbidden to wage war into Roman hands, Hannibal took poi-
outside Africa, and only with Romes son and ended his own life.
permission within Africa.
Hannibal returned to Carthage, See also:
where he took up a political role, Romes Early Wars and Conquests (page 24)
43

REVOLUTION AND
REFORM
n the second and early first centuries BCE, Rome continued to
TIME LINE
197 BCE
I gain new territory. At the same time, there was social upheaval
at home. Class conflict eventually led to one aristocrat, Lucius
Roman victory Cornelius Sulla, marching on Rome at the head of an army.
at Battle of
Cynoscephalae
ends Second Romes victory over Carthage in 201 been seized during the Punic Wars fell
Macedonian War. BCE made Rome the preeminent power into the hands of the wealthy in the form
146 BCE in the western Mediterranean region. of vast land holdings called latifundia
Carthage falls to However, although the Italian Peninsula (large estates). These estates were run
Roman force under had suffered greatly during the course of either as mixed farms producing grain,
Scipio Aemilianus. the Second Punic War, Rome continued wine, and olives, or as ranch-type opera-
133 BCE with its military exploits.The ruling elite tions supporting large herds of sheep and
Tiberius Gracchus wanted to punish the Macedonian king, cattle. Both types were generally worked
elected tribune; Philip V, for his alliance with the by slaves rather than free men, an
murdered later Carthaginian general Hannibal. In 200 arrangement that had several advantages
that year. BCE, in response to requests for help from from the owners point of view. Slaves
123 BCE Pergamum and Rhodes, a Roman army worked long hours, could not be called
Gaius Gracchus was sent into Greece. The expedition away to do military service, and did not
elected tribune; marked the start of the short-lived Second have to be paid wages.These large estates
uses office to Macedonian War (see box, page 46). The squeezed out the small peasant farmers,
force social
change. war came to an end in 197 BCE, when many of whom sold out to the large
the Romans inflicted a decisive defeat on landowners and then either hired them-
108 BCE Philip at the Battle of Cynoscephalae.This selves out as day laborers, if they could
Gaius Marius elected victory ensured that Rome dominated find work, or migrated to Rome for
consul; goes on to
hold office further
the eastern Mediterranean region as well employment there.
six times. as the western. Corruption in this new society was
Roman armies moved swiftly from rife, particularly in the field of tax collec-
88 BCE
one conflict to another. They next tion. Civil servants in the provinces sold
Lucius Cornelius marched against Antioch III, the king of regional concessions for tax collection at
Sulla marches on
Rome at head Syria, defeating him at the Battle of high prices. Wealthy noblemen then
of army and Magnesia in 190 BCE. The once great formed large consortiums to purchase
drives opponents Seleucid Empire was forced into an such concessions. They then leased out
from city. ignominious peace, ceding all its hold- their licenses to publicani (tax collectors),
82 BCE ings in Anatolia and Europe to Rome. who paid up front and then recouped
Sulla declares
himself dictator. The latifundia This mosaic from the second century CE
While these developments were happen- depicts horses being used to thresh wheat.
ing abroad, a social revolution was taking Large estates such as that depicted here
place at home. Much of the land that had were known as latifundia.
44

ANCIENT ROME
THE MACEDONIAN WARS
D uring the Second Punic War, Hannibal

formed an alliance with King Philip V of
Macedon.The move incensed the Romans, who
The Third Macedonian War broke out when
Perseus, the ambitious son and successor of Philip
V, incensed the Roman senate by entering into
dispatched a fleet under the general Valerius treaties with neighboring city-states. In 171 BCE,
Laevinus to the Adriatic in 214 BCE. Over the Rome declared war on Perseus, and initially,
course of the next nine years, there were a Perseus achieved some successes in his
number of skirmishes between Roman and engagements with the Roman army. However,
Macedonian forces, but no large-scale, conclusive in 168 BCE, he suffered an ignominious defeat at
battles. In 205 BCE, the Romans made peace with the Battle of Pydna. As at Cynoscephalae, the
Philip.This largely uneventful struggle is known as Macedonian army, using its traditional phalanx
the First Macedonian War. formation, proved to be no match for the Roman
troops with their more flexible tactics. Perseus
After the Second Punic War ended in 201 BCE, was taken prisoner and escorted in chains back
the senate felt that not enough had been done to Rome, where he was sentenced to life
to punish Philip for his alliance with Hannibal. imprisonment. His country was divided into
The senate was also alarmed by the fact four republics, all of which had to
that Philip was seeking to extend pay annual tribute to their
his influence in the Aegean Roman conquerors.
and had attacked several
Greek city-states in In 152 BCE, a pretender to
the area. In 200 BCE, the throne of Macedonia,
a Roman force of called Andriscus,
around 30,000 attempted to restore
men was sent to the monarchy and unite
Apollonia in Illyria, the four republics in
north of Macedon. an alliance against
In 197 BCE, the Rome. A Roman
Romans confronted army under Quintus
Philips forces at Caecilius Metellus
the Battle of was sent to put down
Cynoscephalae. the rebellion and had
Philip was defeated, no difficulty in expelling
and under the terms the pretender. As a result,
of the peace treaty, Macedonia was finally made
he was forced to a province of Rome in
give up all of his 148 BCE.
possessions outside of
Macedon and pay a This sculpture from the first
massive sum of money to century CE depicts Philip V
Rome. As a result of this treaty, of Macedon, a former ally
Rome now dominated almost the of the Carthaginian general
entire Mediterranean region. Hannibal.
46

REVOLUTION AND REFORM
their outlay by collecting the taxes. BCE, when the native tribes sought to
Everyone but the tax payer made a sig- free themselves from Roman oppression,
nificant profit. Tiberius served as quaestor to the
Roman army in Spain. In 137 BCE, he
Attempts at reform saved 20,000 defeated Roman troops
Many people spoke out against the cor- from slaughter by negotiating with the
ruption, demanding a return to the victorious city of Numantia.
Roman tradition of integrity. The most On his return to Rome,Tiberius saw
famous voice belonged to Marcus that Roman society was polarized
Porcius Cato (234149 BCE), also between a small group of very rich aris-
known as Cato the Elder. Cato was a tocrats, many of whom were corrupt,
prosperous gentleman farmer who had and a mass of landless peasants. Much
once been awarded a triumph for his public land had been illegally appropriat-
military service in Spain. He had also ed by large landowners after the Second
served as quaestor (junior magistrate) in Punic War, leaving many rural areas more
204 BCE, as aedile (temple functionary) or less depopulated of peasants. These
in 199 BCE, as praetor (consular deputy) areas could only be repopulated by offer-
in 198 BCE, and as consul in 195 BCE. ing the peasants land, which would entail
When serving as censor in 184 BCE, he recovering and redistributing land that
suspended any senator he considered to had formerly been public property.With In this 18th-century-
be immoral or unworthy of office. this program in mind,Tiberius presented CE illustration,
Opposed to Greek influence on Rome, himself as a candidate for the post of the tribune Gaius
Cato believed that most of the citys tribune of the people. Gracchus addresses
problems could be solved by a return to Tiberius was elected in 133 BCE and the popular
ancient Roman traditions. immediately presented a land reform bill assembly.
In 157 BCE, Cato was sent to Africa
to mediate in a conflict between the
Carthaginians and the Numidians. He
came back convinced that Carthage was
an even worse threat to Rome than
Greece. Until his death in 149 BCE, he
closed every speech with the words
delenda est Carthago (meaning Carthage
must be destroyed). His considerable
influence helped to bring about the
Third Punic War (see box, page 49),
which achieved just that aim.
Other agitation for reform came
from a group of senators who were polit-
ical enemies of Cato. This faction was
led by Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus
(168133 BCE).Tiberius Gracchus had a
distinguished military record. He fought
in the Third Punic War and was said to
have been the first Roman soldier to
scale the wall of Carthage in the battle
that destroyed the city in 146 BCE.
During the Spanish Wars of 154 to 133
47

ANCIENT ROME
This relief sculpture directly to the concilium plebis, by- necessary as the driving out of kings
depicts a Roman passing the senate. The aristocratic sena- the interests of the people took prece-
shopkeeper. tors, led by Tiberiuss cousin Scipio dence over the immunity of the tribune.
Africanus the Younger, not only saw this After this initial setback, the assembly
as a threat to their landholdings, but also voted through the land reform bill with-
to their political powernormally, such out further difficulty.
bills were discussed by the senate before A commission set up to implement
they were presented to the concilium the reform consisted of Tiberius, his
plebis. The senators persuaded another brother Gaius, and his father-in-law
tribune, Marcus Octavius, to veto the Appius Claudius Pulcher. However, their
bill. Not deterred by this, Tiberius con- work was sabotaged at every step by the
vinced the assembly to remove the senate. Tiberius proposed using funds
troublesome tribune from office. This from the recently acquired province of
action was unprecedented, but Tiberius Asia to help the newly settled peasants
defended it by arguing that it was as buy stock. However, this idea enraged
48

THE THIRD PUNIC WAR
Although the wealth and power of defeated Carthage at Zama in

Carthage were badly damaged by the 202 BCE.The young Scipio was
Second Punic War, which ended in given the task of bringing Carthage
201 BCE, the city gradually began to to its knees.
regain its status in the half-century
that followed. However, it suffered In 146 BCE, Scipio managed to
constant harassment from its breach the outer wall of the city.
neighbor, Numidia, which made a The Carthaginian garrison, although
series of incursions into Carthaginian weakened by hunger, put up strong
territory.When Carthage took steps resistance, and it took a week of
to raise an army to defend its hand-to-hand fighting through the
borders (in direct breach of its streets to reach the citadel, where
peace treaty with Rome), the senate the remaining 50,000 citizens were
acted swiftly. It dispatched a large huddled. Scipio took them all
combined land and sea force, under prisoner (later selling them into
both consuls, to deal with Carthage slavery) and set fire to the buildings,
once and for all.The city was letting them burn to the ground.
besieged, but it proved difficult to He cursed the ruins, pouring salt on
take. One of the new consuls elected them, and forbade reoccupation of
in 147 BCE was Scipio Aemilianus, the site for 25 years.The territory
the adopted grandson of Scipio of Carthage became the new
Africanus the Elder, who had Roman province of Africa.
the senate, which considered the govern- to retain all power. The land reform law
ment of the provinces to be its own pre- was left in place, but little was done to
rogative. When his term of office implement it.
expired, Tiberius stood for reelection,
anxious to see through his reforms. This Gaius Sempronius Gracchus
act was another unprecedented move, Tiberiuss younger brother Gaius
and for Tiberius, it proved a step too far. Gracchus (c. 153121 BCE) was an even
In the heated arguments that followed more fervent reformer than Tiberius. He
his announcement, several senators, was elected tribune of the people in 123
together with their armed slaves and BCE. His many proposals had one objec-
clients, surrounded Tiberius and beat tive, that of weakening the power of the
him to death. His body was thrown into optimates. Gaius first attacked the jury
the Tiber River. Some 300 of Tiberiuss system under which provincial governors
followers met a similar fate. were tried on charges of corruption.
Following Tiberiuss death in 133 These juries usually consisted of sena-
BCE, the Roman senate divided into tors. Gaius introduced a bill that gave this
two factions. The progressive populares responsibility to the equites, members of
(advocates of the people) wanted to con- the business class.
tinue the reforms of Tiberius, while the Gaius then turned his attention to the
optimates (aristocrats) wanted the senate poor of Rome. He established the lex
49

ANCIENT ROME
frumentaria (grain law), which provided by Gaius, a servant of one of the consuls
for the distribution of grain to the citi- was killed.The death gave the optimates a
zens at a fixed price, subsidized by the pretext to have the senate declare a state
state. He also pursued an active policy to of emergency. The consul Lucius
relocate the rootless people of Romes Opimius assembled a vigilante patrol that
streets to new colonies, including one attacked Gaius and his guards on the
amid the ruins of Carthage. In contrast to Aventine Hill, where they had taken
his brother, Gaius was reelected tribune refuge. Determined not to fall into the
without difficulty in 122 BCE. hands of his enemies, Gaius ordered his
During his second term of office, own slave to stab him to death. Some
Gaius introduced a bill that would grant 3,000 of Gaiuss followers were subse-
full civil rights to the Italian allies. This quently indicted and executed.
move was not popular with his fellow For the moment, the senate had tri-
Romans, however.The bill was defeated, umphed, but it was a hollow victory.
This 19th-century- and Gaius was not elected for a third Rome desperately needed a new consti-
CE lithograph term.The senate then canceled the colo- tution. While the old form of govern-
depicts the Roman nization of Carthage, claiming that the ment had been adequate for running a
general Scipio city was eternally cursed. city, it was hopelessly unsuitable now that
Aemilianus watching Without the protection of office, Rome had become a regional power.
the destruction Gaius was vulnerable to attack. In a riot
of Carthage. that followed a demonstration organized Expanding the empire
While attempts at reform were taking
place at home, Romes armies were con-
tinuing to gain territory abroad. After
annexing Macedonia, Rome acquired
territory in Anatolia. In 133 BCE, the
king of Pergamum died and left his king-
dom to Rome in his will. The region
became the province of Asia.
After driving the Carthaginians out
of Spain in 206 BCE, the Romans had
divided the Iberian Peninsula into two
provinces. However, mismanagement by
the provincial governors led to years of
rebellion. Not surprisingly, governmental
service in Spain was not popular among
Roman citizens. One of the centers
of resistance to Rome was the small
northern city of Numantia, the chief
stronghold of the Celtiberians (Celts
living on the Iberian Peninsula).
Numantia held out against the Romans
for nine years. Eventually, the Roman
general Scipio Aemilianus successfully
blockaded the city, which was then
driven by hunger to surrender in 133
BCE. Scipio destroyed the city and sold
the survivors into slavery.
50

Trouble in Africa
Toward the end of the second century
BCE, Rome became involved in a civil
war in Numidia, a kingdom in northern
Africa (part of present-day Algeria).
During the course of the struggle, a
number of Italian merchants were massa-
cred by troops belonging to Jugurtha,
one of the rival claimants to the throne.
In 111 BCE, a Roman army was sent to
Numidia to punish Jugurtha. However,
the campaign dragged on for two years.
In 109 BCE, the consul Caecilius
Metellus was put in charge of the army
in Africa. He restored order and disci-
pline among the troops and began a
campaign to defeat and capture Jugurtha.
However, Jugurthas greater knowledge
of the local terrain allowed him to stay
out of Roman hands.
Metellus had a capable deputy in
Gaius Marius (15786 BCE), an eques
who had risen to the position of senator.
Marius was ambitious and begged leave
of his commanding officer in order to
return to Rome and seek election as
consul. He was successful in obtaining
the office in 108 BCE.The comitia tributa
(assembly of the people) then appointed
him commander-in-chief in Africa
an appointment hitherto made only by
the senate. Threat from the north This bust depicts the
Marius returned to Africa with a levy In 105 BCE, Rome came under the Roman general and
of raw recruits, which he proceeded to threat of two Germanic tribes, the statesman Gaius
train to a high standard. He continued Cimbrians and Teutons, who were on Marius, who is best
the war against Jugurtha, capturing the the move in Gaul, threatening the bor- known for the
treasury and inflicting considerable losses ders of Italy.A consular army sent to stop reforms he made to
on Jugurthas forces. However, Marius them was completely destroyed. It was the Roman army.
still could not capture Jugurtha. feared that the tribes were heading for
Eventually, the questor Lucius Rome. Then, to everyones surprise, the
Cornelius Sulla (13878 BCE) entered tribes changed tack and marched toward
into negotiations with Bocchus I, king of Spain, giving Rome a respite.
Mauretania, who was Jugurthas father- In 104 BCE, the people elected
in-law. In 106 BCE, Bocchus was per- Marius consul for a second time, hoping
suaded to hand the Numidian king over he would save them from the marauding
to the Roman army. This act ended the northerners. He immediately formed a
war; Jugurtha was taken to Rome, where new army and marched into southern
he was executed. Gaul. In 102 BCE, Marius encountered
51

ANCIENT ROME
THE NEW ROMAN ARMY
F or his campaigns in Numidia and the north,

Gaius Marius raised an army from a class that
had not previously been eligible for military
equipment, so they were not dependent on
a baggage train, and raised their power of
endurance by setting them arduous tasks such
service.The property qualification was abolished, as digging canals.
enabling members of the proletariat to volunteer
for service, which they did in large numbers. For Many of Mariuss recruits became professional
the poorer class of citizen, army service offered soldiers, which changed the character of the army
many attractions.There was a regular pay packet from that of a temporary militia assembled for
(although the cost of equipment was deducted a specific campaign to that of a regular standing
from it), and on demobilization, the soldier was army. Soldiers now had great feelings of loyalty
promised a parcel of land. to their comrades-in-arms, to their legion, and
to their commanding officer. One effect of this
Marius subjected his new recruits to rigorous change was that since the soldiers strongest
training, but however hard he drove them, his bond of loyalty was to their commander, he had
down-to-earth approach ensured that he retained the potential to use them against the state.
his popularity. Every soldier was equipped with a
sword and a javelin and was drilled to become This detail from the victory column of Marcus
highly proficient in single hand-to-hand combat. Aurelius depicts Roman soldiers. Mariuss changes had
Marius made the troops carry their own heavy long-term implications for the Roman army.
52

the Teutons at Aquae Sextiae, where he zenship. Their contribution of men to The tombs of the
encircled and totally destroyed them.The the Roman army in recent conflicts had kings of the ancient
following year, he defeated the Cimbrians been considerable, and they were no region of Pontus are
at Vercellae on the northern Italian longer willing to be considered subordi- located in this
Peninsula, thereby putting an end to the nate allies. In 91 BCE, their cause was mountainside in
threat from the north. taken up by the tribune Marcus Livius northeastern Turkey.
Drusus. However, the position was so The actions of one
The social war unpopular in Rome that it resulted in his king of Pontus,
Once back in Rome, Marius threw him- assassination. When the Italian allies Mithridates VI, led
self into domestic politics, associating heard the news, they rose in revolt. to war with Rome.
himself with the peoples party. Its lead- The Italian rebels formed a confed-
ers had become increasingly radical, and eracy, founded their own capital at
in 100 BCE, Marius, as consul, was Corfinium (which they renamed Italia),
forced to suppress riots, which consider- and created a senate and magistrates like
ably dented his popularity. those in Rome.The rebels also raised an
The Italian cities, meanwhile, were army, which, because many of its soldiers
agitating to be granted full Roman citi- had been trained by Marius, was more
53

ANCIENT ROME
armies entered the province of Asia,

where they were received as liberators by
the populace, who had been exploited
financially for almost 40 years.With the
encouragement of Mithridates, the
people of Asia turned on their
oppressors and massacred some
80,000 Italian residents.
In Rome, the senate gave Sulla
command of the forces preparing to
go east to confront Mithridates, even
though Marius had been hoping for
the appointment. Marius was not pop-
ular with the senate, but he had plenty
of support from the equites and the popu-
lar party, including the tribune Publius
Sulpicius. Sulpicius persuaded the popu-
lar assembly to reverse the senates deci-
sion and invest Marius with Sullas com-
mand in Asia.The result was civil war.
Marching on Rome
In 88 BCE, Sulla journeyed to southern
Italy and met up with the legions that
were preparing for the campaign in Asia.
In spite of the assemblys decision, the
legions accepted Sulla as their leader.
Sulla then took several of the legions and
marched on Rome, an unprecedented
step. He occupied the city and drove out
Marius and many of Mariuss supporters.
The senate was once more firmly in con-
trol, and Sulla was confirmed in his com-
mand. He immediately departed for
Pontus in the east.
This bust, made than a match for the Roman army. Not long after Sulla left for Pontus,
around 50 BCE, After two years of fighting, the Romans members of the peoples party raised a
depicts the Roman finally ended the rebellion by granting new army in Etruria. Led by Marius and
dictator Lucius full civil rights to the citizens of every the consul Cinna, this army took Rome.
Cornelius Sulla. city that surrendered. Marius was reelected consul. The occu-
pation rapidly degenerated into a blood-
Sulla and civil war bath; many members of the aristocracy
Lucius Cornelius Sulla had distinguished were murdered by Mariuss troops.
himself by his leadership in the social war Eventually, some semblance of order and
and was rewarded with the consulship in justice was restored by Cinna. Marius,
88 BCE. That same year, Mithridates VI, beginning to show signs of madness,
the ambitious king of Pontus in the east, died early in 86 BCE. Cinna became a
came into conflict with Rome. His virtual dictator.
54

Even though he had been outlawed by Sulla then reorganized the govern- The Temple of
his political opponents back home, Sulla ment. He reformed the constitution, Hercules Victor was
continued the war against Mithridates in attempting to restore the traditional built in the Forum
the east. After much hard fighting, power of the senate and aristocracy, of Boarium, Rome,
Mithridates was forced to capitulate, and which he himself was a member. For around 120 BCE.
Sulla was free to confront his opponents example, he decreed that tribunes
in Rome. should no longer be allowed to intro-
duce bills to the assembly or to serve in
Sulla triumphant other political positions after their term
In 83 BCE, Sulla landed in Brindisium of office had finished.
and marched once again on Rome. His When he had sufficiently strength-
forces were augmented by disaffected ened the power of his class, Sulla with-
aristocrats who flocked to his standard. In drew from the political stage. In 79 BCE,
82 BCE, after a year of heavy fighting, he resigned his dictatorship and retired to
Sulla occupied Rome, appointing him- an estate in Campania. He died the fol-
self dictator. A reign of terror followed. lowing year. However, the attempts at
Sulla instituted a purge of his political social change that had begun with the
opponents, condemning them to death Gracchi brothers and continued with
or banishment. He also published pro- Marius were not yet over.
scription lists; anyone whose name
appeared on them lost all his possessions See also:
and could be killed at any time. The End of the Republic (page 56)
55

THE END OF THE
REPUBLIC
n the late first century BCE, the Roman republic was torn apart
TIME LINE
71 BCE
I by a series of civil wars. A number of ambitious men fought for
power. The ascent of one of themJulius Caesarushered in a new
Crassus crushes era of Roman history.
slave revolt led
by Spartacus.
The first century BCE was to see the end ernment in Rome, Sertorius set up a
63 BCE
of the Roman republic. First Pompey counter senate of prominent Roman
Julius Caesar
elected pontifex
(10648 BCE) and then Julius Caesar citizens.An honest and fair administrator,
maximus. (10044 BCE) gathered authority in he won local support across the Iberian
their own hands as power gradually Peninsula. Three Roman armies were
53 BCE passed from the senate and the Roman sent out to unseat him, but, with the help
Crassus murdered people to an absolute ruler. Noted for of a locally recruited army, Sertorius was
after defeat at
Battle of Carrhae. their military as well as their political able to defeat them in quick succession.
ability, Pompey and Caesar brought the In late 77 BCE, the senate sent a large
49 BCE whole of the Mediterranean region army out to Spain to bring down
Caesar crosses under Roman rule. Sertorius once and for all. The armys
Rubicon River
and marches commander was 29-year-old Gnaeus
on Rome at The aftermath of Sullas reign Pompeius, better known as Pompey, who
head of army. In the early first century BCE, the had been an ally of Sulla during the civil
48 BCE
Roman political system had been trans- war. Pompey set out with plenty of
Pompey assassinated
formed by the actions of Lucius youthful optimism, confident that he
in Egypt. Cornelius Sulla, who had marched on would soon accomplish his task, especial-
Rome and set himself up as dictator. ly because there was already a Roman
44 BCE
Once he had gained power, Sulla had set army in Spain under the command of
Caesar assassinated about strengthening the role of the aris- the general Metellus Pius. However,
in senate on ides
of March. tocrats and the senate and weakening much to his embarrassment, it took
that of both the equites (the business class) Pompey five years to achieve the senates
42 BCE and the common people. aim. Only when Sertorius was assassinat-
Mark Antony and Sulla died in retirement in 78 BCE, ed by his own men in 72 BCE was
Octavian defeat
Brutus and leaving Rome to recover from 10 years Pompey able to bring the war to a suc-
Cassius at Battle of civil war and atrocities. Most Roman cessful conclusion.
of Philippi. citizens wanted peace and a time for The military might of Rome was
30 BCE recovery, but Rome was threatened on being stretched over several theaters of
Mark Antony and
several fronts.The most serious challenge war. In 75 BCE, another major war had
Cleopatra commit came from the general and politician begun in Bithynia in Anatolia, where
suicide. Quintus Sertorius. Sertorius had refused King Mithridates VI of Pontus had again
to join Sullas invasion of Italy in 82 challenged the power of Rome.
BCE, making instead for Spain. Claiming Mithridates had already waged war
that he was a representative of the gov- against Rome twice and now rose up
56

THE END OF THE REPUBLIC
again. The senate responded by sending Spartacus This 19th-century-

the consul Lucius Lucullus to command With the Roman army engaged on mul- CE painting by Karl
the Roman forces in that war. In the tiple fronts, an unprecedented event in von Piloty depicts
Mediterranean, meanwhile, pirates were Italy took on major importance.A group the murder of
preying on merchant ships, making trade of gladiators at the Capua barracks, led Julius Caesar in
hazardous if not impossible. The praetor by a slave named Spartacus, escaped and the senate.
Marcus Antonius (the father of the man incited other slaves to join the rebellion.
known as Mark Antony) was given com- Thousands of renegade slaves formed an
mand of a naval force with a mission to army so powerful that it was able to go
rid the seas of piracy. on a rampage throughout Italy for two
57

ANCIENT ROME
were elected. The pair then repealed

much of the legislation introduced by
Sulla. The senate monopoly on the
courts was abolished; in future, criminal
juries were to consist of both senators
and wealthy nonsenators. The power of
the tribunes and censors was restored,
and two elected censors at last made
good the promise to grant Roman citi-
zenship to the Italian population. Both
censors were supporters of Pompey, and
the move greatly enhanced Pompeys
popularity.
At the end of his term of office in 69
BCE, Pompey refused to take the gover-
norship of a province, which would have
been the normal practice. Massive piracy
continued to paralyze trade in the
Mediterranean, and so little grain was
reaching Rome that the population was
threatened with starvation. In 67 BCE,
Pompey was given a special command to
deal with the situation. Taking over
from Marcus Antonius, Pompey assumed
command of a fleet of 500 ships and
swept the pirates northeast to Cilicia in
just 89 days. There, he offered them a
choiceeither give up piracy or fight to
the death. Those who opted for civilian
life were allowed to colonize abandoned
cities along the coast.
His pursuit of the pirates brought
This sculpture of the years, beating off the armies of two con- Pompey into the vicinity of Lucullus,
head of Pompey suls. The rebellion was eventually halted who had succeeded in driving
the Great was by an army of some 40,000 men com- Mithridates into Armenia. However, far
made during the manded by Marcus Licinius Crassus. from being a popular general, Lucullus
generals lifetime. Spartacus and his troops were finally had alienated both his own troops and
defeated at a battle in Lucania in 71 BCE. Roman merchants with his rigorous
Spartacus died in the fighting, and 6,000 enforcement of discipline and honest
of the rebel slaves were crucified along trading practices. Lucullus was also out of
the road that led from Capua to Rome. favor in Rome, and in 66 BCE, he was
forced to cede his authority to Pompey.
Pompey and Crassus Pompey now had supreme command in
In 70 BCE, the rivals Crassus and the east, and he promptly put it to use by
Pompey both returned to Rome as con- defeating Mithridates, taking his capital,
quering heroes, and both demanded to and slaughtering most of his army.
be made consul. In the event, Crassus and Mithridates himself escaped but later
Pompey agreed to act together, and both took his own life.
58

EXTENT OF ROMAN TERRITORY AT END OF RULE OF CAESAR
E GAUL
INE CISALPIN
P Mutina Bl ac k Sea
AL
ANS AUL Luca Bononia ILL
TR G YR
PYR Massilia
Ad
r ia t IA
EN BITHYNIA ARMENIA
EES ETRURIA ic S
ea Philippi
CORSICA Rome Thessalonica
Capua
SPAIN SARDINIA
Actium Pharsalus
LUCANIA Carrhae
Tarsus
CILICIA
Utica SICILY Syracuse
Munda SYRIA
Carthage Me
Thapsus di te
r ra n
e an
Se a
JUDAEA
Jerusalem
Alexandria
EGYPT
Re
d
Se
a
Pompey spent the next few years tasks accomplished, Pompey returned
KEY
consolidating Romes position in the to Rome in glory.
east. Several new provinces were created, Roman territory
including Syria and Cilicia. Beyond The influence of Cicero in 44 BCE
them, a string of client states protected Back in Rome, Pompey faced a new and Major battle
the eastern frontiers of the empire. In 63 powerful rivalMarcus Tullius Cicero
BCE, the independent Jewish state sur- (10643 BCE). Cicero, a brilliant lawyer
rounding the city of Jerusalem was con- and orator, had risen to fame in 70 BCE
quered and transformed into a vassal state when he won the case against Verres, the
under a client king. As victor, Pompey corrupt governor of Sicily. Verres had
treated the Jews with sensitivity. It is said ruled in so exploitative a manner that his
that when he entered the great temple in subjects had filed a complaint against
Jerusalem, he penetrated only as far as the him with the senate. Verres stood trial
Jewish high priests would go, although confident in the belief that any jury
he did peer through a curtain to see established under Sulla could be bribed
the Holy of Holies. In 62 BCE, his and that his class and his wealth would
59

ANCIENT ROME
ensure his acquittal. Times had changed, failed to bribe his way into a consulship.
however, and much of Sullas legislation Cicero denounced the plot before the
had been repealed and criminal justice senate and demanded the death penalty
had been restored. Cicero, playing to for Catiline and his prominent followers.
the anti-Sullan political mood of the However, a young senator called Gaius
day, presented overwhelming evidence Julius Caesar argued against summary
against Verres in an eloquent speech. execution. In seeking clemency for the
Despite the mainly senatorial constitu- conspirators, Caesar came to prominence
tion of the court, Verres was convicted. for the first time.
However, corruption was still rife, both As the debate went on, Catiline fled
in Rome and in the provinces. to Etruria, only to be killed in battle.
By 63 BCE, the year Cicero was Marcus Porcius Cato took the opportu-
made consul, the situation was ripe for nity to turn the senate in Ciceros favor,
revolution. On assuming office, Cicero and the remaining conspirators were
saw that the foundation of the Roman executed the same day.
republic was so shaky that it could be Cicero recognized that Rome des-
destroyed by the actions of a single com- perately needed a period of peace and
mander with a strong private army. All reconciliation between opposing classes.
over the Italian Peninsula, debt and He contended that the only way to pre-
discontent were rampant, and families serve the state was through a concordia
dispossessed by Sulla wanted restitution. ordinum (harmony between the classes).
In the autumn of 63 BCE, a conspir- More specifically, he sought concord
acy to overturn the government in between the two most privileged groups
Rome was hatched by Lucius Sergius of Roman societythe traditional aris-
Catilina, also known as Catiline, who had tocracy and the business class.
This modern statue

depicting the slave
rebel Spartacus
is located in
Sandanski, Bulgaria,
which is believed
to be the birthplace
of Spartacus.
60

When Pompey returned in triumph

from the east in 62 BCE, the senate gave
him a great procession. The senate then
asked Pompey to disband his army, as the
law required of all victorious command-
ers who might pose a threat to the
republic. Much to the senates relief, he
did so. In spite of his compliance, the
senate continued to regard Pompey as a
serious rival to their own power and
failed to ratify the terms he had negoti-
ated in the east or to give land to his
troops. Pompey was learning for the sec-
ond time that his true allies were not the
senators, but the plebeians of the peoples
party. After all he had done for the
republic, Pompey was reduced to the role
of a defenseless private citizen.
Julius Caesar
Julius Caesar was born into a patrician
family and always claimed that he was
descended from Aeneas, one of the leg- Spain a year later, his other creditors only In this 19th-century-
endary founders of Rome. After serving let him go after Crassus personally guar- CE fresco by Cesare
in various military campaigns as a young anteed the debts. In Spain, however, Maccari, Cicero
man, Caesar returned to Rome in 63 Caesar did well, amassing riches from the denounces the
BCE. He then managed to get himself inhabitants in typical Roman fashion. He traitor Catiline in
elected to the position of pontifex max- returned to Rome in 60 BCE more than the senate.
imusthe head of the state religion.This able to clear all his financial obligations.
election was a significant political step. Caesar wanted the consulship, but he
Once regarded as the holder of all sacred lacked the power to gain it on his own.
knowledge, the pontifex maximus had at His political opponents in the senate
one time been responsible for the were reluctant to grant him a triumphal
administration of the jus divinumthe procession. They did not want him gar-
divine law by which all Rome was gov- nering the publicity and popularity that
erned. By Caesars time, the position was a citywide celebration would bring him.
maintained by a cynical aristocracy pri- Caesar agreed to forego the triumph,
marily for popular effect. However, it still choosing instead to run for office. He
carried great political importance and was duly elected consul, with the assis-
allowed Caesar to dispense virtually tance of his old friend Crassus.
unlimited patronage to ensure his power.
Caesars rise continued when he was The first triumvirate
made praetor in 62 BCE. However, debt As consul, Caesar put together an unlike-
was a considerable problem; among other ly alliance. Needing the money and
people, Caesar owed a large amount of influence of Crassus and the soldiers
money to Marcus Crassus, who was one vote that Pompey could still bring in,
of the richest men in Rome. When Caesar managed to unite Crassus and
Caesar was made governor of southern Pompey in his support. The marriage of
61

ANCIENT ROME
The Gallic Wars

Transalpine Gaul, lying between the
mountain ranges of the Pyrenees and the
Alps, was already a highly Romanized
province. However, many tribes in
the region were at loggerheads,
and they sought Caesars sup-
port in their struggles. He and
his legions were only too
willing to help, subjugating
peoples all the way to the
Rhine River.
By the time Caesar
had established the
Rhine as the northern
border of the republic, it
had become clear to the
squabbling Gauls that
they had invited an
unwelcome and hungry
guest into their midst.
However, Caesar only consol-
idated his victories over the
Gauls with considerable difficulty.
Rebellions in the province were fre-
quent, and the need to subdue them was
almost constant.
This Roman coin Pompey to Caesars daughter Julia rein- Soon, the authorities in Rome began
bears the profile forced the contract. This alliance was a to receive reports, many from Caesar
of Julius Caesar. powerful one, especially in view of himself, about a war that was winning
The appearance Caesars penchant for ignoring any laws new territory. Gradually, Pompey and
of Caesars likeness he found inconvenient. However, he did Crassus grew concerned about Caesars
on coins led to ensure that the senate at last ratified success and his rapidly growing power.
accusations that Pompeys agreements in the east. Caesar The senate shared their concern.
he wanted to make also introduced a bill that would give However, Caesar still had an advocate
himself king. Pompeys troops grants of land. When in Rome. The former aristocrat Publius
this bill was obstructed by both the Clodius Pulcher, a fanatical member of
senate and the popular assembly, Caesar the popular party, had assumed the role
used some of Pompeys veterans to push of a plebeian, replacing his aristocratic
through the legislation by force of arms. name Claudius with the less pretentious
It soon became clear that the triumvi- Clodius.A fiery public speaker, he used a
rate, not the senate, ruled Rome. private army to intimidate those who
By 58 BCE, Caesar had arranged a were not impressed by his words alone.
special command for himself, the gover- After he was elected tribune in 59 BCE,
norship of the provinces of Illyria, he set out to settle Caesars scores with
Cisalpine Gaul, and Transalpine Gaul. Cicero. The issue raised the following
Taking an army with him, Caesar depart- year was an old onethe summary exe-
ed for the north. cution of the Catiline conspirators in 63
62

BCE. Accusing Cicero of acting uncon- would be guaranteed another consulship

stitutionally, Clodius drove the lawyer and continued army command. Pompey
into exile. was made commander of Spain but
Clodiuss ascendancy did not last. In would stay in Rome to carry out his
57 BCE, he made the mistake of turning consular duties, delegating his authority
on Pompey, subjecting him to virtual in Spain to others. Crassus was made
house arrest. Pompey retaliated, sum- governor of the new province of Syria
moning help from his former troops. and equipped with a large army to bring
Clodius sank swiftly from power, unable the Parthians there under control. He
to prevent Pompey from arranging for would continue to be nominal joint con-
Ciceros return. sul with Pompey.
The senate was forced to submit to
The Luca agreement the arrangement. Even the traditionalist
Relations among the three members of Cicero acquiesced, to the point of under-
the triumvirate were steadily deteriorat- taking to be the spokesman of the
ing. In 56 BCE, Caesar made a secret trip alliance. Disillusioned by the failure of
to Luca, on the Italian Peninsula, where the old oligarchy (with its adherence to
he met his two partners to renegotiate the rule of law and its system of patrician-
their alliance. dominated government), Cicero took In this 20th-century-
In 55 BCE, while Pompey and refuge in writing and produced works on CE illustration, the
Crassus were sharing the consulship, philosophy and rhetoric, including De armies of Julius
details of the secret agreement came to republica and De oratore. However, he was Caesar cross the
light. Caesar was to stay in Gaul for to remain true to Pompey throughout Rubicon River on
another five years, and on his return, he the forthcoming struggles. their way to Rome.

ANCIENT ROME
The collapse of the triumvirate gents. Rather than be seen as a would-be

In 55 BCE, Crassus took his army to dictator, Pompey arranged for Quintus
Syria, hoping for a military victory that Metellus Scipio, his new father-in-law,
would give him a level of prestige similar to share the consulship with him.
to that of Caesar and Pompey. In 53
BCE, Crassus crossed the Euphrates Crossing the Rubicon
River with 40,000 infantry. However, at Caesar, isolated in Gaul, had two enemies
the Battle of Carrhae, this force was in RomePompey and the senate. Over
annihilated by a 10,000-strong Parthian the course of the next two years, Caesar
army comprised almost entirely of caval- bargained for his political future and per-
ry. Crassus escaped with a few other sur- sonal safety. During that time, Pompey
vivors and subsequently attempted to instigated a number of legal moves that
negotiate with the Parthians. They would lessen Caesars power when he
agreed to a meeting, but when Crassus returned to Rome. In 49 BCE, Pompey
arrived at the appointed place, the finally voiced his opposition to Caesar
Parthians murdered him by pouring openly, and the senate declared Caesar to
molten gold down his throat, an ironic be an outlaw.
reference to his great wealth. At that point, Caesar was stationed
Now, only Caesar and Pompey were with his army on the banks of the
left of the original triumvirate, and the Rubicon, the river separating Cisalpine
ties between them had been weakened Gaul from Italy. Reviewing the situation,
when Pompeys wife Julia died in 54 Caesar decided to seize the initiative. He
BCE. Caesars complete conquest of crossed the Rubicon and took his army
Gaul had given him prestige and wealth on a fast march to Rome, with the inten-
almost equal to those of Pompey, and he tion of taking power. To this day, the
used them, as Pompey did not, to influ- expression crossing the Rubicon
ence friends and buy support. means taking an irrevocable step.
As city after city fell to Caesar,
Anarchy in Rome Pompey fled, first from Rome and then
By the end of 53 BCE, chaos reigned in from Italy. He planned to contain Caesar
Rome. Gangs, particularly the thugs loyal in Italy, but Caesar had other ideas. In
to Clodius, terrorized the city. The gov- another lightning move, Caesar captured
ernment seemed unable to stop the vio- Spain and then Massilia from Pompeys
lence. Only Milo, a supporter of the opti- generals. On his return to Rome, Caesar
mates with his own client army, opposed was elected consul.
Clodius. Early in 52 BCE, Milos men Meanwhile, Pompey had consolidat-
killed Clodius in a battle along the Via ed his forces at Thessalonica in Greece.
Appia. Clodiuss men then went on a In 48 BCE, Caesar pursued him there.
rampage and burned down public build- The two armies met at the Battle of
ings in the forum. Because of the rioting, Pharsalus, where Caesars veteran troops
it was impossible to hold elections for defeated Pompeys larger army. Pompey
the post of praetor.The senate declared a fled from the field and found refuge, so
state of emergency and appointed he thought, in Egypt. However, as soon
Pompey sole consul, with a special brief as he arrived, he met an ignoble death at
to restore order. the hands of an assassin who wanted to
Pompey introduced severe laws ingratiate himself with Caesar. When
against civil disorder and used the new Caesar followed Pompey to Alexandria,
laws to convict Milo and other insur- the Egyptians offered him Pompeys head
64

CLEOPATRA
C leopatra, the last of the Ptolemaic dynasty in

Egypt, was descended from the Macedonian
general Ptolemy, who had been appointed
Meanwhile, Cleopatra had also devised a
cunning plan to win over Caesar. Concealed
in a rolled-up carpet, she had herself smuggled
governor of Egypt by Alexander the Great. After through enemy lines and delivered to Caesar in
Alexanders death, Ptolemy took control of the the palace.The ruse worked, and the pair soon
country himself, eventually making himself king of became lovers.
Egypt in 305 BCE. For the 200 years before
Cleopatras birth, Egypt had been allied with In the subsequent battle for control of Egypt,
Rome. However, as Romes power increased, the Caesar became allied with Cleopatra, and the pair
power of the Ptolemies crumbled, until the quickly overcame the opposition of Ptolemy, who
Egyptians were forced to pay tribute to Rome to was killed in 47 BCE. Later that year, Cleopatra
preserve their sovereignty. gave birth to a son, Caesarion.When Caesar
returned to Rome, he took Cleopatra with him.
Cleopatra was born in 69 BCE. She inherited the They set up house together, living in great luxury.
kingdom on the death of her father, King However, their liaison was cut short when
Ptolemy XII Auletes, in 51 BCE. Cleopatra Caesar was assassinated in 44 BCE.
was 18 years old at the time and ruled Cleopatra, fearing that her life was in
jointly with her 12-year-old brother, danger, hurriedly returned to Egypt.
Ptolemy XIII. She was a charismatic
and highly intelligent woman (she Cleopatra still hoped to restore
could speak nine languages), and she Egypts fortunes, even though the
dreamed of making Egypt great again. country was on the brink of
economic collapse. In 41 BCE,
Cleopatras autocratic rule alarmed Mark Antony invited her to Tarsus
Ptolemy and his supporters, and in Anatolia for a political
by 48 BCE, the two siblings were summit. Like Caesar
involved in a struggle for before him, Antony
control of the country, soon began a sexual
Cleopatra fled from Alexandria. as well as a political
Later that year, Ptolemy relationship with the
became involved in the internal Egyptian queen.The pair
politics of Rome when Pompey later married, and Antony
arrived in Alexandria seeking moved to Alexandria.
refuge. Ptolemy had Pompey After being defeated by
killed, believing that the gesture the forces of Octavian,
would win him favor with the couple committed
Caesar, a belief that proved to suicide within a few days
be a great mistake. of each other in 30 BCE.
When Julius Caesar arrived in This sculpture of Cleopatra

Egypt a few days later, he was dates to the first century
greatly angered by Ptolemys act. BCE, when she ruled Egypt.
65

ANCIENT ROME
Caesars battles were not yet over.

Under the command of Metellus Scipio,
troops that were loyal to Pompey held
on to the province of Africa. In 46
BCE, Caesar landed eight legions on
the African coast and confronted the
Pompeian forces at Thapsus. In the ensu-
ing battle, the Pompeian troops were not
only defeated but routed, and most of
their generals were killed. Marcus Porcius
Cato, Caesars old adversary in the senate,
was governor of Utica, just north of
Carthage, and rather than fall into
Caesars hands, Cato committed suicide.
Caesar as dictator
In 45 BCE, Caesar returned to Rome as
absolute ruler of the republic. A compli-
ant senate appointed him both consul
and dictator.This move gave him virtual-
ly limitless authority, although his
real power depended on his legions.
In contrast to Sulla, Caesar carried out
almost no reprisals against his defeated
enemies. Troops from Pompeys armies
were given the option of serving under
Caesar, while former political adver-
saries were given appointments in his
administration.
After the years of civil war, preceded
by years of incompetent or corrupt
This bust depicts the on a platter. Caesar was so upset at the administration, Rome was badly in need
Roman nobleman sight that he had to avert his eyes. of a firm, capable hand to restore good
Marcus Junius governance to the republic. It turned out
Brutus, one of the Caesar in Africa that Caesar would have less that a year to
assassins of Caesar. In Alexandria, the young Ptolemy XIII achieve this. However, he did institute a
was in dispute with Cleopatra, his sister, number of reforms that dramatically
over the succession. Caesar started an changed the way Rome and its provinces
affair with Cleopatra, and when he sup- were administered.
ported her claims against Ptolemy, the Rome was a severely overcrowded
kings forces surrounded the palace, city, and one of Caesars first acts was to
imprisoning Caesar. Caesar, narrowly plan a reconstruction that embraced new
escaping an assassination plot, installed public buildings and swept away city
Cleopatra on the throne and defended slums. Caesar cut back on the handouts
her position against her younger brother. of free grain to the poor, on the grounds
In the fighting that followed, Ptolemy that the handouts were being misused,
was killed. Cleopatra, meanwhile, gave and arranged for tens of thousands of
birth to a son, named Caesarion. poor citizens to be resettled in overseas
66

colonies. Caesar drew up standard regu- their property. He wanted to be a popu-

lations for the administration of the lar leader, remembered for leniency
municipalities (the self-governed units in rather than persecution. Caesar insisted
Roman territory) and granted Roman that the statue of Pompey be put back in
citizenship to many previously disenfran- the senate building after some of his own
chised groups. Above all, he established overzealous followers had pulled it
many new overseas settlements (peopled down. He made it clear that he felt
by his veteran legionnaires) that were all Pompey had been a worthy opponent.
recognized as official Roman colonies. Caesar also expressed public regret that a
This move changed the nature of the man like Cato had taken his own life
provinces from being merely military rather than accept his pardon.
conquests to being outposts of the In 45 BCE, Caesar was forced to take
Roman Empire. his legions abroad once more, this time
to Spain to quell a rebellion organized by Cleopatra and
Caesars leniency Pompeys sons, Gnaeus and Sextus Octavian by the
At the end of the civil war, people had Pompeius.The forces met at the Battle of 17th-century-CE
expected a large-scale cancellation of Munda. The battle was hard fought, but Italian painter
debts and a redistribution of property. Caesar was ultimately victorious. The Il Guercino depicts
Caesar did confiscate the holdings of Pompeians were slaughtered. Gnaeus was the Egyptian queen
some enemies, but he pardoned most killed in the fighting, while Sextus was kneeling before the
enemies and left them in possession of forced to flee. Roman general.

ANCIENT ROME
This second-century-
CE mosaic depicts
two gladiators
fighting. Gladiatorial
contests were a
popular form of
entertainment in the
first century BCE.
In Rome, the senate heaped honors would have accepted the coronet if he
upon Caesar. His portrait was put on had been acclaimed by the public.
coins, and many statues of him were
erected throughout the city.The increas- The ides of March
ingly autocratic nature of Caesars rule In March, May, July, and December,
made his political opponents uneasy. under Caesars new calendar (see box,
Many feared that he aimed to make him- page 70), the 15th day was called the
self kingan idea detested in the repub- ides. The ides of March of 44 BCE
lic. At the Lupercalia festival in February proved to be a turning point in history.
of 44 BCE, Caesars lieutenant Mark Opposition to Caesars power had solidi-
Antony offered him a golden coronet, fied into a conspiracy of some 60 men,
the ancient symbol of a kings power. It led by Brutus and Cassius, both of whom
was obvious from the audiences reaction had fought on Pompeys side and been
that this was a very unpopular move. pardoned by Caesar. In spite of warnings
Caesar refused to accept the crown, lead- from a soothsayer to beware the ides of
ing to speculation about whether the March, Caesar, unprotected by any
whole scene had been staged to make his bodyguard, attended the senate house on
rejection of kingship clear or whether he the 15th and was stabbed to death. As
68

the body of Caesar lay at the foot of Octavian

Pompeys statue, the senate panicked.The Caesars sudden death created a power
plotters themselves fled in disorder, wan- vacuum in Rome. However, the person
dering around the city with bloodstained who took greatest advantage of this situ-
clothes and daggers. ation was not Mark Antony, but
Caesar had named Mark Antony as Octavian, Caesars great-nephew and
his executor, and Antony used the posi- adopted son and heir. Not yet 20,
tion to gain popular support. At the Octavian proved a formidable political
funeral, Antony read out Caesars will operator. He commanded loyalty from
before an immense crowd assembled in Caesars old party, some members of
front of the senate. The dictator had left which defected from Antony to him.
his gardens to the state and a moderate Octavian also found support in the
amount of money (300 sesterces) to senate, in particular from Cicero, who
every citizen. When they heard this, the delivered a series of orations against
crowd went wild. Antony also publicly Antony, representing him as an enemy of
named those responsible for the murder ancient Roman freedoms.
and brandished Caesars bloodstained In a compromise agreement, the con-
toga to whip up the crowd still further. spirators Cassius and Brutus were par-
The result of Antonys speech was that doned by the senate. However, they were
popular sentiment swung fiercely against not safe in Rome, and by 43 BCE, they
the conspirators, who found themselves had fled to the eastern provinces, where
in mortal danger. they set about raising armies. Back in
The suicide of the

Egyptian queen
Cleopatra has been
a popular subject
for artists.This
17th-century-CE
painting is by
Guido Cagnacci.
69

ANCIENT ROME
THE JULIAN CALENDAR
One of Julius Caesars most enduring legacies Romans originally celebrated the new year on
was the calendar revision made during his the first day of March.
term of office as pontifex maximus. In the orig-
inal Roman calendar, a year consisted of 355 This Julian calendar survived intact until the
days, with an extra month added every other 16th century CE, when it was replaced by the
year. Caesar was advised by the Alexandrian Gregorian calendar.The reason for the change
scholar Sosigenes that the length of the year was that Sosigenes had slightly miscalculated
should theoretically be 365.25 days. Caesar the length of the year; he was off by 11
then introduced a new calendar where years minutes and 14 seconds.This error caused
consisted of 365 days, with an extra day (the the dates of the seasons to change.The
29th of February) added every four years to problem was rectified by declaring that no
make up the difference.The end of February century year should be a leap year unless it
was chosen for the extra day because the is divisible by 400.
Rome, the senate turned against Antony, the triumviri rei publicae constituendae (the
who was now at the head of an army in board of three to settle the constitution).
Cisalpine Gaul. The senate declared In effect, this was a military dictatorship.
Antonys occupation of the area to be
illegal and dispatched Octavian, together The second triumvirate
with the consuls Aulus Hirtius and Vibius Antony sealed the compact by marrying
Pansa, to Mutina, where Antony was Octavians sister, Octavia. The new tri-
defeated. Antony then withdrew his umvirate then set about issuing banish-
forces to Transalpine Gaul, where he ment lists, as Sulla had done. This move
succeeded in attracting the provincial allowed them to seize a victims property
governors to his cause. and put him to death. Hundreds of
The two elderly consuls both died at senators and thousands of equites were
the Battle of Mutina, leaving Octavian in massacred. One of the early victims was
sole command of the army. Increasingly Cicero, now an old man of 63, who was
out of favor with the senate, Octavian denounced by Antony.
marched on Rome to demand the In 42 BCE, the armies of Antony and
consulship by force. Once he had been Octavian met those of Brutus and
appointed consul, Octavian annulled the Cassius at the Battle of Philippi and
pardons that had given to the conspira- defeated them. Both Cassius and Brutus
tors. Because Brutus and Cassius were in committed suicide rather than fall into
command of large armies, this daring their enemies hands. The Roman world
move was tantamount to a declaration was then divided among the members of
of war. the triumvirate. Octavian received the
To strengthen his own hand, Octa- west, Antony received the east, and
vian made overtures to Antony and met Lepidus received Africa. Their only
him and Lepidus (a commander of seven remaining adversary was Pompeys son
legions that had served under Caesar) for Sextus. He was now based in Sicily and
a peace conference at Bononia.The three had command of a powerful fleet, which
agreed to form the second triumvirate he used to blockade supplies of goods
70

destined for Rome, reducing the city to followed by Antony. Believing that
a state of near starvation. Antony had simply run away, the rest of
In 36 BCE, Octavian defeated Sextus the fleetand his land armycapitulat-
in a sea battle off Sicily. Lepidus made an ed without a fight.
abortive attempt to claim Sicily for him- Octavians pursuit was interrupted by
self, but when his troops deserted him, a mutiny that necessitated a return to
he was left powerless. Octavian stripped Italy, but he did finally reach Alexandria
Lepidus of his membership in the triumvi- in 30 BCE.With no army left to defend
rate and his rule of Africa and banished him,Antony took his own life. Cleopatra
him to a town on the Italian Peninsula. followed suit a few days later. To put an
Only two members of the triumvirate end to any further claims from the
remainedOctavian and Antony. Ptolemaic dynasty, Octavian killed
Caesarion and the eldest of Antonys sons
Antony and Cleopatra by Cleopatra. Octavian then made Egypt
After a campaign in Parthia, Antony a Roman province. Having vanquished
returned to Alexandria and resumed his all opposition, Octavian returned to
relationship with Cleopatra, which had Rome in triumph. This bust depicts the
started in 41 BCE. Cleopatra was ambi- Roman general
tious and hoped that her son by Julius See also: Mark Antony, a
Caesar would one day rule Rome. She The Age of Augustus (page 72) Revolution member of the
persuaded Antony to marry her (even and Reform (page 44) second triumvirate.
though he was still married to Octavia),
and he set up his base of operations in
the Egyptian port of Alexandria.
In Rome, Octavian used Antonys
actions as the basis for a propaganda cam-
paign against him. Although Antony
made counterclaims against Octavian,
public opinion, especially among the
Roman upper class, was on Octavians
side. In 33 BCE, the triumvirate was offi-
cially terminated. The following year,
rumors that Antony planned to make
Cleopatra the queen of Rome further
hardened opinion against him. Octavian
was made consul, and the senate declared
war on Egypt.
As both sides prepared for conflict,
Antony and Cleopatra equipped a fleet of
more than 500 ships, which they sailed
across the Mediterranean and into the
Adriatic Sea. In 31 BCE, they were
engaged in battle by the Roman fleet,
commanded by Agrippa, at Actium on the
west coast of Greece.The encounter was a
total humiliation for Antony. Shortly after
the start of the battle, Cleopatra left the
rest of the fleet in her flagship and was
71

THE AGE OF
AUGUSTUS
fter the civil wars that had ravaged the republic in the mid-first
TIME LINE
30 BCE
A century BCE, Rome enjoyed a prolonged period of relative
peace. The man responsible for overseeing this era was Caesar
Deaths of Mark Augustus, the first Roman emperor.
Antony and
Cleopatra usher
in new period After the deaths of Antony and Cleopatra empire, thereby consolidating Romes
of peace. in 30 BCE, Octavian (63 BCE14 CE) central authority. Meanwhile, the
27 BCE was left as the most powerful man in the Roman Empire continued to expand
Octavian voluntarily Roman world. He remained so for the through military means as the subjuga-
relinquishes many next 44 years. The form of government tion of Spain was completed and new
powers; senate he established in the new Roman regions were brought under Roman
awards him
honorary title
Empire was called the principate, and it control in Germany and the Balkans.
Augustus. remained essentially unchanged for 200
years. During the period of his rule, A new Rome
23 BCE The Rome that Augustus returned to in
Octavian became known as Augustus
Octavian gives up Caesar, a title bestowed upon him by the 29 BCE badly needed the restoration of
position of consul
held since 31 BCE; senate (see box, page 74). law and order, as well as a stable govern-
receives power of Even though Augustus effectively ment that would override the turmoil
tribune. controlled Rome, he was careful to keep caused by aristocratic intrigue and per-
12 BCE in place old Roman institutions such as sonal ambition. Augustus had more than
Augustuss chosen the senate and the consulship.This move enough military power to enforce order,
successor, Agrippa, was partially a pragmatic one; if he had but he preferred to legitimize his power
dies, forcing dismantled these political bodies and by using the traditional forms of govern-
Augustus to positions, he would have opened himself ment. One way in which he did so was
turn to
son-in-law to accusations that he was seeking king- by holding the consulship. Augustus was
Tiberius instead. ship. However, there is also evidence that reelected consul on his return from the
Augustus genuinely believed in many of east and was reelected year after year
9 CE
the principles upon which the Roman until 23 BCE, when he declined to run
Germanic tribes
under Arminius
republic was founded. Nevertheless, he for the office.
inflict heavy defeat knew that fundamental changes were Augustus was also awarded various
upon Romans in needed if the Roman Empire was to special powers during the course of his
Teutoburg Forest. function smoothly. rule. In 27 BCE, Augustus voluntarily
14 CE During his rule, Augustus brought relinquished the extraordinary powers he
Augustus dies; peace to the lands conquered by his had assumed during the civil war against
Tiberius becomes predecessors. He embarked on an ambi- Antony and returned them to the senate
emperor. tious building program in Rome, and and the people. However, in return, he
under his rule, literature and the arts was awarded various special titles. Most
flourished. Roman political and adminis- importantly, Augustus was given a 10-
trative systems spread throughout the year tenure of the provinces of Gaul,
72

THE AGE OF AUGUSTUS
This bronze head,

depicting the
emperor Augustus,
dates to around
25 BCE and was
found in Sudan.
Archaeologists
believe the figure
was stolen during
a raid on Roman
Egypt.
73

ANCIENT ROME
Spain, and Syria. It was in these three

regions that Augustuss troops were
OCTAVIANS TITLES based, so this move legitimized his mili-
tary power. Later, Augustus was also
In 27 BCE, Octavian was awarded given tribunal power for life.This honor
two new titles by the senate.The allowed him to convene the senate, pro-
first, Augustus, was the name by pose motions before it, and veto deci-
which he became universally known. sions made by either the senate or the
The word is difficult to translate, popular assembly. Augustus was also
but it is derived from the Latin given a number of powers traditionally
word augere, meaning to increase. associated with the position of censor;
The title indicated Augustuss those powers included the rights to con-
authority over the rest of the duct a census and to control the compo-
Roman population. sition of the senate. No senator served
without Augustuss approval.
Augustuss full title was Augustus
Caesar. Augustus and his successors The senate
put great emphasis on their descent Despite the restrictions on its power, This coin bearing
from Julius Caesar, and the name Augustus was anxious to maintain the the profile of
lived on in medieval Europe and senate because he saw it as the embodi- Augustus was found
into the 20th century.The German ment of Roman tradition. He worked in Germany at the
title Kaiser and the Russian Czar hard to maintain cordial relations with site of the Battle of
both derive from the Roman name. the body and to preserve the illusion of Teutoburg Forest.
consultation with it. In an
The second title bestowed upon effort to rid the sen-
Augustus by the senate in 27 BCE ate of those he
was princeps, meaning first citizen. considered
Augustus preferred this title
because it offered a connotation of
legitimacy. Under this title, Augustus
presented himself as the first
servant of the empire, in keeping
with the long-standing Roman
tradition of public service. Augustus
was not the first prominent political
figure to have been awarded this
titleCaesars old enemy Pompey
had also been princeps.
Augustus liked the trappings of

civilian authority. During his time
as princeps, he held a number of
traditional civilian offices. However,
in contrast to previous holders,
Augustus often held several offices
simultaneously and without the
traditional time limits.
74

THE AGE OF AUGUSTUS
unworthy,Augustus cut its numbers from tance. The latter were generally referred Alexandria, the ruins
around 1,000 to around 600. To bring to as the public provinces.The governors of which are shown
the senate numbers back up to strength, of these provinces were selected by lot here, was the main
he promoted a number of members of from among the senators, who were port of the Roman
the equestrian class, who had previously required to serve a one-year term with- province of Egypt.
been barred from holding senatorial out any military backup. Egypt was annexed
office. Augustus also established a mini- during the reign
mum annual income requirement (one The imperial provinces of Augustus.
million sesterces) for becoming a senator, Augustus retained personal control of all
reasoning that if the senates new mem- non-public provinces, which were called
bers were no longer required to be of the imperial provinces. He alone appoint-
adequate rank at birth, at least they ed their governors, who served as long
would be of adequate means. as he pleased rather than for a set time
The senate was given new tasks. It period.These provinces might have a gar-
was charged with the day-to-day run- rison. Sometimes, equites who were not
ning of both Rome and the rest of the members of the senate were appointed to
Italian Peninsula, as well as several the governorship of imperial provinces.
provinces of limited strategic impor- For example, the equestrian Pontius Pilate
75

ANCIENT ROME
This marble statue of Augustus dates to the money was spent on military protection,
first century CE. It is a copy of an earlier the expanding civil service, and the
statue that was made during his lifetime. extensive public works that were increas-
ingly being initiated by Augustus.
The new Rome

Despite its great number of inhabi-
tants, Rome still had the look of an
old walled oppidum (fortified
town) grown beyond its bound-
aries.The city was crowded and
dirty, and many of its public
was the governor of the province of buildings were in a state of
Judaea at the time of the crucifixion of disrepair. The forum, the
Jesus Christ. center of Roman public
The most important imperial life, was much too small.
province commanded by an eques- Augustus set about giving
trian governor was Egypt, with its Rome the outward splendor
vast Ptolemaic treasure and its he felt it deserved.I found a
grain supply. So valuable was Egypt city of stone, and I will leave
that troops were stationed there behind a city of marble, he
when no other equestrian governor boasted. He proved good to
was allowed to have legions. his word.
Following the example of Julius Augustus ordered marble
Caesar, Augustus established many temples to be built in the
colonies throughout his empire. These center of the city, and
colonies were populated by veteran sol- he replaced the old forum
diers. In these settlements, every citizen with a new one nearby.
was a Roman citizen, and the forms of Augustus also built improved
civil government were modeled on those access roads to the city and
of Rome. This vast network of had the Tiber River dredged
more than 100 colonies helped to spread in an attempt to stop its annu-
Roman culture to the farthest reaches of al flooding.
the empire. Augustus made moves
Another type of provincial settlement to protect the people
was the civitas. Civitates were self- of Rome against famine.
governing, autonomous com- In the past, a
munities consisting entirely of foreign enemy
non-Roman citizens. They needed only to
existed under the protection control the sea
of the provincial governor, and paid to be able to starve
taxes to Rome. As they became increas- Rome. As a preventive meas-
ingly Latinized, their status might be ure, Augustus established an administra-
changed to that of municipia (municipal tion to control the grain supply and organ-
town). In the municipia, townspeople ized annual imports from Egypt. He also
who assumed public office might be made distributions of grain to the
accorded Roman citizenship. All the masses, a move that increased his
provinces paid tribute to Rome. This personal popularity.
76

THE AGE OF AUGUSTUS
Urban safety in Rome In addition to the police force, This fresco

In the slums of Rome, the inhabitants Augustus appointed 7,000 night watch- decorates the
frequently fell victim to marauding men, whose job was to look out for fires wall of a villa
gangs, who found plenty of places to or any cases of crime after dark. The that once belonged
hide in the noisome alleyways. The final night watchmen were led by a praefectus to Augustuss
days of the republic had also seen serious vigilum (prefect of the watchers). While wife Livia.
rioting. Augustus attempted to address neither of these initiatives made the
some of these problems by forming a streets of Rome completely free of dan-
police force, which consisted of four ger, there was a distinct improvement in
cohorts of special troops under a leader urban safety.
called the praefectus urbi (prefect of the
city), who became one of the most Traditional family values
powerful men in Rome. This force of Augustus also set about restoring tradi-
trained riot police appears to have been tional family values. To counteract what
relatively effective. he saw as the lax morality of the citizen-
77

ANCIENT ROME
and divorce, was married three times. His

first wife was Clodia Pulchra, the step-
daughter of Mark Antony.Augustus mar-
ried Clodia in order to cement his orig-
inal political alliance with Antony but
divorced her in 40 BCE. Augustus then
married Scribonia, a woman who was
older than himself. She had previously
been the wife of two consuls and had a
child by each of them. In 38 BCE,
Augustus divorced Scribonia for Livia,
the wife of the elderly Tiberius Claudius
Nero, who was persuaded to agree to
a divorce.
Augustus brought up his daughter
Julia (by Scribonia) and his grand-
daughter of the same name very
strictly, requiring daily reports on
their progress and behavior.
However, once they had grown
up and were beyond his
control, their promiscuous
escapades scandalized Rome.
Augustus eventually banished
them from the city.
Literature
In this new era of peace and prosperity,
Roman literature blossomed as never
This bust depicts ry, he introduced chastity laws. Illicit before. It became the fashion for writers
Julia, the daughter lovers faced banishment, property confis- to give public readings from their works
of Augustus. Julia cation, and a ban on any future marriage. in progress, a practice that greatly
scandalized Because he considered the ideal family to increased their potential reading public.
Rome with her consist of a father, mother, and as many Under the patronage of both Augustus
promiscuous children as possible, Augustus established and his friend Maecenas, several Roman
behavior. a law called the lex iulia. This law con- writers came to the fore. These men,
ferred privileges on married couples who were to claim lasting places in world
with children and imposed civil restric- literature, included the heroic poet Virgil
tions on single people and the childless. (see box, page 80), the witty cultural
Other laws made marriage easier (even if pundit Horace, and the historian Livy.
the parents of the bride and bridegroom One writer who fell out of favor with
objected) and divorce harder. These Augustus was the poet Ovid. He special-
measures were intended to provide ized in lighthearted verses, some of which
Rome with a population of moral, made comments on contemporary socie-
responsible citizens. However, the laws ty. He also recounted many of the Greek
had limited effect. myths in verse form. However, Ovid
Augustus, who did not consider him- offended Augustus by publishing erotic
self subject to his own laws on marriage poetry and by becoming involved in a
78

THE AGE OF AUGUSTUS
scandal with Julia, the emperors daugh-

ter. Augustus banished Ovid to Tomi on
the Black Sea, where Ovids poetic imag-
ination continued to flourish in exile. He
wrote flattering verses to Augustus in the
hope of being recalled to his beloved
Rome. However, these efforts were to no
avail; Ovid died in Tomi in 17 CE.
Religion
During the years of civil war, the
Romans interest in the state religion had
waned. Augustus now sought to revive it.
He replaced the crumbling temples that
had fallen into disuse and erected the
great rectangular Pantheon as a temple to
all the gods. He met personally with the
priests of all the Roman colleges to
encourage them to restore the religious
rituals. In 17 BCE, Augustus revived the
festival of the ludi saeculares (secular
games), turning it into an occasion to give
thanks for deliverance from a dangerous
past and to welcome a new era of peace.
For three days, sporting events by day
alternated with feasts and torchlit proces-
sions by night, all intended to signal the
restoration of Romes greatness.The poet
Horace composed a celebratory hymn
that was sung before a new shrine to
Apollo on the Palatine Hill, and then
Augustus made a sacrifice to the gods.
Augustus himself later began to be
worshipped as a god. In the eastern cities,
it was not uncommon to deify rulers, so it
was no surprise that cults arose to worship
Augustus. He did nothing to stop the
practice, because it only served to rein-
force his authority. Soon, he was being
worshipped in many towns on the Italian
Peninsula. Special colleges were set up for The pax Augusta The Roman poet
this purpose. Their priests were generally The personal loyalty of the army was Horace, depicted
freed slaves who made a career of this vital to Augustus. Each year, on the first here in a 16th-
worshipping. While the custom was not day of January, every soldier swore an century-CE fresco,
formally introduced in Rome, Augustus oath of allegiance to him. Because was just one of a
did build a shrine to his guardian spirit in Augustus bore the name of the deified number of writers
every neighborhood. However, he was Julius Caesar, the support pledged to him to flourish
not formally deified until after his death. carried the weight of a religious vow. under Augustus.
79

ANCIENT ROME
VIRGIL
Like many of his contemporaries, Emulating Homers epic tales, the
the poet Virgil (7019 BCE) Iliad and the Odyssey, the Aeneid tells
modeled his first literary works on the story of Aeneas, a survivor from
those of earlier Greek writers. the Trojan War, who makes his way
One early collection of pastoral to Italy and eventually founds Rome.
poems, the Eclogues, were influenced The Aeneid glorified the history of
by Theocritus.Virgils Georgics, which Rome, and the feelings of civic pride
purported to be a practical guide to that it inspired meant that it
farming and husbandry, was actually encapsulated the optimistic spirit of
This statue depicts a song of praise to nature and the the Augustan age.
Ovid, one of the charms of rural life.
greatest of all The poem was unfinished on Virgils
Roman poets. He Virgils greatest work, however, was death, and the poets dying wish was
fell out of favor the epic poem the Aeneid, which for it to be burned. However,
with Augustus and made him famous both in his own Augustus himself intervened and
was banished time and throughout posterity. ordered the poem to be saved.
from Rome.
To allay fears of a military dictator-

ship, Augustus had partially demobilized
his army after the Battle of Actium in 30
BCE, reducing the number of legions
from 60 to 28. It now constituted a
permanent standing army of around
300,000 men.Augustus also maintained a
marine corps on the imperial fleet and
had his own personal bodyguard, called
the praetorian cohorts.
Within each legion, the officers were
all Roman citizens. The top ranks (the
legates and tribunes) were either senators
or equites. Below them were the centuri-
ons, who were typically Roman citizens
from municipal towns.
The army played an important part in
the consolidation of the empire, quite
apart from any military conquests. Many
Roman encampments were created to
maintain a military presence in an area.
These settlements replicated the Roman
lifestyle, and they frequently developed
into permanent societies of their own.
Over the centuries, some of them grew
into major European cities.

Although it was illegal for a soldier to possessions in Syria and Anatolia. In this 16th-century-
marry, many of them fathered children However, civil war in Armenia threat- CE painting by
who were subsequently granted Roman ened the stability of the region. Both the Federico Barocci,
citizenship. Retiring soldiers often settled Romans and the Parthians fanned the Aeneas carries his
in the region where they had been flames of this war by supporting different father Anchises from
assigned.Augustus encouraged this trend, pretenders to the throne. The situation the burning city of
granting the retired soldiers free land to dragged on for years; at one time, a Troy.The poet Virgils
form new colonies. Roman candidate secured the throne, account of the story
and at another time, a Parthian candidate of Aeneas was
New territory did. Augustus made the pragmatic deci- written during the
Under Augustus, the Roman Empire sion not to engage in a potentially costly reign of Augustus.
acquired new territory very slowly. In military confrontation. In 20 BCE,
Spain, it took years of fighting to subdue Augustuss stepson and future successor,
the last recalcitrant tribes. When victory Tiberius, negotiated a peace treaty with
was finally achieved, several new colonies the Parthians.
were established. The present-day city In the Balkans, Roman power spread
of Saragossa (originally called Caesar as far as the Danube River. Roman
Augusta) emerged from one of them. military successes in this region eventual-
In the east, meanwhile, Augustuss ly yielded three new provinces, Moesia,
generals ensured the security of Roman Pannonia and Dalmatia.
81

ANCIENT ROME
The Ara Pacis At the same time that new provinces In 9 CE, Arminius lured Varus and his
Augustae was were being acquired in the Balkans, three legions into an area of forests and
created in 13 BCE Roman influence was being extended in marshes, where traditional Roman mili-
to celebrate the present-day Germany. In 11 BCE, the tary tactics would not work. The
return of Augustus general Nero Claudius Drusus confront- German chieftain was then able to over-
to Rome after ed German tribes who had been con- come the Roman armies and almost
campaigns in Gaul ducting raids into northern Gaul and completely annihilate them.
and Spain. defeated them at the Battle of the Lupia The Battle of Teutoburg Forest was
River. Over the course of the next two one of the biggest disasters in Roman
years, he managed to extend Roman military history. When the news reached
control as far east as the Elbe River. Rome,Augustus is reputed to have cried:
However, Roman dominance of the Varus,Varus, give me back my legions!
German peoples who lived between the Later attempts to reestablish Roman
Rhine and the Elbe was superficial and control east of the Rhine proved unsuc-
did not last. cessful, and the river became the north-
Toward the end of his reign,Augustus ern boundary of the Roman Empire in
appointed a new provincial governor, mainland Europe.
Varus, to the Rhine region. The harsh-
ness of Varuss rule prompted a revolt. The succession
The German tribes united under a Augustus ruled Rome for more than 40
young chieftain named Arminius, who years, and during that time, the empire
had been a soldier in the Roman army. enjoyed an unparalleled period of pros-
82

THE AGE OF AUGUSTUS
perity and relative peace. However, in Augustus then favored Agrippas two
one vital area, Augustus had not been eldest sons, Gaius and Lucius Caesar, for
successful. In spite of three marriages, he the succession, but by 4 BCE, both were
failed to produce a son. As his health dead.Augustus had no choice but to turn
deteriorated, it became imperative that back to Tiberius. Later that year,Tiberius
he should nominate his successor. was recalled from Rhodes to be official-
Augustuss first choice, in 13 BCE, was ly adopted by Augustus.
Agrippa, his son-in-law and former class- In the following years, Tiberius was
mate. However, within a year of his appointed to various political positions,
appointment, Agrippa died. and in 13 CE, he was given powers
Augustuss next choice was his step- equal to Augustus. Later that year,
son Tiberius, who had been one of Augustus left his will at the House of
Augustuss most talented and successful the Vestals in Rome, together with an
generals. In 12 BCE, Augustus forced account of his lifes work called Res
Tiberius to divorce his beloved wife, Gestae Divi Augusti (The Achievements
Vipsania, and marry Agrippas widow, of the Divine Augustus). When
Julia. Resentful at this interference in his Augustus died in August of 14 CE,
personal life, Tiberius retreated to the Tiberius became emperor without any
island of Rhodes, where he lived for the opposition.
next seven years in isolated retirement. This relief from the
This experience seems to have nurtured See also: Ara Pacis Augustae
feelings of mistrust and pessimism that The End of the Republic (page 56) The depicts a procession
would return in later life. Julio-Claudian Emperors (page 84) of senators.

THE JULIO-CLAUDIAN
EMPERORS
ugustuss successors enlarged the empire to its greatest extent
TIME LINE
14 CE
A and secured its borders. They centralized the collection of taxes
and all other administration in the hands of the imperial authority
Tiberius comes to located in the city of Rome.
power when
Augustus dies.
After Augustus died in 14 CE, the senate influence could aspire to be emperor,
26 CE
declared him a god, a traditional Roman with or without the support of the pub-
Tiberius goes into
exile on island
way of honoring dead leaders. In his lic.As a result, few members of the impe-
of Capri. place, Augustus had nominated his adop- rial family died a natural death. Every
ted son Tiberius, who had originally emperor lived in constant fear of con-
37 CE been his stepson. spiracies hatched among the counselors,
Tiberius dies; The Roman constitution did not in- favorites, and administrators who sur-
great-nephew
Caligula becomes clude a right of succession to the throne, rounded him. The atmosphere at court
emperor. but Augustuss personal prestige ensured was full of suspicion and intrigue. While
that Tiberius would receive the support a career as a public servant offered
41 CE
of the senate. For some years, Tiberius unprecedented opportunity, it also pre-
Caligula stabbed
to death; had been the emperors co-ruler, gaining sented unprecedented danger.
succeeded experience of imperial leadership to
by Claudius. make his succession more secure. Tiberius
43 CE The concept of succession became a Tiberius came to power in 14 CE at age
Claudius annexes
tradition, but the throne was not simply 56, having lived most of his life in the
Britain, leading passed from father to sonas became shadow of Augustus. His personal life was
campaign common in later monarchies. During his unrewarding, and he could be moody
personally. lifetime, each emperor sought a suitable and difficult. However, he proved to be a
54 CE candidateusually a member of the meticulous administrator of the imperial
Claudius dies imperial familywhom he then adopt- treasury. He cut back on public expenses
suddenly, possibly ed as his son. Tiberius adopted a great- to such an extent that he lost much
as result of grandson of Augustus, Gaius (called support among Romes citizens, who
poisoning; Caligula), but Caligula nominated his had expected spectacular celebrations
Nero becomes
emperor. uncle, Claudius I. Claudius was succeed- and generous grain handouts from their
ed by his stepson Nero, who was also a new emperor.
64 CE descendant of Augustus by marriage. Tiberius also had a poor reputation
Major fire in Rome. These four related successors, together among contemporary historians such as
68 CE with Augustus, comprise what is called Tacitus, who described Tiberius as an
Nero commits the Julio-Claudian dynasty. unapproachable ruler who despised his
suicide with aid The absence of a law that established subjects. Modern historians tend to be
of slave. which of an emperors relatives had the more positive, pointing out that the
right to succession could be disastrous. bureaucracy of the empire ran smoothly
Any ambitious person with enough under Tiberius. Like Augustus, Tiberius
84

THE JULIO-CLAUDIAN EMPERORS
the ability to administer the empire

alone.Worse, his great power and
his intolerance meant that few
people were brave enough to
give him advice or offer an
honest opinion about his
actions. According to one
story, when Tiberius made
his first appearance in the
senate as princeps, a fool-
hardy senator asked him,
Caesar, which portion of
power do you want to reserve
for yourself?When Tiberius was
clearly irritated, the alarmed sen-
ator hurriedly added: I say this
because we cannot go on without
the unity of leadership and power in
your hands.
A trusted ally
Tiberius was said to trust only one man in
the empire: Sejanus, the leader of the
Praetorian Guard. This body of elite
soldiers served as the imperial bodyguard.
Its men were stationed around the palace
in Rome and at other strategic locations
throughout the Italian Peninsula. Only
a trusted confidant of the emperor
was appointed to be commander of
the guard.
It soon became obvious to
everyone except the emperor that
Sejanus wanted to exploit the emperors
trust to have himself designated as the
imperial successor. He acquired influ-
ence over Tiberius and implicated the
This contemporary, did not strain the imperial resources try- emperors relatives in plots so that, one by
life-size marble bust ing to extend the empire.Therefore, only one, Tiberius eliminated his relatives on
is a portrait of those in his immediate vicinity had to charges of treason. Sejanuss influence
Nero, probably the fear the emperors paranoia. continued to grow, and in 26 CE, the
most notorious aging Tiberius retreated to the island of
emperor of the The dangers of power Capri, leaving imperial control in the
Julio-Claudian It was under Tiberius that the dangers of hands of the prefect of Rome.
dynasty. placing absolute power in the hands of Sejanus remained near Rome with
one man became increasingly clear. The most of the guard. He functioned as a
emperor did not delegate responsibility caretaker and protector for Tiberius,
to his advisers, but neither did he have censoring the news received by the
85

ANCIENT ROME
emperor.The senate could only watch as

Sejanus misused the power that Tiberius
increasingly delegated to him. Eventually,
a number of senators protested to
Tiberius, letting it be known that they
would oppose him if Sejanus was not
removed. The commander panicked and
made hasty plans for a coup, which was
perhaps what his opponents had wanted.
When Tiberius heard of the plot, he
acted promptly, sending word to the sen-
ate demanding Sejanuss execution. The
soldier and his supporters were put to
death for treason in 31 CE.
A paranoid emperor
Senators who hoped the elimination of
Sejanus would improve matters were dis-
appointed. Betrayal by his closest confi-
dant only intensified Tiberiuss paranoia.
Suspicious of everyone, he began to
show signs of mental illness. He
remained on Capri, conducting imperial
business by letter. Meanwhile, rumors
circulated in Rome that the emperor was
spending his time in orgies or enjoying
cruel entertainments.
Other rumors said that Tiberius had
arranged for the murder of his nephew
and heir apparent, Germanicus. The son
of Tiberiuss brother Drusus, who had
died on campaign in Germany, Ger-
manicus was a man of great personal
charm who had led several successful
military campaigns. However, Tiberius
hated and mistrusted him. When Ger-
manicus died in the east after a short ill-
ness, it was generally suspected that Piso, This marble portrait them from delatores (informers). In a judi-
the governor of Syria, had poisoned him of Tiberius was cial system without public prosecutors,
at Tiberiuss instigation. carved in 4 CE to it was left to private citizens to make
Tiberiuss continued self-imposed celebrate the future accusations in court. If someone were
exile on Capri was a source of much emperors adoption convicted of treason, his estate was con-
uncertainty and suspicion in Rome. by Augustus. fiscated and one quarter of its value was
Senators who had been discredited by awarded to the man who had denounced
Sejanus found that the emperors trust in him. Consequently, an entire profession
them was not restored. New plots and of delatores arose in Rome. Once an
conspiracies abounded, and Tiberius informer had accused someone, that
received plenty of information about individual had little chance of clearing
86

his name. His friends would not dare to given rise to his nickname, Caligula, Tiberius spent the
help him, and indeed, they often en- meaning Little Boots. last decade of his
dorsed the condemnation to save their Caligula was only 25 when he life in exile on the
own lives.The last few years of Tiberiuss became emperor in 37 CE, and the first island of Capri,
life were a reign of terror, and it was with few months of his reign came as a breath which is located in
a feeling of relief that Rome learned of of fresh air to the hard-pressed Roman the Bay of Naples.
his death in 37 CE at the age of 77. He citizenry. The delatores were persecuted, During that time,
was not deified as Caesar and Augustus political prisoners were given an am- he built a succession
had been before him. nesty, and the new princeps distinguished of luxurious villas
himself by his great generosity in laying on the island to
Little Boots on spectacular entertainments to amuse support his self-
At his death,Tiberius left two adult heirs: the populace. However, seven months indulgent lifestyle.
his grandson Tiberius Gemellus and his into his reign Caligula became ill, and
great-nephew Gaius, whom he had ad- when he recovered, he seemed to have
opted as a son. The senate immediately undergone a change of personality. His
recognized the latter as the successor, behavior became capricious and cruel; it
although little was known about him. As was rumored that he had gone mad.
the son of the popular Germanicus, The treason trials resumed, and in 38
however, it was reported that the soldiers CE, Caligula arranged for the executions
adored him.As a child, Gaius had accom- of his cousin Tiberius Gemellus and
panied his father on campaign and had Macro, the prefect of the Praetorian
worn miniature uniforms. This act had Guard who had virtually put Caligula on
87

ANCIENT ROME
the throne. Caligula squandered the

resources that Tiberius had so carefully
hoarded. To replace them, Caligula con-
fiscated the estates of wealthy Roman
citizens. He humiliated members of the
senate and was even said to have made
his horse a consul, although modern his-
torians tend to discount the story.
Caligula had himself deified while he
was still alive and had altars to himself
put up all over the empire. He built a link
from his palace on the Palatine Hill in
Rome to the temples on the Capitoline,
so that, he said, he could communicate
more easily with the god Jupiter.
An unpredictable emperor
This divine mania threatened a serious
conflict with the Jews in Judaea. Major
rebellion was only averted by the local
governors decision to keep ignoring the
emperors order that Caligula be wor-
shipped in the temple in Jerusalem.
The ordinary people of Rome, too,
suffered under Caligula. On one occa-
sion, when he was displeased with the
crowd watching games in the stadium,
the emperor had the games stopped, the
sunshades removed, and the exits sealed
off by soldiers. For the whole day, he left
thousands of spectators sitting in the
burning sun without food or drink. Even
life could depend on the emperors
whim. He is reported to have said to one
of his courtesans, What a lovely neck!
One word from me and it will fly off.
Caligulas unpredictable behavior ex-
tended to his treatment of the army. In
40 CE, he marched into Gaul, plunder-
ing the countryside. He then gathered his
troops in battle array on the beaches of
Normandy, as if they were about to be
sent to invade Britain. However, when
This statue of Caligula was carved in the first

century CE. Excavations at Caligulas palace
in Rome have confirmed ancient reports that
the building was linked to a temple.
88

Caligula issued his order, it was to gather they carried Claudius away to an inner
seashells! Afterward, Caligula boasted that courtyard, where they received him offi-
he had conquered the ocean. cially as the new emperor. Relieved to
After four years of such imperial have his life spared, Claudius promised
behavior, even the Praetorian Guard had them all a generous bounty for their per-
had enough. In January of 41 CE, the sonal allegiance.
tribune of the Praetorian Guard, with
several others, stabbed Caligula to death Claudius I
in the palace grounds. The conspirators Claudius, the grandson of Livia (third wife
hoped to restore the republic, but other of Augustus) and a nephew of Tiberius,
Praetorians intervened. was born in 10 BCE. He had physical
infirmities and a stammer. These disabili-
An unusual succession ties led him to avoid public notice and
While soldiers were looting the palace, devote himself to scholarship (see box,
they saw a pair of feet behind a curtain. page 92). Despite these drawbacks and his
They pulled the cloth away and found age (he was older than 50 at the time of
Claudius, the terrified uncle of the mur- his accession), Claudius proved to be an
dered emperor. Claudius feared that he effective, but controversial, emperor.
was going to die too, but the soldiers The new emperor reorganized the
recognized him as the brother of their administration of the government, par-
former general, Germanicus. ticularly in regard to financial affairs. As
Believing that their own futures had been the custom since the time of
depended on who held the principate, Augustus, Claudius managed the empire
Caligula is
assassinated by the
Praetorian Guard in
this illustration from
an 18th-century-CE
edition of The
History of the
Jewish People,
written by Josephus
Flavius around
30 years after
the killing.
89

ANCIENT ROME
as had been outlined for it by Augustus.

A strong advocate of the liberal granting
of Roman citizenship to imperial sub-
jects in conquered territories, Claudius
also appointed people from the provinces
to the senate. He gave them whatever
rank he chose, instead of having them
ascend through the ranks. To avoid
offense, Claudius raised many existing
senators to patrician status. However, the
senate was not happy when in 47 CE he
appointed himself to the hitherto
defunct office of censor. The position
gave him the power to add senators at
whimand to execute them at whim,
on trumped up charges of conspiracy or
violating state security.
In the provinces, Claudius followed a
policy of Romanization, or assimilating
other peoples into the empire. This act
tended to reduce the importance of the
Italian Peninsula in the senate, a fact that
did not add to his popularity there. On
the peninsula itself, however, Claudius
improved government administration
within the municipal towns, drained
marshes, and built numerous roads and
ports. He was responsible for the great
harbor at Ostia, just south of Rome at
the mouth of the Tiber River, and he
restored several major aqueducts that
brought water to Rome.
Claudius was a from his own household and employed
scholarly and slaves and freedmen as his secretaries and Expanding the empire
effective emperor as heads of various departments. Several Claudius believed in expanding the
who was of these men became very powerful, such empire if possible, and he did incorporate
nevertheless highly as Narcissus, his chief secretary, and three new client kingdoms: Mauretania
unpopular with his Pallas, his chief accountant. Free slaves in 42 CE, Lycia in 43 CE, and Thrace in
subjects. such as these often abused their posi- 46 CE. However, his greatest overseas
tions, however, becoming insolent and accomplishment was the annexation of
greedy. Romes nobles resented the fact Britain in 43 CE. Claudius himself led
that they had nowhere near as much the campaign, to make up for his previ-
power as these upstarts. ous lack of military achievement, and it
was spectacularly successful.After landing
Claudius and the senate in Kent and defeating the local chieftain
Claudius himself showed great respect Caractacus, the Roman army captured
for the aristocracy and the senate, his capital, Camulodunum (present-day
according that body much the same role Colchester), and established a Roman
90

colony there. Within a year, Claudius refused. Eventually, she began an affair
returned to Rome, where he was given a with Gaius Silius. One night in 48 CE,
triumphal victory procession. His gener- the two of them held a wild party when
als remained in Britain to complete the they believed that Claudius was out of
subjugation of the island. the city. However, Claudius surprised
them in the middle of the orgy and
Messalina and Agrippina found his wife dancing clad only in a
In spite of his achievements, Claudius leopard skin. Claudius had her locked
was widely unpopular. His wives were away for the remainder of the night.The
partly responsible. He was married four next morning, he seemed ready to par-
times, his last two wives being Messalina don her, but before he could do so,
and Agrippina. Messalina was, according Narcissus arranged for her execution
to contemporaries, an unfaithful wife. together with Silius.
Young and beautiful, she was said to be Claudius married again the following
discontented with her handicapped prin- year. His new wife, the beautiful but
ceps and would call on young aristocrats devious Agrippina, was Caligulas sister,
from all over the city to spend the night the great-granddaughter of Augustus,
with her, punishing with death any who and Claudiuss own niece. She was also
The Apotheosis of
Claudius is a cameo
made of sardonyx
set in an enameled
gold frame. It shows
the emperor being
taken to heaven by
an eagle and marks
his deification after
his death in 54 CE.
91

ANCIENT ROME
the ex-wife of Domitius Ahenobarbus,

CLAUDIUS THE SCHOLAR by whom she had had a son in 37 CE.
This son was now 11 years old, and it was
Because of his disabilities, Claudius was largely ignored Agrippinas ambition to make him prin-
by the imperial family during his early years, and he lived ceps and then rule through him.Two peo-
a quiet and scholarly life.While Claudius was still a ple stood in the way: Claudius himself
young man, the historian Livy encouraged him to study and his son Britannicus (named for
history. Livys advice resulted in an enormous output; Claudiuss conquest of Britain). In 50
Claudius wrote 20 books on Etruscan history and 8 CE, Agrippina used her influence with
on Carthaginian history, all in Greek. Claudius also Claudius to get him to adopt her son,
produced a pamphlet in defense of the republican who then took the name Nero. Four
orator Cicero, which sparked an interest in contempo- years later, in 54 CE, Claudius died sud-
rary Roman history. Claudius went on to describe the denly. Rumors claimed that Agrippina
reign of Augustus in 41 books. In addition to his histori- had poisoned him with a plate of mush-
cal works, Claudius produced an autobiography and a rooms. Afranius Burrus, the commander
pamphlet on gambling with dice, a pastime of which he of the Praetorian Guard, was already un-
was very fond. He made a historical study of the Roman der Agrippinas protection, and he
alphabet and even introduced three new characters to declared Nero to be the new princeps.
italthough they later fell out of use. Highly intelligent,
Claudius also taught himself the basics of architecture, Nero
which makes it somewhat surprising that he undertook In 54 CE, when Nero was declared prin-
relatively little building work in Rome when he later ceps, he was just 16 years old and too
became emperor.The quality of Claudiuss writings is young to rule. Effective power passed to
unknown; none of his literary works survived. his regents: the elderly Stoic philosopher
Seneca and the commander of the
After his conquest of

Britain, Claudius
built baths at Aquae
Sulis (now Bath),
using natural hot
springs that were
already renowned
for their curative
powers.The
emperors baths
were based on a
scaled-down version
of the great baths
in Rome.
92

Praetorian Guard, Burrus. Burrus and

Seneca ruled in an autocratic manner,
permitting little if any dissent, but the
empire prospered under them. They had
inherited a well-ordered empire from
Claudius, who had reorganized imperial
finances so that taxes from all the prov-
inces were controlled centrally in Rome.
(One of the earliest acts of Neros reign
was to deify Claudius.) The state coffers
were well filled, and all over the empire,
new colonies were being founded, which
brought in new revenue.
The young princeps had little
choice but to allow his men-
tors to have their own way.
In any case, he was less
interested in politics and
more in the arts; he
thought of himself pri-
marily as a poet and
singer. Neros mother,
Agrippina, found the sit-
uation deeply frustrating. She
wanted to rule herself, through
Nero, but that was not possible
without her sons support.
However, within five years, Nero
had turned into a monster. He was to
murder, eventually, his stepbrother, his
mother, his first and second wives, and
his tutor, plus many others. her to one of his country houses, sup- Agrippina originally
posedly for a reconciliation. The house had considerable
Murders and marriages was on a lake, so he sent a boat to trans- influence over her
Agrippina fought to keep her influence port her.The boat was rigged to fall apart son while she acted
over her son. According to a story relat- in the middle of the lake so that as regent, but she
ed by the historian Tacitus, Agrippina Agrippina would drown.When she man- later quarreled with
went so far as to try to seduce Nero aged to swim ashore, Nero abandoned him, mainly over
during an orgy. Seneca, witnessing her subtlety. He ordered a company of the his affair with
behavior, hastily sent in a beautiful freed- Praetorian Guards to stab his mother to Poppaea Sabina.
woman called Acte to divert Neros death. Burrus circulated a rumor that
attention. Realizing that she was losing Agrippina had conspired against Nero,
her influence over her son, Agrippina and Seneca wrote a statement for Nero
began to favor Britannicus, Neros to read to the senate to justify her death.
younger stepbrother. Nero promptly had The young emperor rapidly devel-
him poisoned. oped into a vicious and pleasure-seeking
By 59 CE, Nero had decided to get despot. His behavior was encouraged by
rid of his interfering mother. He invited his mistress Poppaea Sabina, the wife of
93

ANCIENT ROME
ROMANS AND LIFE AFTER DEATH
A lthough the Romans had largely adopted the

Greek mythology and pantheon of gods, they
continued to hold on to their own ideas about
The condemned ones were thrown into Tartarus,
the lowest region of the underworld, to suffer
eternal punishment. One such punishment in
the afterlife.They believed that besides the soul mythology was meted out to Tantalus, who was
(or anima, literally meaning breath or wind) forced to stand in water up to his neck while a
something else remained after death, namely the branch bearing delicious fruit dangled in front of
umbra (or shadow).These shadows of the dead his face.When he wanted to take a drink, the
made up the large swarms of manes (a word water level would drop out of reach, and when
always used in the plural).The manes were able he tried to eat some fruit, the branch would be
to assist their families by appearing to them in blown away by the wind.
dreams and revelations to offer advice, but manes
could also turn against them.Those who offended The saved ones, however, were allowed to enter
the manes, by trying to control them with magic the Elysian Fields, with their blossoming valleys
potions, for example, would end up having to deal and multicolored light.The poet Ovid claimed
with evil, rather than benign, spirits. that the blessed replicated their earthly ways of
life there, while the poet Virgil told of the shad-
The shadows departed this world into the ows of blessed ones who found entertainment
underworld though cracks in the earth.There, there by singing and holding chariot races.
they were transported by the ferryman Charon
across the Styx River (the river of the dead) This 16th-century-CE painting by the Flemish artist
in a boat to the other side, where they were Joachim Patinier depicts Charon ferrying the dead
subjected to the decision of two infallible judges. across the Styx River.
94

was indeed a talented singer and poet.

Nero even went so far as to appear on
stage in public. Naturally, the audience was
obliged to applaud him enthusiastically.
From a modern perspective, it is
impossible to know whether or
not Nero actually had any talent.
According to historians of the
time, including Tacitus, the
emperor made a fool of
himself. His performances,
they said, brought disgrace
upon his family and the
whole of the Roman aris-
tocracy. In 66 CE, Nero
undertook an extended
tour of Greece, participat-
ing in all the local festivals.
At each festival, he was,
naturally enough, awarded
the prize. The emperor also
entered the chariot race at the
Olympic Games at Delphi. He
drove a chariot so wide that no
other competitor could get on the
track with him.As a result, he was award-
ed the victors crown of laurel leaves.
This gold coin from the senator Marcus Salvio Otho (who The fire of Rome
around 55 CE later was to be briefly emperor), and In 64 CE, a fire broke out in Rome. Such
depicts Nero and his Neros friend Tigellinus, one of the fires were a regular occurrence in the
mother, Agrippina. Praetorian Guards. In 62 CE, Nero huge city, with its maze of narrow streets
divorced and murdered his first wife, lined with timber buildings, but the fires
Octavia, who was a daughter of Claudius. were usually put out before much dam-
He then married the divorced Poppaea, age was done.This time, however, the fire
but in 65 CE, in a wild fit of temper, he took hold, and a wall of flame and smoke
kicked her to death. He then married the swept through the alleyways for days,
recently widowed Statilia Messalina destroying the homes of the poor and
(whose husband was also thought to have claiming thousands of lives. Most of the
died at the hands of the emperor). city was destroyed.
A rumor began that Nero himself
The artist started the fire, even though he had been
Burrus died in 62 CE, and Seneca, fearing in Antium, which was 35 miles (56 km)
for his own safety, retired from Neros from Rome. Another version of the story
court. Neros attention then focused on claimed that Nero stood on a hill,
Tigellinus, who replaced Burrus as head watched the flames devour the city, and
of the Praetorian Guard. Tigellinuss sang a song he had written about the fall
flattery convinced Nero that the emperor of Troy.This account was the origin of the
95

ANCIENT ROME
In this 17th-century- modern story that the emperor played the himself a large tract of land in the eastern
CE engraving, fiddle while Rome burned. part of the city and began to build a new
Christians are put Nero, in return, put the blame for the palace, called the Golden House. This
to death as part of fire on Romes Christians (see box, page sumptuous residence, with colonnades,
Neros persecution 98). He initiated a full-scale persecution parks, and lakes, was decorated with mag-
following the fire of thousands of Christians, many of nificent frescoes, which later influenced
in Rome. whom were gruesomely put to death the work of Renaissance artists. The
during the games in the amphitheater. palace was never finished, however, due to
Others were covered in pitch and used Neros chronic shortage of money.
as human torches during the emperors
parties. Such cruelty made many people Rebellion in Britain
sympathetic to the Christians, and the The citizens of the provinces deeply
rumor that Nero himself started the fire resented the corruption and cruelty of
refused to die. Neros administrators, and this was
After the fire, Nero decided to particularly true in Britain. In 60 CE, the
rebuild Rome and make it more magnif- resentment flared into open rebellion, led
icent than ever. The city was laid out by Boudicca, queen of the Iceni tribe
with wider streets on a regular grid pat- in what is now southeastern England.
tern. Strict building regulations ensured The insurgents took the Roman settle-
that all structures were built solidly of ments of Camulodunum (present-day
fireproof materials. Nero reserved for Colchester),Verulamium (St.Albans), and
96

Londinium (London) and razed them. waging for four years a successful mili-
According to Roman sources, the rebels tary campaign in Anatolia (modern
massacred the settlements inhabitants, Turkey) to establish Armenia as a buffer
although some modern archaeologists state against Parthia.
dispute the claim. It was a year before
Roman legions regained control, putting Rebellion across the empire
Boudicca to death and taking reprisals Roman brutality fomented a Jewish rev-
against the Iceni. olution in Judaea in 66 CE. An initial
rising in Jerusalem was followed by
Rebellion at home disorder spreading throughout the coun-
In Rome, Neros poor administration try. Nero sent Titus Flavius Vespasianus
and the growing insecurity he provoked (who eventually became the emperor
among senators fostered a mood of Vespasian) to end the revolt. Completing
rebellion. Forty-one prominent Romans a bloody campaign in which he sup-
hatched a plot to make Gaius Calpurnius pressed the rebels village by village,Ves-
Piso emperor, but Nero was warned of pasian began a siege of Jerusalem.
the conspiracy by loyal slaves. In 65 CE, Before the situation in Judaea could
Piso and his fellow conspirators were be resolved, two provincial governors
condemned to death. Preferring to take rebelled in the west: Julius Vindex in
their own lives rather than face the exe- Gaul and Sulpicius Galba in Spain. In 68
cutioners, 18 of the condemned men slit CE, Roman legions on the banks of the
their own wrists. Among them was Rhine River slaughtered the Gauls in
Neros former tutor, Seneca.Another one Vindexs army and forced him to com-
was the general Corbulo, who had been mit suicide.The victorious Roman gen-
The Venetian
Renaissance artist
Luca Giordano
painted The Death
of Seneca in 1680
CE. According to the
historian Tacitus,
Seneca died slowly
after cutting his
wrists.
97

ANCIENT ROME
THE CHRISTIANS IN ROME

By the time Nero came to power, a of the law.When Paul the Apostle
new religious sect had appeared in was flogged, for example, and
Rome.The sect had originated in claimed his rights as a citizen, the
Palestine, where its members city council apologized; it was not
worshipped a single god, rather than permitted to flog a Roman.
the multiplicity of Roman deities. However, noncitizens could be
The people were known as subject to arbitrary martial law.The
Christians, after the founder of the provincial governor could condemn
sect, Jesus Christ, who had been put them to death, as Pontius Pilate did
to death during the reign of with Jesus.
Tiberius. It was said that the
Christians expected the imminent Paul was arrested and sent to Rome
return of Christ to punish a world for execution around 62 CE.
that they believed was full of sin. According to tradition, he was
beheaded with a sword, which was
Many Romans paid little attention to his right as a Roman citizen.The
Christianity. It was just one of a apostle Peter was also martyred
number of eastern sects in Rome, during the reign of Nero. Because
some of which had attracted much he was not a citizen, however, Peter
controversy.There were rumors, for was crucified, which was more This 19th-century-
example, that Christian worship painful. Despite the deaths of these CE sculpture depicts
included witchcraft and cannibalism. leaders, the sect was not destroyed. the British queen
Various sources indicate that Boudicca, who led a
Many early Christians in Rome were Christianity became one of the rebellion against the
citizens, who enjoyed the protection most successful sects in Rome. Romans in the first
century CE.

eral claimed that he was acting on behalf

of the senate rather than Nero. Mean-
while, Galba and his legions advanced
toward Rome unopposed.
The senate condemned Nero to
death, and on June 9, 68 CE, having lost
the allegiance of the Praetorian Guard,
Nero fled the city. A slave helped him
stab himself in the throat. The dying
emperor was said to have remarked,
What a great artist dies with me!
Neros reputation
Neros death brought an inglorious end
to the Julio-Claudian dynasty. Declared
damnatio memoriae (damned in memory)
by the senate, Nero and his reign were
obliterated from the official record. Later,
under the emperor Domitian, even
inscriptions on buildings that referred to
Nero were erased.
Neros historical reputation, however,
has undergone something of a rehabilita-
tion. Historians who lived during his
reign and in its aftermath agreed with
the senators and condemned Neros
tyranny. Modern historians, on the other
hand, point out that the emperor actual-
ly seems to have been quite popular with
ordinary Romans.
It may be that what Romes leading
citizens regarded as tyranny was seen by
commoners in a more favorable light circenses (bread and circuses), the tradi- This bronze
perhaps as an effective means of civic tional entertainments that the emperors gladiators helmet
control. While there is no doubt that used to keep the masses happy. was found at
Nero was highly unpopular in the Such generosity seems to have been Pompeii and
provinces, which he exploited to the effective. Contemporary records relate dates to the first
benefit of Rome, the average Roman that, when the news of Neros death was century CE.
seems to have had more positive feelings heard, all Rome mourned and store-
about Neros time as princeps. keepers closed their stores. For years
The tyrannical behavior of Nero had afterward, fresh flowers were placed on
rarely affected the inhabitants of the the burial mound that the freedwoman
alleyways of Rome. Those Romans may Acte erected for her imperial lover.
have approvedif they noticedthat
powerful and corrupt men were being See also:
disposed of by the hundreds. What was The Age of Augustus (page 72) Daily Life in
more, Nero had spent vast sumsmore Rome (page 116) Expanding the Empire
than any other princepson panem et (page 100)
99

EXPANDING THE
EMPIRE
he emperors who came after Nero brought the empire to its
TIME LINE
68 CE
T greatest extent through a combination of military organization
and smart political maneuvers. Even at its most powerful, however,
Nero dies; Rome contained signs of its eventual destruction.
Sulpicius Galba
becomes
emperor. After the death of Nero in 68 CE, the that the northern legions were in revolt.
69 CE
senate declared Sulpicius Galba princeps. Under Aulus Vitellius, the commander of
Galba murdered;
He was a member of a distinguished Lower Germany, they were preparing to
succeeded by Otho. patrician family and a former governor of march on Rome. Galba appointed a
Otho reigns for Spain, and as such, he was welcomed by young, inexperienced patrician named
three months; the senators as their new emperor. Piso Licinianus to fight the rebellion
replaced by
Vitellius.
However, Galbas appointment marked a and to be his successor. The emperors
Vitellius killed; significant departure from the principle decision alienated Marcus Salvius Otho
replaced by of hereditary succession.The new emper- (the first husband of Poppaea Sabina
Vespasian before or had no connection with the Julio- and a confidant of Galba), who had
years end.
Claudian dynasty. If he could become hoped to succeed Galba. Otho, who
79 CE emperor (and at the age of 73), then in was a prominent banker, bribed the
Vespasian dies; theory, any member of the aristocracy Praetorian Guard to murder the new
succeeded by had a right to the imperial throne. emperor in the street.
Titus. Eruption The senate recognized Otho as em-
of Mount
Vesuvius buries
Galba and Otho peror. His reign lasted only three months,
town of Pompeii. Galba faced a potentially dangerous situ- however.The empire was still in turmoil.
ation. Law and order broke down in The German legions were still advancing
98 CE
Rome, and for the first time in a centu- on Rome with Vitellius at their head.
Trajan becomes
emperor; under ry, there was fighting in the streets, with Otho assembled a hastily formed army
his rule, Roman frequent murders and robberies. Nero and, together with the Praetorian Guard,
Empire reaches had virtually emptied the treasury, and faced the Vitellian forces at Cremona in
greatest extent. the harsh economies Galba introduced northern Italy. Othos army was defeated,
134 CE made him highly unpopular. Worse still, and Otho committed suicide.
Jewish rebellion the legions in the provinces were at war
put down after with one another, each supporting its Vitellius
three years of own candidate for princeps.The legions in Vitellius and his Rhineland army entered
fighting.
the north, which had been instrumental Rome in April of 69 CE. The senate
180 CE in engineering Neros downfall, were confirmed Vitellius as emperor, but this
Marcus Aurelius particularly bitter. It seemed that their princeps lasted only slightly longer than
dies; Commodus efforts had brought to power someone his predecessors: eight months.The prob-
inherits empire. with whom they had no connection. lems that confronted his predecessors had
In January of 69 CE, shortly after not gone away; indeed, the problems had
being recognized as princeps, Galba learned become worse. The treasurys coffers
100

EXPANDING THE EMPIRE
were completely exhausted. Unable to

pay his troops their victory bonus,
Vitellius lost all control of his army. To
make matters worse, Vitellius also came
under threat from another pretender to
the principate.
It was not only the legions on the
Rhine who had wanted to see one of
their own become princeps. The legions
in Judaea had the same idea. There,Ves-
pasian commanded a huge army that had
been assembled in Jerusalem to suppress
the great Jewish rebellion of 66 CE.
Those soldiers nominated Vespasian as
princeps, and he quickly gained support
throughout the region and from the
legions along the Danube. In December
of 69 CE,Vespasians army met Vitelliuss
Rhineland troops at the Battle of
Bedriacum, in the northern Italian
Peninsula, and defeated them. Vitellius
was lynched by the victors.
Vespasian
After the defeat of Vitellius, the senate
gave Vespasian the title the legions had
demanded for him. The first of the
Flavian emperors, Titus Flavius Vespasi-
anus was not a descendant of the old
Roman aristocracy. Born in a small
Italian town, he did not even come from
Rome, and his family had only recently
been promoted to the senatorial order.
Yet this outsider took control of the
empire with a firm hand.
Vespasians rule was authoritarian, but
by retaining strict control of the army, he
succeeded in bringing much needed
peace to the battle-bruised empire. He
quickly eliminated all political oppo-
nents, banishing them from the capital.
He revived and occupied the position of
censor, packing the senate with his
supporters and greatly increasing the
This marble statue of the emperor Hadrian

was carved in the second century CE to
celebrate his victories over the barbarians.
101

ANCIENT ROME
THE ROMAN EMPIRE AT ITS GREATEST EXTENT
BRITAIN
UPPER
GERMANY
LOWER Vindobona
GERMANY RAETIA DACIA
S
E A LP Bedriacum
PIN CISALPINE Sea
SAL L DALMATIA Blac k
N U GAUL
PYR TRA GA
EN Byzantium ARMENIA
EES
CORSICA Rome
Pompeii
SPAIN ASIA
SARDINIA
SICILY SYRIA
Carthage Me
dite
r ra n JUDAEA
ean S
ea
Jerusalem
Alexandria ARABIA
EGYPT
number of senators drawn from the In spite of his cutbacks,Vespasian was

KEY provinces. Although he allowed the sen- also careful to build something that
Roman Empire ate little real power, he appointed a large would please and entertain Romes citi-
in 117 CE number of senators to administrative zens. On the site of Neros Golden
Major battle
positions. During his reign, a new aris- House, Vespasian began building a huge
tocracy, based on government service, amphitheater, later known as the
became influential. Colosseum, where contests with wild
Vespasian was the first emperor to animals, gladiator fights, and mock naval
tackle successfully the financial and orga- battles could be staged.
nizational chaos left by Nero. Vespasian However, serious problems remained
solved Romes financial problems by cut- in the provinces.The Danube lands were
ting back drastically on state spending being raided by Saratian tribesmen, but
and by increasing taxes. He imposed a Vespasians generals were able to restore
poll tax on Jews and even taxed the con- order there relatively quickly. Along the
tents of public urinals, which leather- Rhine in Lower Germany, the trouble
workers used to tan their hides. When a was more serious.The fiercely independ-
delegation went to the emperor to ask ent Batavian tribe had previously formed
him to lift the tax, Vespasian held up a an alliance with the Romans and sup-
coin in front of their noses and asked, plied auxiliary troops to the Roman
Does this stink? army. Now, the Batavian tribesmen felt
102

increasingly embittered at the authoritar-

ian way in which they believed they
were being treated. In the chaotic year of
69 CE, they rebelled, under the leader-
ship of Julius Civilis, a German with
Roman citizenship. The rebellion
lasted for a year before a settlement
was negotiated.
In 70 CE, Vespasians elder
son, Titus, took Jerusalem for
his father, finally ending the
long war in Judaea. Titus then
killed most of the citys inhabi-
tants and destroyed the temple,
except for one part of the
Western Wall. Known today as
the Wailing Wall, it is one of the
most holy places of Judaism.
Vespasians rule lasted for ten
years, during which time he carefully
groomed Titus to succeed him. When
the emperor sensed that his death was
near, he is alleged to have said,Oh dear,
I think Im turning into a god. Titus
succeeded his father without problem
and promptly had him deified.
Titus was succeeded by his brother This coin was
Titus Domitian, who may have had a hand in minted during the
Titus, who was 39 years old on his acces- the death and whose name was to short reign of
sion, had intelligence, good looks, and a become synonymous with terror. Sulpicius Galba, who
pleasant personality, but he lived for only died in 69 CE, only a
two years after becoming emperor. His Domitian year after gaining
short reign was dominated by two catas- The last of the Flavian emperors, Do- the imperial throne.
trophes: the eruption of the volcano mitian was the second son of Vespasian
Mount Vesuvius in 79 CE, which buried and had never been designated as heir
the towns of Pompeii, Herculaneum, and apparent. Nevertheless, after the death of
Stabiae (see box, page 104), and a major Titus, Domitian was hailed as the new
fire in Rome. After both disasters, Titus emperor by the Praetorian Guard and
made considerable efforts to help the then ratified by the senate. Domitian had
survivors, including making donations never before held a position of influence
from his own funds. because his father and elder brother both
Titus also completed the great believed that his ambition made him
amphitheater begun by his father and dangerous. Suddenly, Domitian had
celebrated its opening with games that complete power, and he used it to insti-
lasted for more than three months. His gate a reign of terror.
generosity and just government made Treating the senate with contempt,
Titus a popular princeps, and he was dei- Domitian manipulated it to a greater
fied after his sudden death at age 41. extent than any previous emperor had.
103

ANCIENT ROME
He also insisted that the senators pay make sure that he kept the allegiance of
him the respect he felt he merited, the army.
and he meted out severe punishment Domitians administration was highly
for any insult, real or imagined. efficient. To administer the provinces,
Domitian maintained his control over he sent competent, incorruptible men
the senate by appointing senators of his chosen from the senate or the equites.The
own choice and, later, by executing provinces thrived under his authoritarian
any of whom he disapproved. rule. Believing that his position
In 85 CE, Domitian ap- depended on the goodwill
pointed himself census of the masses, he made sure
perpetuus (perpetual to entertain them with
censor) and repeat- spectacular events, includ-
edly managed to ing numerous games in
get himself elected the amphitheater and
consul, the civilian two triumphal processions
head of government. through the center of
While he was willing
to alienate the senate, Othos reign lasted only three
however, Domitian was months, from January 15 to
also shrewd enough to April 16, 69 CE.
POMPEII
In 79 CE, Mount Vesuvius, the volcano near The report of Pliny the Younger goes on to
Naples that had been dormant for centuries, describe how panic broke out when the
suddenly erupted, burying the nearby towns of people realized too late what was happening
Pompeii and Herculaneum under 13 feet (4 m) and tried to find safe shelter. In the space of a
of lava and hot ash.The event was described in few days, the towns of Pompeii, Herculaneum,
detail by the Roman writer Pliny the Younger, in and Stabiae disappeared from the face of the
an account of the death of his uncle, Pliny the earth, covered in lava and ash, together with
Elder, who was the commander of a naval many of their inhabitants.
squadron at the time of the eruption.
It was not until 1748 CE that Pompeii was
Even though the mountain smoked ominously discovered again. Under the lava, ash, and mud,
for a time, the inhabitants of the little towns on archaeologists found an entire city, with streets,
the slopes were barely concerned, he wrote. shops, houses, a forum, several temples, and a
They were pretty sure that the volcano was large amphitheater. On a more macabre note, it
extinct.... One afternoon Pliny [the Elder] saw was found that the volcanic debris had formed
from his ship how the top of the mountain, as it perfect molds around the bodies of the terrified
were, exploded. Large gas clouds rose up from townspeople. Archaeologists were able to pour
the crater. In Pompeii, it rained pieces of stone, plaster into these molds to create perfect
the earth trembled and a large stream of lava replicas of the long-dead people, even
started to crawl slowly down the mountain. reproducing the look of horror on their faces.
Pliny went ashore to observe the phenomenon The excavated Pompeii provides a wealth of
close up, but lost his life in doing so. information about daily life in a Roman city.
104

Rome to honor his armys success against tribe had rebelled in Lower Germany,
tribes in the northeast. Vespasian had begun a policy of station-
ing native auxiliary forces far from their
Troubled divinity homelands, usually under the command
From the beginning of his reign, Do- of a Roman officer.Auxiliary forces were
mitian insisted that he was divine and increasingly assigned roles similar to
that people should address him as domi- those once performed by the regular
nus et deus (lord and god). However, he legions, working in small, highly mobile
did not at first feel the need to demon- detachments. The legions themselves,
strate the godlike control over human life which were based in permanent camps,
that he later exhibited. That changed in had grown less mobile. Domitian contin-
89 CE, when Saturninus, the Roman ued these policies and used native This fresco from
commander on the Rhine, initiated a detachments to good effect in Britain, Pompeii shows the
rebellion by declaring himself princeps. along the Rhine and Danube rivers, and goddess Venus
The emperor swiftly crushed the revolt on the eastern frontier. fishing.The ruined
in a bloodbath. Under three successive governors city is a main source
After the uprising, Domitian trusted between 71 and 84 CE, Romes frontiers of information
no one. He kept delatores (informers) in the half-conquered land of Britain about Roman
busy looking for conspiracies, and in the were pushed out into what are now painting.
senatorial order, nobodys life was safe.
Anyone voicing opposition to the
emperor was summarily executed. Do-
mitian himself became paranoid, fearing
attack even in the safety of his own
palace. It was said that he put up mirrors
in every room so he could always see
who was behind him.
Even the emperors mirrors could not
protect him, however. In 96 CE, he
became the victim of the conspiracy he
had always feared. Domitians wife paid a
slave to assassinate him, and the emperor
was stabbed to death while he was study-
ing a report on a plot to kill him. After
his death, the relieved senate declared
him damnatio memoriae (damned in mem-
ory), and his reign was struck from the
record. His name was also removed from
all public buildings.
Military accomplishments
Domitians military accomplishments
were unquestionable. Under his rule, the
borders of the empire had been strength-
ened and, in some cases, extended. He
had also continued the military reforms
initiated by Vespasian.To avoid a repeat of
the events of 69 CE, when the Batavian
105

ANCIENT ROME
Wales, northern England, and parts of

Scotland. Domitian garrisoned three
legions in the extended province.
In 74 CE, Vespasian had taken over
territory between the Rhine and the
Danube. Domitian built extensive fortifi-
cations along the new border. He also
turned the military regions of Upper and
Lower Germany into regular provinces.
In 85 and 86 CE, the powerful
Dacian king Decebalus crossed the
Danube, invading Roman territory from
the north. Domitians legions halted the
advance of Decebalus in 88 CE, but the
next year, needing his troops to put
down Saturninuss rebellion, Domitian
broke off the conflict and negotiated a
treaty under which he paid an annual fee
to Decebalus, who in return undertook
to protect the lower Danube from bar-
barian attack.
In the east, Domitian completed the
development of miliary roads begun by
Vespasian in Anatolia. Domitian also kept
Judaea under control by settling perma- rather than a member of his own family, This first-century-CE
nent legions in the area and reinforced as his heir apparent. coin shows the
the Roman military presence along the Nerva nominated the Spanish officer emperor Domitian,
Euphrates River by establishing legion- Marcus Ulpius Trajanus (Trajan), who during whose reign
ary camps at major crossing points. commanded the troops in Upper Ger- it was struck. After
many.The action initiated a tradition that his death, Domitian
Nerva the emperor adopt a successor on the was declared
After the assassination of Domitian in 96 basis of ability rather than family ties.The damnatio
CE, the senate was quick to nominate new custom was to provide Rome with memoriae, and no
one of its own as princeps. The elderly what history has termed the good further memorials
senator Marcus Cocceius Nerva became emperors for the next century, during were created.
the first in a sequence of five rulers who which the principate flourished.
were called the Antonine emperors, after
their most outstanding representative, Trajan
Antoninus Pius. In 98 CE, only three months after nom-
Nerva was a good administrator inating Trajan as his successor, Nerva
whose attempts to solve social problems died. He was accorded the deification
made him popular with the citizens and now traditional for a fair and reasonable
senators. However, the army remained emperor.Trajan was serving in Germany
loyal to Domitian and insisted that any when he became emperor and clearly
conspirators implicated in his assassina- considered that his nomination by the
tion be executed. Eager to placate the senate was little more than a formality, as
army, and lacking any military prestige indeed proved to be the case. Trajan saw
himself, Nerva quickly adopted a soldier, no need to return to Rome until the
106

following year, when he had completed military ambition was to extend the
his mission. His decision was an indica- frontiers of the empire, and he was bril-
tion of the importance he attached to his liantly successful.
immediate task, his commitment to the One of Trajans greatest military
provinces, and the fact that he was not achievements was on the Danube. The
impressed by constitutional tradition Dacians had established a powerful em-
Trajan was careful, however, to retain pire in the Carpathian region under
the goodwill of the senate. As a provin- Decebalus. Trajan resented the annual
cial Spaniard, he was popular with the payments Rome made to the Dacians
increasingly numerous provincial sena- under the terms of Domitians treaty, in
tors. Meanwhile, his modest demeanor return for their policing efforts against
and lack of self-importance also endeared the aggressive Sarmatian tribes. Conflict
him to the aristocratic senators. Trajans between Rome and the Dacians flared
personality did much to allay the fear of again in 102103 CE. In a second hard-
terror and conspiracy that had permeat- fought war in 105106 CE,Trajans
ed Domitians court, and he was recog- forces built a massive stone
nized throughout Rome as an outstand- bridge to provide a cross-
ing ruler with high moral values. Once, ing point over the Dan-
when handing a sword to the command- ube. Roman legions
er of the Praetorian Guard, he is report- entered the Dacian
ed to have said, Use it against me if I capital, and the defeat-
neglect my duty, but use it to defend me ed Decebalus took his
if I perform my duty well. own life. All Dacians
who refused to surren-
Trajans government der were hunted down
In spite of his modesty, Trajan could be and killed.Trajans victory
autocratic. He intervened in the affairs of was one of the most dev-
the senate whenever he felt it necessary, astating campaigns in the
ruling with a group of advisers about history of Rome; it des-
whom little is known. He aimed to pro- troyed the Dacians as
mote public well-being, and he provided an ethnic group.
gladiatorial games to entertain Romes
citizens. He also sponsored public works,
such as new buildings in Rome and
improvements to harbors and roads
throughout Italy.The emperors financial
experts, the curatores, helped municipal
towns and, indeed, two provinces that
had gotten into financial difficulties. He
also made low-cost loans available to
farmers and used the interest to fund a
childrens charity.
This first-
Trajan the soldier century-CE bust
Throughout his life, Trajan remained shows Trajan, who,
primarily a soldier. He spent seven of his in 117 CE, brought
nineteen years as emperor in military the Roman Empire to
camps and died in an army tent. His its greatest extent.
107

ANCIENT ROME
Trajans Arch, built

in 114 CE by the
senate in honor of
the emperor, still
stands in Benevento
in central Italy.The
relief carvings on
the arch show
scenes from the
emperors life and
military campaigns.
To commemorate his victory, Trajan conquered Mesopotamia and sailed

erected a huge stone column in the new down the Tigris River to the Persian
forum he had just completed in Rome. Gulf. His campaigns had brought the
The column was decorated with reliefs empire to what would be its greatest
showing scenes from the campaign. In extent. However, fighting broke out as
the conquered province, the develop- Jews, Parthians, and other conquered
ment of a new dialect influenced by peoples rose in rebellion. Before he could
Latin was a powerful sign of the obliter- quell these insurrections, Trajan died on
ation of Dacia.The new language was to campaign in Syria in 117 CE. After his
become, in time, Romanian. death, he was routinely deified.
Trajan continued his conquests, an-
nexing the kingdom of Arabia and the Hadrian
buffer state of Armenia and invading Trajan died without nominating an heir.
Parthia in 114 CE. By 116 CE, he had However, his widow claimed that on his
108

This detail from the

reliefs on Trajans
Column shows
Roman soldiers
being attacked by
Dacians in 106 CE.
THE JEWISH REBELLIONS

Ever since the Romans had annexed Judaea in 6 small Roman garrison.The rebellion spread like
CE, they had found the Jews a difficult people to wildfire throughout Judaea.Vespasian, at that
comprehend.They worshipped only one god, of time one of Neros generals, was dispatched to
whom they were not allowed to make any put an end to the uprising. Before he could do
statues, and they fanatically refused to worship so, political events at home intervened.The
the Roman emperor as a god. For much of the insurrection was finally ended by Vespasians son
time, the Romans dealt leniently with the Jews Titus in 70 CE, when he besieged the city of
and did not interfere with their religion. Jerusalem and reduced it to ruins. Most of the
inhabitants were massacred, and those who
The Jews were divided into two main groups. survived were enslaved.
The Sadducees came from the upper classes and
did not take their religion too seriously.The Some 60 years later, in 131 CE, the Jews
other main group consisted of the Pharisees, rebelled again.This revolt was caused by the
who practiced an orthodox form of Judaism and emperor Hadrians misguided attempt to
were firmly opposed to Roman rule and assimilate the Jews into Roman culture.The Jews
influence.The Pharisees were not, however, took up arms under Bar Kochba, and the
interested in violent action, unlike the Zealots, ensuing war lasted for three years.The Romans
who took up arms against the occupying power. eventually put down the insurrection with great
ferocity.When order was finally restored, the
Things came to a head in 66 CE, when the survivors were scattered throughout the
inhabitants of Jerusalem, inflamed by Roman empire. Judaea lost its name and was henceforth
oppression, rose in revolt and massacred the called Syria Palestina.
Caption text to fit
109

excellent administrator. He abandoned
his predecessors aggressive territorial
policies and renounced the regions
that Trajan had recently conquered
in the east. Instead of attempting to
expand the empire, Hadrian implement-
ed a policy of protecting its existing
frontiers, which made for a more peace-
ful regime.
Hadrian set up strong fortifications to
defend the borders of the empire. The
most famous example was Hadrians Wall
in Britain. The tall stone wall, much of
which still stands, ran along the top of a
mound protected by a ditch and incor-
porated forts at regular intervals.The wall
stretched right across northern Britain
and cut off the Picts of Scotland from
Roman territory to the south. Hadrian
built a similar fortified border between
Germany and Raetia.
The only heavy fighting during
Hadrians reign came in Judaea. When
the emperor founded a Roman colony
in Jerusalem in 131 CE, the outraged
Jews rebelled under their leader Bar
Kochba. A war followed that lasted until
134 CE (see box, page 109).
Service under Hadrian

To ensure the empire was adequately
garrisoned, Hadrian kept his legions and
auxiliaries at full strength. He recruited
local troops, in contrast to Vespasians
practice of moving auxiliaries away from
Trajans Column rises deathbed he had adopted Publius Aelius their homelands. The distinction be-
100 feet (30.5 m) Hadrianus, his closest male relative and tween auxiliary and legionnaire became
above the ruins of the governor of Syria. Mainly on the blurred, as auxiliaries were increasingly
Trajans Forum in strength of this claim, Trajans soldiers assimilated into the legions. The army
Rome.The column nominated Hadrian, another nonaristo- also became less influenced by class.
features a spiral cratic Spaniard, as the new emperor. Officers were sometimes appointed from
band of reliefs Hadrian informed the senate of this the equites class rather than, as before,
illustrating scenes decision but did not seek to have his only from the senatorial class. To keep
from the emperors nomination endorsed. His lack of con- the army in a state of readiness, Hadrian
campaign against cern about the senate was an indication toured the empire to inspect the legions
the Dacians. of how weak it had become. and introduced new field exercises to
Hadrian was a civilian rather than a improve maneuvers. He visited all the
soldier and is best remembered as an provinces and virtually every city, often
110

making suggestions about how things Antinous. Together they took a trip
might be improved. down the Nile, where the youth fell
Hadrian also employed many equites overboard and drowned. The grief-
in the imperial administration. He abol- stricken emperor had Antinous deified
ished the requirement that they perform and, as a memorial, founded a city in
military service, making it possible for Egypt named Antinoupolis.
them to follow civilian careers as bureau- Hadrian suffered from dark moods in
crats. Equites began to replace freedmen his later years, plagued by ill health and
in posts in the imperial household and frustrated by his search for a suitable heir.
even appeared on the emperors advisory Having executed his young grandson in
council.This encroachment on functions 136 CE, on suspicion of being involved
traditionally reserved for members of the in a plot, Hadrian had no other male rel-
senatorial class, coupled with the fact that ative. He had adopted Lucius Ceonius
Hadrian gave the senate no say in the Commodus, a man in his 30s with a
affairs of state, was deeply resented by the profligate lifestyle, but Ceonius died soon
senate and cost him much support. after. Hadrian, close to death himself,
adopted the senator Titus Aelius An-
Hadrians private life toninus in 138 CE. At the same time,
In his private life, Hadrian dabbled in Hadrian stipulated that Antoninus in
astrology and wrote poetry; his practice turn adopt the 18-year-old Marcus Hadrians Wall
of not shaving made beards a new fash- Aurelius (nephew of Antoninuss wife) stretched 73 miles
ion in Rome. He had an enormous villa and Lucius Verus (son of Ceonius). (117.5 km) across
built for himself at Tivoli, just outside northern Britain,
Rome, which broke all the architectural Antoninus Pius with forts at regular
rules of the time. On his travels, he be- Antoninus was 51 years old when he intervals for the
came enamored of a young man named succeeded. One of Hadrians reasons for Roman garrisons.

ANCIENT ROME
of his reign, Antoninus remained in

Rome, unlike Hadrian. Also unlike his
predecessor, Antoninus maintained good
relations with the senate. In 148 CE,
he ordered spectacular celebrations to
mark the 900th anniversary of the tradi-
tional founding of Rome.
Antoninus was deified by the Senate
on his death in 161 CE. Marcus Aurelius
wrote of him: My predecessor and
adoptive father, Antoninus Pius, was a
model of simplicity and perseverance, of
disdain for hollow words, of diligence
and resolve. He respected the rights
of all. I learned from him to serve
humankind unselfishly.
Marcus Aurelius
Marcus Aurelius was just past 40 when
he inherited the empire, and he set out
to follow his predecessors example by
serving it unselfishly. Although he aimed
to rule benignly over a peaceful people,
he was forced to spend much of his time
on campaign repelling various border
incursions. The unhappy but dutiful
emperor, who was a follower of Stoic
philosophy, asked himself in his
Meditations: Are you satisfied, having
done what nature demands of you, as if
the eye would expect payment for look-
ing and the foot a wage for walking?
One of Aureliuss first acts as emperor
This statue of nominating him was the expectation that was to make Lucius Verus co-emperor.
Antoninus Pius, the senator would soon die, leaving the When the Parthians grew more threat-
created in the throne open for Marcus Aurelius. In fact, ening in the east,Aurelius sent Verus with
second century CE, Antoninus lived another 23 years. He an army under the command of the
shows the emperor persuaded the senate (with some difficul- Syrian Avidius Cassius to deal with the
making a gesture of ty) to deify Hadrian, and his efforts are situation. Cassius, with little help from
allocution, as if he said to have earned him the name Verus, secured the imperial borders and
were making a Antoninus Pius (Antoninus the Pious). client kingdoms in the east by 166 CE.
formal speech. Antoninuss peaceful reign was dis- When the army returned to Rome,
turbed only by occasional border raids. however, it brought the plague with it.
The emperors only exercises in territo- The disease then raged unchecked
rial expansion were to advance the throughout the empire for years. The
empires frontiers in Britain (where the epidemic greatly sapped Roman morale.
Antonine Wall marked the new bound- Among other signs of a growing weak-
ary), Dacia, and the Rhineland. For most ness at the heart of the empire were
112

In this carving
created around
180 CE in Rome,
defeated barbarians
beg for mercy from
the emperor Marcus
Aurelius.
recurring incursions by migrating to finish the campaign. It took Aurelius

Germanic peoples along the frontiers six more years to push the invaders back
and even into northern Italy. across the Danube and restore peace to
Aurelius and Verus managed to fight the region. In 175 CE, Cassius heard a
off the Germans, but in 169 CE, Verus rumor that Aurelius had died. Cassius
died, possibly of a stroke, leaving Aurelius declared himself emperor in the east.The
113

ANCIENT ROME
This marble bust Government in the provinces

is a contemporary During the first two centuries CE, the
portrait of Marcus Roman Empire enjoyed an unprece-
Aurelius. dented period of prosperity and peace.
Large areas in the west and north were
economically developed for the first time,
and Roman roads and portsand
Roman garrisons and warshipsensured
that trading could take place safely from
one end of the Mediterranean to the
other.
This large empire was administered
by provincial governors, assisted by a ret-
inue of officials.The tasks of the governors
included the collection of taxes, the main-
tenance of law and order, and the
administration of justice. In this
last capacity, the governors
visited all the cities in their
provinces to act as judges
in trials.A governor was
paid a salary, but there
were various legiti-
mate ways in which
he could supple-
ment his income. If
he had been com-
mander of an army, for
example, he had the right
to confer Roman citizen-
shipa valuable commodity
that was often for sale.
Provincial life
Many of the provincial cities had muni-
rumor of Aureliuss death was mistaken, cipal status, which allowed them virtual
but the rebellion Cassius had begun last- self rule. These cities were ruled by a
ed for two years, until he was murdered town council of magistrates, elected by
by his own troops. the people. The magistrates received no
While Aureliuss attention was fo- payment for their services. On the con-
cused on the east, Germanic peoples trary, they were expected to give a huge
once more threatened the Danube public banquet when they were nomi-
border. Returning to central Europe, nated and to provide charity to the pop-
Aurelius barely had time to resecure the ulation out of their own pockets.
border before he died in Vindobona Consequently, they tended to be mem-
(present-day Vienna) in 180 CE. The bers of a wealthy aristocracy.
empire was left to Aureliuss 19-year-old Throughout the provinces, Roman
son, Commodus. language (Latin) and culture became the
114

norm.The army played a significant role The legions camps soon grew into
in the process of Romanizing the towns, which in turn became centers
empire. Legions were stationed in per- where farmers and traders from the sur-
manent encampments throughout the rounding area could come to trade their
provinces to maintain order. The 6,000 goods. Legionnaires also contributed to
or so men who made up each legion the development of a region by building
lived with their families in simple huts, roads and bridges, digging canals, and
either inside or near to the camp. After draining marshes, activities introduced by
completing a term of 16 years, all legion- the emperors to keep the army occupied
naires were entitled to a bounty in the during times of peace. Such examples of
form of either a sum of money or a farm. the Roman lifestyle appealed to many
Many chose the farm and became per- people and encouraged immigration into
manent citizens of the province in which the Roman provinces.
they had served. A large number of them
also married local women and started See also:
families, becoming assimilated into The Edges of the Empire (page 126) The
provincial society. Julio-Claudian Emperors (page 84)
A Germanic warrior
blows a lur horn
during a battle
against the Romans.
This detail comes
from the
sarcophagus of the
emperor Hostilian,
who died in 251 CE.
115

DAILY LIFE
IN ROME
or the poorer citizens, life in ancient Rome could be extremely
TIME LINE
c. 600 BCE
F brutal. To distract the poor from their hardships, Romes rulers
organized lavish entertainments. Among the most popular
First horse races entertainments were gladiatorial contests and chariot races.
take place at Circus
Maximus.
Life in ancient Rome was a lot harsher narrow streets of Rome by day, which
246 BCE
for some sectors of society than for oth- made getting around difficult. The
First recorded
gladiatorial contests
ers.There is no doubt that rich Romans wealthy Romans, carried in sedan chairs,
held at funeral of lived a life of luxury in well-built, airy forced their way through the throng.
Brutus Pera. houses that were heated in winter and The worst chaos was on the famous
cool in summer. Rich Romans enter- Argiletum, where Romans congregated
217 BCE
tained their friends at dinner parties and to do their daily shopping. Located
Ludi magni
first held. soirees and were waited on by slaves. between the forum and the Tiber River,
Many rich Romans also had villas in the there was a large and thriving trading
60 BCE countryside, so they could escape from district. All kinds of goods, brought by
Publius Clodius the heat of summer. river from the harbor town of Ostia,
Pulcher introduces
free grain supply It was a different story for the citys were bought and sold. Artisans and
for urban poor. poorer inhabitants.They were crammed craftsmen had their own district, where
into the working-class residential areas, shoemakers, wool merchants, barbers,
55 BCE
the narrow, noisome streets which were smiths, flaxworkers, and others worked
Romes first
permanent stone
lined with ramshackle apartment build- side by side. Those people who were
theater built on ings put up by speculators. It was here engaged in the same trade joined togeth-
orders of Pompey. that the ordinary Roman had his small, er in a collegium (see box, page 118), an
80 CE
dark apartment, separated from his early form of a trade guild.
neighbors by the flimsiest of walls. It was
Colosseum
completed during not unusual for a building to collapse, Bread and circuses
reign of Titus. and because the Romans used earthen- The teeming mass of people constituted
ware stoves for cooking and heating and a potential hotbed of disaffection and
216 CE
oil lamps for light, fires were a common disorder, and to appease them, the
Baths of Caracalla
open in Rome. occurrence. When a fire broke out, the authorities laid on plenty of entertain-
fire brigade (founded by the emperor ment. The poet Juvenal (c. 55140 CE)
325 CE Augustus) was mobilized, but because said that all that the Roman populace
Emperor water had to be carried by bucket from wanted was panem et circenses (bread and
Constantine I bans
gladiatorial
the Tiber River, it was often impossible circuses). For generations, the Roman
contests; they to extinguish the fire completely. Instead, emperors gave them both. Even in the
continue illegally. the fire would simply be contained until time of the republic, officials tried to win
it burned itself out. popularity with grain handouts, enor-
In the earliest days of the empire, mous spectacles, and huge public sport-
around a million citizens crowded the ing events.
116

DAILY LIFE IN ROME
The practice of making distributions The grim life of the poor in Rome This Roman dice set
of grain was made necessary by the fact could also be enlivened by public specta- is made out of bone.
that the urban poor had very little regu- cles, and the typical Roman year offered Gambling with
lar work, owing to the limited opportu- ample opportunities for celebration. dice was a popular
nities open to them in commerce and Some of the festivities dated as far back pastime in
industry.The custom took various forms as the time of the kings and were men- ancient Rome.
over the centuries. In the second centu- tioned in the calendar of the legendary
ry BCE, the tribune Gaius Gracchus King Numa Pompilius. Other festivities
arranged for grain to be sold at fixed low had been instituted by the people to
prices. In 60 BCE, Publius Clodius appease the gods in difficult times.
Pulcher organized a system of free hand- The popular ludi magni (big games)
outs. This practice was continued by the dated from the year 217 BCE, when
emperors as a way of pacifying their the Carthaginian leader Hannibal had
poorest subjects. threatened Romes existence. Games
117

ANCIENT ROME
honoring Caesar and Augustus were

instituted by their successors, and in
the era of the emperors, new celebrations
were added continually. In the second
and third centuries CE, the Roman year
included almost as many holidays as
working days.
Each district had its own guardian
spirit, and its altar was the focal point of
the annual festivities organized by the
local residents in its honor.These festivals
grew so out of hand that the state had to
create rules to regulate them. The gov-
ernment also had to establish rules for
the festivities organized by the collegia of
the various trades. When these festivities
fell too close together, they could cause
mayhem. On the ninth of June, for
example, the collegium of millers and bak-
ers held its celebrations, while on the
thirteenth, the collegium of musicians held
its equivalent. In both festivities, the
drunken participants wandered through
the streets creating havoc.
This relief from

a sarcophagus
depicts a shoemaker
COLLEGIA
at work.
The collegium was an early form of The brotherhood appointed a new
trade guild that functioned primarily chairman every five years. His duties
as a social club. However, collegia were not onerous. He had to
also provided other services for supervise the affairs of the club and
their members. For example, organize a meeting of the members
records found in Lavinium show six times a year. Every two months,
that one of the main objects of the the members met up to attend a
Brotherhood of Diana and Antinous drunken feast.
was to ensure that its members
received a decent burial. Some brotherhoods also became
involved in local politics. Graffiti on
Each member of the brotherhood a wall in the city of Pompeii reads,
paid a joining fee of 20 gold pieces We dont want any Egyptian
and an amphora of good wine. judges. This message may refer
Thereafter, he paid an annual to a brotherhood devoted to the
subscription of 3 gold pieces. In Egyptian goddess Isis, some of
return, the brotherhood provided a whose members had put themselves
funeral for 60 gold pieces. forward for the city council.
118

DAILY LIFE IN ROME
The blood games

Of all the public spectacles, the blood
games were the most popular. There
were three main types of combat: man to
man, in which gladiators fought each
other; man to animal, in which wild
animals were brought out to fight
gladiators; and animal to animal.
All these games were held in an
amphitheater, in which the audi-
ence sat in tiered rows around an
arena, where the action took place.
Gladiatorial combat had a reli-
gious background. The Etruscan
people, who lived on the Italian
Peninsula before the Romans, had
organized fights to the death
between prisoners of war at the funer-
als of prominent men. The victims were
intended as human sacrifices to the dead.
When the Romans adopted this
practice around the third century BCE,
the fights developed into a bloody spec-
tator sport, a new and extremely popular
form of mass entertainment. Schools ing whether they wanted him to live or This mosaic from
were founded to train the gladiators, and die by motioning with their thumbs. It is the second century
the games organizers could order par- believed that if the crowd turned their CE depicts a
ticular gladiators from these schools for thumbs down, the defeated man would gladiator killing a
special performances. Originally, the be spared. However, if the audience panther. Fights
combatants were prisoners of war, con- turned their thumbs up, it was an indica- between humans
victed criminals, or slaves rented or sold tion that he should die. The victor and animals
to the schools. Some of the gladiators received tumultuous applause and was were common in
were volunteers who were seeking rewarded with a cash prize. Occasionally, Roman arenas.
excitement and adventure or the riches a after a series of wins, a gladiator might
successful combatant could gain, despite be set free, to live on his earnings for the
the fact that most gladiators met a grisly rest of his life or become a trainer of
death in the arena. other gladiators.
The audiences enjoyed these exhibi- The average Roman saw nothing
tions, eagerly discussing the performanc- wrong with gladiatorial combat and
es of the combatants and placing bets on would even take his children to watch
their favorites. To add to the spectacle, the games, believing that it was a good
the gladiators were often dressed in strik- thing for children to be confronted with
ing costumes, perhaps in an expensive violence at an early age. Only a few
suit of armor or as Neptune with a net intellectuals were repelled by these exhi-
and trident. At the end of the fight, the bitions, because they found them boring
victor would sometimes keep his oppo- or thought them bad for the soul.
nent pinned to the ground while the Nobody pitied the gladiators themselves,
audience decided the losers fate, indicat- much less the animals.
119

given wooden sticks to defend them-
selves. Others were presented to starved
beasts of prey completely unarmed, or
even tied to a pole. The latter was often
the fate of Christians condemned to
death by the Roman authorities.
Chariot races
Another popular sport was chariot rac-
ing. Every city had its own racetrack, or
circus. The Circus Maximus, lying
between the Palatine and Aventine hills
in Rome, was used from around 600
BCE to the sixth century CE and was
famous throughout the empire. At the
height of its popularity, in the second
century CE, the Circus Maximus could
accommodate 250,000 spectators. The
arena was 1,850 feet (564 m) long and
280 feet (85 m) wide and was entirely
surrounded by three tiers of seats, except
for a stall at one end for horses and char-
iots. A low wall, called the spina (spine),
ran down the center of the arena, and
racing horses and chariots ran around it.
The chariot races were traditionally a
religious spectacle, dedicated to the gods.
Each race day in Rome started with a
solemn procession, in which statues of
the gods were carried around the race-
track, while the official who had organ-
ized the event dressed up as Jupiter. Each
This armor belonged The games gradually grew bigger and race, in which four or more chariots
to a type of more ambitious. Sometimes, whole bat- took part, consisted of seven laps. As
gladiator known tles were stagedeven mock naval bat- many as 24 races could be held in a day.
as a secutor.The tles in a flooded arena or on an artificial Each driver wore the colors of the circus
secutor usually lake. These mock naval battles and the school or party to which his horses
fought against a games involving exotic animals were the belonged. These colors were originally
retiarius, who was most expensive to stage. green, blue, red, and white, but under the
armed with a trident Games involving animals took many later emperors, only green and blue were
and a net. different forms. There were fights used. The audience was divided into
between odd combinations of animals groups of supporters for each color. Even
for example, between a bear and a rhi- the emperor picked a team.
noceros, or a wild ox and a lion. There The chariots were usually pulled by
were also hunts, where trained hunters four horses. The driver, who was gener-
downed wild animals with arrows and ally a young freedman, was strapped to
spears. Animals were also pitted against his horses, and if he fell, he had to cut the
humans. Some convicted criminals were straps if he was to survive. The chariots
120

DAILY LIFE IN ROME
often crashed into each other, and

injuries and fatal accidents were com- THE BATHS
mon. The drivers hung amulets around
their necks and on their horses for luck Roman cities were dirty, dusty, and hot, so, like their
and used incantations to summon Greek equivalents, the Roman authorities built public
demons against their opponents. The baths for their citizens.The baths soon developed into
emperor was always present at the races, community centers, where people met socially, bathed,
to receive the cheers of the crowd and to swam, had massages, or performed gymnastic exercises.
show that he enjoyed the same sport as There were even opportunities for study, because there
his people. was often a well-stocked library in the bath complex.
The theater The baths found at Pompeii, which date from around 75
During the days of the empire, theaters BCE, included the extensive dressing rooms and the
existed right alongside the circuses and cold, warm, and hot baths that were typical of that era.
the amphitheaters. Theaters could also Far more magnificent were the huge, marble-lined
accommodate large numbers of people, and vaulted Baths of Caracalla, completed in Rome in
216 CE.They could accommodate 1,600 bathers and
This fresco depicts a chariot race. Chariot provided swimming pools, exercise facilities, lounges,
races were popular forms of entertainment and lecture halls.
from the early days of the republic onward.
121

DAILY LIFE IN ROME
The Baths of Caracalla, among the largest with which they were familiar.Theatrical
and most spectacular baths in the Roman performances consisted of endless
Empire, were completed in 216 CE. repeats, which the public watched in
order to compare the talents of the
but the masses were more interested in actors.To add interest, directors increased
the delights of the arena than those of the the role of the chorus, and the sung
stage. While Greek theaters had been textthe canticumbegan to overshad-
built into hillsides, Roman theaters were ow the rest of the play. Eventually, the
freestanding. The earliest examples were spoken text was abandoned altogether in
temporary wooden structures; anything favor of mime, and the leading actor per-
more permanent was considered unnec- formed the play without words, to the
essarily extravagant. accompaniment of music and the can-
The first permanent Roman theater ticum. It was from these origins that opera
was built in 55 BCE on the orders of and ballet later developed.
Pompey. To justify the expense of the Another popular form of theater was
theaters construction, Pompey erected a the tragedy, particularly that of the
temple in the theater and dedicated it first-century-CE playwright and Stoic
to his patron goddess, Venus Victrix. philosopher Seneca.The characters in his
Pompey filled his theater and its gardens plays tended to have introspective natures
with artifacts looted from Greece, creat- and to exhibit Stoic fatalism (see box,
ing a monument both to Roman might page 125). His tragedies were written in
and to his own achievements. verse, and the plots were adapted from This detail from an
There was little original Roman Greek legends. The plays were revived actors sarcophagus
writing for the theater. Audiences were during the Renaissance and influenced depicts two
more interested in the traditional pieces later European drama. tragic masks.
123

ANCIENT ROME
Wealthy Romans Poetry priestsnot perhaps the best experts to

lived in great luxury. The rich and educated Romans spent assess poetry. Little is known about any
This villa at Pompeii much of their free time attending recitals prize-winning poets, but Florus, a poet
once belonged to a of poetry and prose. According to Pliny who published several small works in the
successful merchant. the Younger, such events could be time of Hadrian, was once refused a
extremely boring. He recorded that the prize.The audience revered him most of
year 97 CE brought us a fine crop of all, he recorded, but the emperor did not
poets. During the month of April we had want to reward Florus because he was
a reading by one or other poet almost not a pure Roman.
every day. Most of the invited guests stay
in the foyer, chatting, and only go in Education
toward the end, hoping against hope that Education was generally reserved for the
the author has finished. sons of upper-class families. Some sons
Poetry competitions were held occa- were sent to school, although Roman
sionally in Rome and in other cities. schools, often run by discharged soldiers
The panel of judges usually consisted of trying to make a living, were not very
124

DAILY LIFE IN ROME
STOICISM
Stoicism was the most influential school of fate brings, free of all emotions such as passion
philosophy in Rome during the first and second or grief, or even joy.This calm acceptance
centuries CE. It played a crucial role in the constitutes wisdom, one of the four virtues
development of the concept of natural law that of Stoicism, along with courage, justice,
underlay all Roman legal theory. and temperance.
The school of Stoicism was founded by the It was perhaps the cosmopolitan nature of
Greek philosopher Zeno of Citium, who lived in Stoicism that made it attractive to the Romans,
the fourth and third centuries BCE.The Stoics given their vast empire. Because all beings are
were primarily concerned with the study of seen as manifestations of a single universal
ethics.They believed that to live in accordance spirit, they should live in a state of equality.
with nature or reason is to live in accordance Race and rank are merely external differences
with the divine order of the universe. that should be of no importance in genuine
Because everything that happens is the result of social relationships. Among the most important
divine will or, in any case, is outside ones Roman Stoics were the statesman Cato the
control, a person should calmly accept whatever Younger and the emperor Marcus Aurelius.
impressive. There were few books, and This Roman fresco depicts a musician
those were very expensive, so most playing a cithara, a musical instrument
learning was done by rote. Apart from similar to a lyre.
the basic skills of reading and writing, lit-
tle else was taught.
Wealthy families often engaged an
educated slave who was familiar with
literature and philosophy to teach their
sons. Such teachers were known as ped-
agogues.
The writings of Virgil, Lucan, and
Horace were important texts for pupils
in the emperor Vespasians day, while
Greek masters would place great empha-
sis on Homer and Menander. The study
of these great writers was usually as far as
education went. However, some older
pupils might go on to a school of rheto-
ric, where they would be taught the art
of public speaking, together with some
history, which would be useful in politi-
cal debate.
See also:
The Edges of the Empire (page 126)
Revolution and Reform (page 44)
125

THE EDGES OF THE
EMPIRE
y the early second century CE, the Roman Empire covered the
TIME LINE
190 BCE
B entire Mediterranean world. While some of the peoples who
lived outside the boundaries of this area were enemies of Rome,
Seleucid emperor others were valued trading partners.
Antiochus III
defeated by Roman
force at Magnesia The Roman Empire reached its greatest den of an expensive military campaign;
ad Sipylum. extent during the reign of the emperor they were also not keen to allow their
146 BCE Trajan, who ruled between 98 and 117 generals to gain personal glory from
Carthage destroyed CE. By the time of Trajans death, the such conquests.
by Roman army; empire stretched from the borders of Generally, the Romans had only scant
Carthaginian Scotland in the northwest to the upper knowledge of the tribes of northern
territory becomes
Roman province
Nile in the southeast.While the Romans Europe beyond the Roman frontier. One
of Africa. ruled confidently over the territories exception to this rule was the Roman
they had conquered and annexed, they historian Tacitus (c. 56120 CE).Tacitus
63 BCE
knew comparatively little about the thought highly of the Germanic tribes
Pompey the Great regions beyond their borders. The little and believed they exhibited some of the
extends eastern
frontier by information that did reach the Romans ancient Roman virtues, such as simplici-
annexing Syria. suggested that this hinterland was a hos- ty of lifestyle, personal fidelity, and great
tile and threatening place.The tribes that bravery. According to Tacitus, the
30 BCE
inhabited the areas around the edges of Germans were as yet unspoiled by the
Augustus annexes
Egypt. the empire often harassed the Roman decadence of the civilized world.
frontier, which had to be permanently Tacituss view of German life was far
9 CE garrisoned to keep out the enemy. removed from reality, however. Most
Roman army groups lived in great poverty and were
destroyed at Battle Europe
of Teutoburg Forest;
constantly involved in local wars. They
defeat brings Although a small number of important elected a leader or king only in times of
end to Roman provinces were added in the years that great emergency, when a warrior was
involvement in followed, the broad extent of the Roman lifted on a shield in a meeting of free
northern Germany.
Empire had been established by the time men.The power of these leaders depend-
117 CE of the death of the emperor Augustus in ed largely on their success in battle.
Roman Empire 14 CE. Augustus had suggested that his Those who led their people into the rich
reaches greatest successors should not attempt to extend border territories of the Romans seem to
extent under Trajan. the empire further, and the emperors of have acquired enormous prestige, even-
c. 122 CE the first century CE generally followed tually making their kingships hereditary.
Construction of this advice. In Europe, the Rhine and
Hadrians Wall Danube rivers were regarded as natural Hadrians Wall, built in northern Britain
begins in boundaries, and the Romans rarely tried around 122 CE to keep the Picts out of the
northern Britain.
to conquer the areas beyond them. Most southern region controlled by the Romans,
emperors did not want the financial bur- marked the physical frontier of the empire.
126

ANCIENT ROME
THE ROMAN EMPIRE AND NEIGHBORING PEOPLES
Picts
Eburacum
BRITAIN
Celts
Germanic Peoples
Celts
Lugdunum Mediolanum
DACIA
k Sea
GAUL PANNONIA Blac
THRACE
Byzantium
Rome Adrianople
ANATOLIA Parthians
SPAIN
Carrhae
Antioch
SYRIA
Carthage Palmyra
Me
dit Ctesiphon
AFRICA e r ra
ne an S
ea
Leptis Magna Alexandria

Berbers
ARABIA
EGYPT
Re
d
Se
SAHARA DESERT
Nubians a
Mero
KEY The Germanic tribes of central- pletely managed to stop the Picts from
northern Europe were migrants and had raiding south of the wall.
Roman Empire at displaced the Celts who had inhabited
height of its power
in 117 CE the territory previously. The Celts were The eastern border
spread all over western Europe, including On its eastern border, the Roman
Major battle Gaul and the northern Roman province Empire rarely extended beyond the
of Britain. Here, in the extreme north, in Euphrates River into Mesopotamia. On
a region called Caledonia (present-day the other side of the river lay the territo-
Scotland) lived a warlike people known ry of the Parthians. Divided into small,
to the Romans as the Picts. Around 122 patriarchal groups, the Parthians had
CE, the emperor Hadrian built a fortified lived for centuries in what is now north-
wall across the country to keep the Picts eastern Iran.They lived peacefully under
out. However, the Romans never com- the Persian and the early Seleucid kings
128

THE EDGES OF THE EMPIRE
(see box, page 130) until around 250 up Mesopotamia and made peace with
BCE, when a neighboring people, the the Parthians.Toward the end of the sec-
Bactrians, rebelled against their Seleucid ond century CE, the Parthians suffered
overlords. Soon afterward, the Parthian another heavy defeat at the hands of the
king Arsaces succeeded in gaining in- Romans, when the emperor Septimius
dependence from the Seleucids and Severus annexed the north of Meso-
extending his territory to the southwest. potamia to the Roman Empire, again
Over the next 200 years, the reducing Ctesiphon to ruins.
Parthians profited from the weakening of The Parthians never really recovered
the Seleucid Empire by increasing their from these blows, largely due to the weak
own power. Eventually, the Parthians political organization of their empire. In
controlled all of ancient Persia and spirit, they had always remained a
Mesopotamia. In 63 BCE, when Pompey nomadic people and did not feel per-
the Great created the Roman province manently rooted in the lands of
of Syria out of the remnants of the Mesopotamia and Persia. Around 230
Seleucid Empire, the Parthians became CE, their empire finally collapsed when
Romes neighbors and rivals. They Persians from the south rebelled against
remained so for the next 300 years. Parthian rule. The Parthian dynasty was
Between 114 and 117 CE, the Roman replaced by a new family of Persian
emperor Trajan mounted a huge expedi- rulers, called the Sassanid dynasty. Intent
tion to the east and succeeded in con- on restoring the old Persian Empire, the
quering the whole of Mesopotamia. In Sassanids continued the centuries-old
the process, he destroyed the Parthian cap- war against Rome with renewed energy,
ital Ctesiphon. Trajan died before he but the decades of strife that followed
could consolidate his gains, however, and only led to the chronic weakening of
his successor, the emperor Hadrian, gave both empires.
These pyramids are

located at Mero,
the ancient capital
of Nubia, a kingdom
that lay to the south
of Egypt.
129

ANCIENT ROME
THE SELEUCIDS Egypt and Nubia

When Augustus defeated the Egyptian
The Seleucid dynasty was founded in the late fourth queen Cleopatra at the Battle of Actium
century CE by Seleucus I, a former general in the army in 31 BCE, he moved swiftly to annex
of Alexander the Great. By the time of his death in 281 the whole of Egypt as a Roman
BCE, Seleucus had succeeded in conquering Anatolia, province. By doing so, he inherited the
Babylonia, Assyria, Parthia, Bactria, and a number of Egyptians rivalry with the Nubians, a
other areas of Asia that had formerly been part of the warlike desert people who inhabited part
Macedonian Empire. However, over the next half of what is present-day Sudan. The
century, the dynasty suffered from constant disputes Nubians had been intermittent enemies
over the succession, which weakened the empire to of the Egyptians for centuries. By
such an extent that it lost eastern Iran and the greater Augustuss time, they had become formi-
part of Anatolia. In 223 BCE, a new, energetic king, dable opponents. The Nubian Empire,
Antiochus III, came to the throne. He made determined centered around the city of Mero,
efforts to recover control of the provinces in the east shared many cultural elements with that
and to expand his territory in the west. However, when of the ancient Egyptian pharaohs. At the
he came up against the power of Rome, he was driven time of the Roman annexation, the
back and defeated in 190 BCE. Nubian queen was constantly harassing
the Egyptian border, sending warrior
Antiochus was succeeded by Seleucus IV, who inherited bands to raid southern Egypt.
an empire that stretched from east of the Persian Gulf Because Rome depended on grain
to Syria and Phoenicia in the west. By 140 BCE, supplies from Egypt, Augustus sent an
however, the whole region east of Syria had fallen to expeditionary force to defeat the
the Parthians. Pompeys annexation of Syria in 63 BCE Nubians. The legions penetrated Nubia
brought the Seleucid Empire to an end. almost as far as Mero. The Romans set
up a garrison in the region to maintain
These ruins stand

in the city of
Ctesiphon, the
capital of the
Parthian Empire.
This palace was
built between the
third century CE
and the sixth
century CE by
successors of
the Parthians.
130

The Nile River,

shown here, flows
THE RICHES OF ARABIA through Egypt.The
province of Egypt
For centuries, the wealthy with India.The monsoon winds blew marked the
merchant cities of southern Arabia across the Indian Ocean in one southeast
occupied a pivotal position between direction for six months of the year boundary of the
the east and the west.The cities and in the reverse direction for the Roman Empire.
inhabitants owed their prosperity to other six months. Ships could take
the trade in Indian spices and their advantage of the change of wind
own desert products, such as direction and sail back and forth
incense. Particularly prosperous was across the vast ocean. Once this
the city of Aden. Merchants from secret was out, the inhabitants of
Egypt and Syria, with whom it southern Arabia lost their monopoly
traded, called the area around the on Indian trade. Southern Arabia
city Happy Arabia because of its retained its importance only as a
extensive irrigation works that supplier of incense, which was
allowed it to grow crops in a transported north by caravan via
region that was otherwise covered the old trading center of Mecca. As
in desert. Arabia declined, the irrigation
works around Aden fell into disuse.
Eventually, in the second century By the Middle Ages, the area was
BCE, the Egyptians discovered the little different from the rest of the
secret of the Arabs maritime trade barren peninsula.
131

ANCIENT ROME
control over this southernmost outpost

FOEDERATI of the empire. Nevertheless, Roman
influence in Nubia remained minimal.
During the time of the Roman republic, the foederati
(designated allies) were tribes who were bound by Arabia and Africa
treaty to the Romans yet did not form official Roman At the same time that he mounted
colonies.They were allowed to maintain their own the expedition against the Nubians,
institutions and legal and state systems, but they had to Augustus sent an army into Arabia. The
supply soldiers for the Roman army on demand. campaign was a disaster, however. A
six-month march through the desert
In the third century CE, the empire was riddled with claimed many lives, and the survivors had
internal strife, and numerous tribes living on the to turn back before they could achieve
borders exploited the situation by invading the Roman their goals.
provinces. Although the invaders were often driven On the coast of northern Africa, the
back, the victories were never conclusive. Eventually, the Romans had conquered and destroyed
Romans decided to allow the invading tribes to settle in Carthage in the second century BCE.
the empire, on the condition that they accepted Roman The lands of the Carthaginian Empire
authority and provided troops to augment the army. had subsequently been annexed as the
This move brought peace to the borders, and the new Roman province of Africa. Roman
settlers acted as buffers against future attacks. power never extended far into the hin-
terland, however. Like the Carthaginians

before them, the Romans were satisfied

with the fertile regions on the African
coast. The Sahara Desert, just south of
the coastal rim, was a formidable barrier
that effectively put a stop to any further
expansion.
The Romans maintained good rela-
tions with the nomadic Berber people
who inhabited the region of present-day
Morocco and Algeria. Until the third
century CE, when unrest spread
throughout the empire, there was little to
disturb the peaceful life of the Romans
living in the rich coastal areas of north-
ern Africa. The many ruins of Roman
villas and cities in the region are a testa-
ment to its prosperity.
Asia
For several centuries, India was separated
from the Roman Empire by the land of
the Parthians. Egypt, however, engaged in
maritime trade with India from the late
second century BCE onward, and once
Egypt became a Roman province in 30
BCE, trade between Rome and India
grew. Many Roman coins have been
found on the coasts of India, suggesting
that trading contacts were frequent. India
offered spices such as cinnamon and nut-
meg, plus pearls, ivory, textiles, and exotic
animals. These goods were traded for it found ready buyers. A stream of mer- This statue was
Alexandrian glass, bronze kitchenware, chants with pack animals moved steadily found in the
and minted gold and silver coins. Imports from China to the foot of the Pamir wreckage of a
from India were always luxury items, Mountains, where their goods were Roman ship that
which were eagerly sought after by transferred to the hands of Persian and had sunk off the
wealthy, upper-class Roman citizens. Syrian merchants, who continued the coast of Tunisia.The
All that the Romans knew about journey to the west.This was the famous ship contained a
China was that it lay far to the east and Silk Road, which remained the only reg- number of works of
produced silk.Toward the end of the secular link between China and the west art that were being
ond century BCE, the Chinese had until the Middle Ages. transported to
established an overland trading route that Roman villas in
would carry their silk to the west, where See also: northern Africa.
The Age of Augustus (page 72) The Decline
These Roman ruins stand in the Tunisian city of Rome (page 134) The Disintegration
of Dougga. Like much of northern Africa, of the Empire (page 148) Expanding the
Dougga was occupied by the Romans in the Empire (page 100) The Julio-Claudian
second century BCE. Emperors (page 84)
133

THE DECLINE
OF ROME
he rise of the emperor Commodus to the throne in 180 CE
TIME LINE
180 CE
T ushered in an unstable period of Roman history. The following
century saw a succession of short-reigning emperors, many of
Commodus becomes whom had to contend with rival claimants.
emperor on
death of father,
Marcus Aurelius. By the late second century CE, cracks summarily executed anyone he suspected
197 CE
had begun to appear in the Roman of plotting against him. He handed out
Septimius Severus
Empire. Commerce and industry were in the work of the empire to a collection of
ultimately proves decline, bringing urban decay and politi- his favorites, leaving himself free to enjoy
victorious after cal chaos. Agriculture, too, was deteri- the delights of Rome.
sale of title of orating, leading to poverty and unrest Commodus ignored his fathers for-
emperor leads to
civil war.
in the once-flourishing provinces. Re- eign policy, including plans to expand
newed invasions, civil war, and eco- the empire into central Europe. The
211 CE nomic ruin would all be factors in the frontiers held only because of the capable
Severus dies on eventual collapse of the empire. administration of the provincial gover-
campaign in Many of these problems were rooted nors and the settlement arrangements
Britain; his
son Caracalla in the era of the Antonine emperors, that Aurelius had made with the tribes
succeeds him. although that period itself had seemed to on the Danube.
be one of great prosperity. For nearly 100 The emperors particular hobby was
235 CE
years, each emperor had nominated a gladiatorial combat. Commodus loved to
Severus Alexander
killed in riot; non-relative as his successor. This system watch it and, even more, to take part in
Severan dynasty had generally proved to be successful. it. He would perform in the amphithe-
ends. The years of good government ended, ater dressed as Hercules, shooting or
251 CE however, when Marcus Aurelius nomi- clubbing to death wild animals. He made
Goths cross Danube
nated his young son, Commodus, to the senate officially recognize him as a
and defeat Decius. be emperor. god as a reward for these achievements.
Such behavior earned him many ene-
259 CE Commodus mies among the upper classes, and his
Legions in Gaul Commodus was nominally made co- disastrous rule was brought to an end
elect Marcus
Postumus emperor; emperor at age 16. He inherited the prematurely in 192 CE, when conspira-
Gallic Empire empire three and a half years later in 180 tors bribed his regular wrestling partner
established. CE. Marcus Aureliuss intention had to strangle him. On Commoduss death,
272 CE been to train Commodus for the posi- the senate declared him damnatio memori-
Aurelian defeats tion, but the young man seems to have ae, meaning that his reign was expunged
Queen Zenobias paid little attention to his lessons. Instead, from official records.
Palmyran forces and he was interested only in seeking his own
reclaims eastern pleasure. Once Commodus inherited the This mosaic depicting a gladiator was
provinces.
crown, he became extremely paranoid; found in Torre Nueva, a town in the Roman
he lived in constant fear for his life and province of Hispania (present-day Spain).
134

ANCIENT ROME
The empire for sale

The assassins of Commodus put forward
the 66-year-old Helvius Pertinax, the
prefect of Rome, as a candidate for
emperor, and he was accepted by the
senate. Pertinax made a good start to his
reign when he attempted to restore the
financial stability of the state by curb-
ing expenditure. He had no personal
wealth, however, and he incurred the
wrath of the Praetorian Guard because
of his inability to pay them the tribute
that was customary on an emperors
accession. They murdered him in
193 CE.
Titus Flavius Sulpicianus,
Pertinaxs father-in-law and a
wealthy senator, then offered
the Praetorians 20,000 ses-
terces each for the throne.
His colleague, the aging but
even more wealthy Didius
Julianus, outbid him, offering
each Praetorian 25,000 sester-
ces.The soldiers accepted the offer
and escorted Julianus to the senate,
which could do nothing but confirm
his nomination. The principate had
become a commodity to be bought
and sold.
The rise of Severus

When news of the sale of the princi-
pate reached the provinces, three power- gave Albinus the title of Caesar, which Pescennius Niger,
ful armies challenged the authority of was now used to designate the heir depicted here in a
Julianus, beginning the civil war of 193 apparent to the throne. This move made bust, was nominated
CE.The army nearest to Rome was that Albinus an ally, temporarily, at least. as emperor by his
situated on the Danube River, and it Then, in a brilliant campaign, Severus Syrian troops.
declared its commander, Septimius marched on Niger, dislodging him from However, he was
Severus, emperor in May. Severus entered his new conquests near the Black Sea defeated by his rival
Rome without opposition. The senate and finally defeating and killing him in Septimius Severus.
accepted him and, at the same time, con- 194 CE.
demned Julianus to death. Two years later, Albinus proclaimed
In Syria, the legate Pescennius Niger himself Augustus, a title that implied a
had been nominated as emperor by his share in imperial power. He proceeded to
troops, while in Britain, Clodius Albinus invade Gaul, where he met the army of
was nominated by his. In an attempt to Severus at Lugdunum (present-day Lyon,
neutralize part of the opposition, Severus France) in 197 CE. In a hard-fought
136

THE DECLINE OF ROME
battle, Severus proved victorious. Albinus Domna, whose father was ruler of the
was killed, leaving Severus as the undis- Syrian city of Emesa and high priest in
puted emperor. the temple of Baal (see box, page 140).
Julia was to exert great influence on her
First of the Severi husband and even rule the empire while
Severuss reign ushered in the short-lived he was at war.
dynasty of the Severi. The Severan Severus sought to exploit the popu-
emperors imposed what has been called larity of the Antonine emperors by
a military monarchy on the Roman declaring himself the adopted son of
Empire. The emperor dominated both Marcus Aurelius. He also named his eld-
the army and the senate and dictated all est son, later to be known as Caracalla,
new legislation. Severus himself had been Marcus Aurelius. However, the policies
born into an aristocratic provincial fami- Severus pursued were quite different
ly in the city of Leptis Magna, near from those of his popular predecessors.
Tripoli in northern Africa, and had held His focus was provincial rather than aris-
both political offices and military com- tocratic, and he never forgot that he
mand. In 180 CE, he had married Julia owed his position to the army of the
The Severan Arch

was built in the
Libyan town of
Leptis Magna
around 203 CE
in honor of the
emperor Septimius
Severus, who was
born in the town.
137

Work on the Baths Danube. Severus established a new social processes of the law, and he appointed a
of Caracalla was order dominated by equestrians (mem- famous jurist, Papinian, as Praetorian
begun during the bers of the mercantile middle class) and prefect and commissioned him to sys-
reign of Septimius opened both military and civilian careers temize the law, a move that gave Severus
Severus but finished to the lower classes. As for his faithful the opportunity to involve his office in
during the reign of Danube army, he placed his elite officers the administration of justice.
his son, whose name in charge of the Praetorian Guard and
they bear. enrolled three new legions under eques- Severus at war
trian command. He also added thou- Severus proved himself an energetic
sand-soldier auxiliary units to both the campaigner in foreign affairs. In the east,
infantry and the cavalry. the Parthians had supported Niger in the
The Severan revolution extended civil war, and after defeating his rival
throughout the administration. Severus claimant, Severus invaded Mesopotamia.
reduced the privileges of the peoples of However, he was soon called away to
the Italian Peninsula and increased those deal with Albinus in the west and had
of easterners and Africans, recruiting the to conclude a hasty peace with the
latter to government posts for the first Parthians. In the summer of 197 CE,
time. Severus had a keen interest in the Severus returned to the east to punish
138

THE DECLINE OF ROME
the Parthian king, who had attacked the empire had equal status. Because certain
Roman frontier. Severus defeated the taxes were paid only by Romans, this
Parthians and annexed Mesopotamia as a move may have been partially motivated
new province. On his return to Rome, by financial considerations.
Severus built a triumphal arch in the Caracalla spent freely. He increased
Forum Romanum to glorify his success the pay of the ordinary soldiers, in spite
against the Parthians. of a shrinking treasury, and embarked on
Severuss other main campaign took an extensive building program, including
place in Britain, where tribes from completing the great public baths begun
Scotland had penetrated as far south as by his father. These baths became known
Eboracum (present-day York). Although as the Baths of Caracalla. To help cover
the governor had succeeded in bribing the costs of all the projects, Caracalla
them to return north of Hadrians Wall, increased the taxes on senators and dou- In this undated
Severus embarked on a punitive expedi- bled inheritance tax and emancipation modern illustration,
tion in 208 CE. While extensive repairs tax (the tax paid by manumitted or freed the emperor
were carried out to the wall, which had slaves). He also debased the coinage by Elagabalus leads a
been badly damaged during the Picts introducing a new silver coin, the dance in celebration
invasion, Severus and his sons conducted antoninianus, which had a face value of of the sun god Baal.
raids on the aggressive northerners.
Although they failed to bring the
invaders to battle, the Roman show of
strength seems to have had an effect;
there were no more incursions for almost
a hundred years. Severus fell ill during
this campaign and died at Eburacum in
211 CE.
Caracalla
Severus had intended that his two sons,
then in their early twenties, should rule
jointly on his death. However, this
arrangement did not suit the elder son,
Caracalla. Within a year of his fathers
death, Caracalla had arranged for his
younger brother, Geta, to be assassinated.
Geta died in the arms of their mother,
Julia Domna.
Caracalla considered himself to be a
god and believed that his father had
ascended to the sun on his death.
Caracallas reign was characterized by
extravagance, debauchery, and cruelty.
However, he continued the egalitarian
social policies and judicial and legislative
changes begun by his father. In 212 CE,
Caracalla conferred Roman citizenship
on all free inhabitants of the empire, so
that, for the first time, everyone in the

ANCIENT ROME
BAAL
Baal was a very ancient fertility god, worshipped This sun god, whose name was El-Gabal, was
by the Canaanites and Phoenicians as early as considered to be the lord of the universe. He
3000 BCE. He was originally believed to be a was often depicted standing beside an eagle, the
storm god who brought the rain that was symbol of divine authority. In Syria, the center of
essential for growing crops. Many temples were the sun cult was located in the holy city of
dedicated to Baal. A number of rituals were Emesa, where the emperor Severuss wife, Julia
carried out to placate him, and some of them Domna, had been born to the high priest of
may have involved human sacrifice. El-Gabal.When her grand-nephew became
emperor, he took the name Elagabalus (son of
However, the word baal simply meant lord. El-Gabal). He later shocked the Romans with
Consequently, many other gods in eastern his adherence to the rites of the sun god,
religions came to be called Baal, which explains reportedly dressing up as the high priest of the
why the sun god worshipped in Syria in the sec- god and leading orgiastic processions through
ond century CE was also referred to as Baal. the streets of Rome.
two denarii, although it weighed consid- In Syria, a plot was launched to put
erably less than one denarius. the grand-nephew of Julia Domna (the
Adopting Alexander the Great as his late widow of Severus) on the throne.
model, Caracalla began an ambitious cam- This young man, only 14 years old at the
paign in the east. However, in 217 CE, time, was called Bassianus, and he was a
while his army was on the march in chief priest of Baal, the local sun god.
Mesopotamia, Caracalla was murdered by The legions in Syria acclaimed him as
a group of officers led by the Praetorian emperor (having been liberally bribed
prefect Marcus Opellius Macrinus. to do so). The armies of the two rival
claimants met in battle near Antioch in
Macrinus 218 CE. The forces of Macrinus were
Unaware of Macrinuss complicity in the defeated. The emperor himself fled and
death of their commander, Caracallas was later killed.
soldiers hailed him as emperor. The sen-
ate reluctantly confirmed this appoint- An exotic ruler
ment. Macrinus was a member of the The new emperor, Bassianus, had been
equestrian order, and was the first eques brought up in a temple to the Syrian sun
to be made emperor. In his short reign, god, Baal. He was therefore known as
Macrinus succeeded in completing El-a-Gabal, the son of Baal, a name that
Caracallas objective of bringing the the Romans changed to Elagabalus.
whole of Mesopotamia under Roman Presented to the senate as the illegitimate
rule. However, he only managed to do so son of Caracalla, he also took the name
by paying the Parthians substantial sums Marcus Aurelius Antoninus.
of money to give up their claims. In a bid Elagabalus quickly made himself
to increase his popularity with the extremely unpopular with the Roman
Roman people, Macrinus reduced the populace because of his extravagance and
military budget and canceled the taxes outrageous behavior. He appeared in the
his predecessor had implemented. palace dressed as the high priest of Baal
140

THE DECLINE OF ROME
and made it clear that he hoped to Severus Alexander

impose the worship of Baal on the whole Severus Alexander came to the throne in
empire. Elagabalus built a temple dedi- 222 CE, when he was only 14 years old.
cated to his god in Rome and spent He was the son of Julia Mamaea, the
enormous sums of money on religious niece of Julia Domna. Alexander had a
ceremonies and sacrifices to Baal. Many very different character from that of his
of Elagabaluss acts seemed sacrilegious immediate predecessor. Alexander was
to the Romans. For example, when he serious and docile, and he had a high
ordered an ancient statue of the virgin regard for the office of emperor. He
goddess Vesta to be dragged to the tem- ruled with the help of his mother, and
ple of Baal, there was a huge outcry for much of the first decade of his reign,
Elagabalus also outraged Rome with the empire enjoyed a period of internal
his sexual behavior. He engaged in open- peace.The consilium principis (the emper-
ly homosexual relationships (in particu- ors imperial council, on which lawyers
lar, one with his charioteer Hierocles), and senators sat) was reorganized and
and stories of his orgies spread through- regained its former influence, thereby
out the city.Animosity toward Elagabalus reinforcing the civilian element of gov-
intensified. After four years, the Romans ernment at the expense of the military. This relief, found in
had had enough. The Praetorian Guard However, the peaceful times did not the Syrian city of
murdered him and threw his body in the last. Around 230 CE, trouble broke out Palmyra, depicts an
Tiber. His cousin, Severus Alexander, was in the east, where the Persians (who assortment of
installed in his place. had overrun and defeated the Parthians) Syrian deities.
141

ANCIENT ROME
proclaimed emperor by his troops, and

his short reign ushered in half a century
of disastrous civil anarchy, during which
time no fewer that 26 emperors
were appointed.
Although illiterate, Max-
iminus was an experienced and
competent soldier. He was
barely recognized as princeps
in the empire when, almost
immediately, he had to
crush two rebellions.
When Germans attacked
the Rhine border, he
quickly restored order
there with a victory in
235 CE. In the provinces
along the Danube River,
trouble was fomented by
the Goths, a Germanic
people from the coast of the
Baltic. These tribes dared to
challenge the might of the
Roman Empire, plundering
Greece and pillaging ships in the
Black Sea. Here again, Maximinus
eventually managed to reassert the
supremacy of Rome.
Despite these successes, Maximinus
had not endeared himself to the senate.A
This brooch contains attacked Mesopotamia in an attempt to simple soldier, he had no time for an
a coin depicting the win back some of their long-lost territo- educated elite and did not care who
emperor Philip I, ries. Although poorly suited to the role knew it. In 238 CE, a group of disgrun-
otherwise known as of warrior, the emperor saw it as his duty tled landowners in northern Africa
Philip the Arabian. to go into battle. After a defensive war in joined with the senate in a rebellion
the east, the princeps traveled to the against the emperor.The insurgents pro-
Rhine, where there were also threats of claimed Gordian I, the proconsul of
invasion.There, in 235 CE, during a riot Africa, as the new emperor; he, in turn,
among the troops in Moguntiacum nominated his son, Gordian II, as his suc-
(present-day Mainz), Alexander was cessor. However, within weeks, both
killed. His death brought the Severan Gordians were dead, killed in a conflict
dynasty to an end. with Capelianus, a Numidian governor
loyal to Maximinus. Maximinus then
Maximinus marched on Rome, but he was killed by
The riot in which Alexander was killed his own army before he could set foot in
had been instigated by Maximinus, an the city. The response of the senate was
uneducated provincial soldier from to place Gordian III (the grandson of
Thrace. Maximinus was immediately Gordian I) on the throne.
142

THE DECLINE OF ROME
The soldier emperors and his young son were killed, and
Only 13 years old when he became Decius entered Rome in triumph.As the
emperor, Gordian III held power for five new princeps, Decius attempted to eradi-
years, during which time the Persians cate the eastern religions that had infil-
invaded Mesopotamia and Syria, reach- trated the empire, including the imperial
ing as far as Antioch. On campaign residence. These religions included
against the Persians, Gordian was mur- Christianity, and Decius seized all church
dered in 244 CE by Philip the Arabian, property and demanded a declaration of
an Arab who had made a career in the loyalty from his subjects, compelling
Roman army. Philip made peace with them to make sacrifices to the gods of
the Persians by ceding part of the empire state in front of official witnesses. Many
to them and paying a cash tribute. He Christians refused to comply and died
also secured victories over the German for their convictions.
tribes in 246 CE and the Carpi in Dacia Deciuss attack was a heavy blow for
the following year. His fabulous victory the Christian community. Since the time
celebrations in Rome coincided with the of Marcus Aureliuss rule in the late sec-
citys one thousandth anniversary. The ond century CE, Christians had general-
Roman people wanted to believe that a ly been left in peace. Some had won con- This painting by
period of peace and prosperity had verts in the highest Roman circles. Now, the Flemish artist
begun. However, events proved that this many of these new believers renounced Peter Paul Rubens
was not to be the case. their faith rather than die as martyrs. (15771640 CE)
Another pretender, an officer called When, in his bid for the principate, depicts the Roman
Decius, who commanded the troops in Decius left Dacia, the region around it emperor Decius
Dacia, invaded Italy and fought Philip at became vulnerable to attack. In 251 CE, dying at the Battle
a battle near Verona in 249 CE. Philip a tribe known as the Goths crossed the of Abrittus.

THE DECLINE OF ROME
Danube and invaded Roman territory.

Decius hurried back to Dacia to con- THE RIVAL STATE OF GAUL
front them. However, he walked into an
ambush. Decius was killed, and his army In 259 CE, the legions in Gaul appointed their
was totally destroyed. commander, Marcus Postumus, as princeps. Recognized
in Gaul, and later in Spain and Britain, Postumus set up
Father and son in present-day Trier what might be called a government
After a series of short-lived emperors, in exile, complete with a senate and annually elected
two Roman senators, father and son, consuls. He issued his own coins and maintained his
began to reign jointly in 253 CE. The own Praetorian Guard. His vast rival empire remained
father, Valerian, had great personal stable for eight years, during which time he defended
integrity, but his qualities were not the Rhine border against incursions by the Germanic
enough to restore the might of Rome. tribes. Eventually, Postumus was killed by his own
The anarchy of the previous few years soldiers. He was replaced by Tetricus, the governor of
had resulted in a crumbling border, and Aquitania.Tetricus was defeated by the emperor
the forces stationed there could no Aurelian in 274 CE, bringing the rebel state to an end.
longer repel the onslaughts of the sur-
rounding tribes. While his son Gallienus
attempted to hold the line on the Rhine, After a number of campaign victories
the Danube, and in Spain,Valerian con- on the Rhine and the Danube, Gallienus
fronted the Persian king Shapur I in the found his resources stretched too thin to
east. In 258 CE,Valerian was taken pris- combat the governments in Gaul and
oner by the Persians. He died in captivi- Palmyra. When he returned to Italy to
ty two years lateran unprecedented confront one of his generals, Aureolus,
humiliation for a Roman princeps. who was attempting to usurp the throne,
Gallienus was left to rule on his own. Gallienus was murdered by his own offi-
He faced formidable difficulties and did cers in Mediolanum in 268 CE.
not have sufficient forces to deal with
them.The borders of the empire needed The Illyrian emperors
constant defense, and rival kingdoms After the assassination of Gallienus, the
were set up in Gaul and in Palmyra (see army appointed an Illyrian, Claudius II,
box, page 146). To ensure that his army as their emperor. Almost immediately, he
operated at maximum efficiency, he only had to face a serious invasion by the
appointed equites to positions of high Goths, who were determined to occupy
military command, a move that antago- the Balkan Peninsula. In a brilliant cam-
nized the senate. paign, Claudius inflicted a savage defeat
Gallienus was an educated man and on the invading tribes, putting an end to
had a particular interest in Greek culture. the Gothic menace for the next 100
He was an adherent to the ancient Greek years. However, his reign was cut short
cult of Demeter. However, he was toler- when he died of the plague in 270 CE.
ant of all sects and halted the persecution Claudius was succeeded by several
of Christians. These acts made him more Illyrian emperors, all of whom
extremely unpopular among the tradi- tried energetically to restore stability to
tionalists of the Roman elite. the empire. The first of them was
Aurelian, who ruled from 270 to 275
This rock relief depicts the Persian king CE. Aurelian did much to arrest the
Shapur I on horseback. Shapur took the decline that the empire had experienced
Roman emperor Valerian prisoner. in the previous 40 years.
145

ANCIENT ROME
PALMYRA
A fter around 260 CE, the prosperous desert

city of Palmyra in Syria became increasingly
powerful under the rule of Odaenathus, the
time, the emperors in Rome were fully occupied
repelling barbarian invasions in Europe, so
Zenobia embarked on a campaign to expand
Roman governor appointed by Gallienus to her kingdom. In 269 CE, she invaded Egypt,
maintain law and order and keep the Persians at deposed and killed the Roman prefect governing
bay.The people of Syria organized their own the country, and had herself declared queen.
guerrilla bands to assist Odaenathus, who Zenobia then conquered Anatolia, Syria, Palestine,
ultimately defeated the Persians near Carrhae. and Lebanon.
Odaenathus began to call himself the king of Once the Roman emperor Aurelian had success-
Palmyra. However, he never attempted to take fully dealt with his rivals in Europe, he turned his
over as emperor, nominally recognizing the attentions to the east. Aurelian recovered Romes
authority in Rome. He proved to be a gifted ruler, former provinces with relative ease and defeated
and Gallienus could do nothing but offer his Zenobia in battle at Immae and Emesa. She was
approval, first with the title Imperator and later later captured and taken to Rome as a captive.
with Inspector of all the East. Aurelian showed mercy on the former queen
and spared her life. Zenobia later married a
When Odaenathus was murdered around 268 Roman senator.
CE, his widow, Zenobia, immediately took control.
She bestowed all of Odaenathuss titles on her This relief from Palmyra depicts Queen Zenobia, who
infant son,Vaballathus, and set up an independent helped to establish the Palmyrene Empire in the late
eastern monarchy in the Persian style. At that third century CE.
146

THE DECLINE OF ROME
Aurelian had been a cavalry officer in On the domestic front, the economy The Aurelian Wall
the army of Gallienus, and his reign was was threatened with collapse, the result was built to
marked by a number of important mili- of Gallienus issuing virtually worthless protect Rome from
tary successes. He successfully drove the coins. Aurelian called in much of the barbarian invasion.
Vandals from Pannonia and the Juthungi debased coinage and issued new coinage, It was completed
from the Danube region. Aurelian then reintroducing the antoninianus. This in 275 CE.
had to defend northern Italy itself. A move did not altogether stem inflation,
tribe called the Alemanni crossed the Po so to pacify the populace, he instituted a
River, but Aurelian defeated them deci- daily issue of bread, plus regular distribu-
sively. Because their attack had threat- tions of salt, oil, and pork.
ened Rome itself, Aurelian began the Aurelian was outstandingly successful
construction of a great protective wall in restoring Roman authority through-
around the city in 271 CE. out the empire, yet he, too, was eventual-
Aurelian pragmatically abandoned ly murdered by a group of officers. He
Dacia as being too difficult to defend. was followed by a series of six competent
However, in the east, he was more generals over a nine-year period; all of
aggressive. In 272 CE, he embarked on a them continued to purge the empire of
campaign to recapture the lands lost to invaders and revolutionaries.
Queen Zenobia of Palmyra. He was
immediately successful, as city after city See also:
surrendered to his forces. Aurelian then The Disintegration of the Empire (page 148)
went on to Gaul, where he restored The Edges of the Empire (page 126)
Roman rule in 274 CE. Expanding the Empire (page 100)
147

THE DISINTEGRATION
OF THE EMPIRE
n the third and fourth centuries CE, the Roman Empire was
TIME LINE
275 CE
I rarely united or stable. For much of the period, rival claimants
fought each other for the throne. At the same time, the Germanic
Emperor Aurelian tribes of northern Europe constantly threatened the empire.
dies; replaced by
Tacitus.
The third century CE saw the Roman The state of the economy
284 CE
Empire in crisis. Its economy was in As the empire grew ever more expensive
Diocletian seizes
power; later divides
ruins, its social order was disintegrating, to administer, successive emperors
empire into four and its army was too small to either attempted to address the problem by
sections for police the enormous empire or protect debasing the coinage. They gradually
administrative its borders from foreign aggression. decreased the proportion of gold, silver,
purposes.
The problems with the army were and copper in the coins, which resulted
303 CE manifold. It was not only too small, but in a decrease in their actual value. Prices
Diocletian publishes also too static. Garrisons set up to protect soared, and rampant inflation brought
anti-Christian the provinces or the frontiers rapidly poverty and misery to many of the citi-
edict; widespread became permanent towns, and many new zens. In addition, the emperors levied the
persecution
ensues. recruits came from the local area. Far highest taxes in history.
from Rome, the soldiers felt they owed The economic crisis hit trade hard.
312 CE allegiance only to their own legion and Artisans were unable to sell their prod-
Constantine general, rather than to the emperor. Some ucts, and people had no money to buy
becomes western
emperor; converts units of the army consisted of tribal mer- imported goods. Increasingly, the
to Christianity cenaries, sometimes under their own provinces had to rely on their own
around this chieftain. Such units were not amenable resources. As the coinage became ever
time. to traditional army discipline and resisted more worthless, barter became popular,
337 CE the rigorous training that characterized and many taxes were paid in kind. This
Death of the army of old. Insubordination was rife, development made things difficult for tax
Constantine leading to frequent revolts and occasion- collectors, who were personally responsi-
prompts civil ally assassination of the commanders. ble for delivering the correct amount of
war.
The army was also expensive to tax to the government. Many collectors
378 CE maintain. Military pay had been tried to evade their commitment by dis-
Goths defeat Valens increased under Caracalla, and troop appearing into rural isolation.
at Battle of bonuses were often paid following a Epidemics also contributed to the
Adrianople. successful campaign. To augment the empires general decline. Outbreaks of
394 CE soldiers pay, some generals allowed the disease regularly wreaked havoc on the
Theodosius reunites legionnaires to plundereven in the
western and eastern provinces. During the third century CE, This relief showing Roman legionnaires at
empires. the general population was victimized as work dates to the reign of Trajan in the early
frequently by Roman soldiers as by second century CE, when the empire was at
invading barbarians. the height of its power.
148

ANCIENT ROME
population, decimating it and reducing

the supply of labor needed to work the
land and repair roads and aqueducts.The
number of slaves also declined, because
the army no longer engaged in profitable
wars that brought tens of thousands of
prisoners to the slave markets.
To make the most from their land,
landowners turned to different ways
of farming. Instead of using slaves
to work an entire estate, owners
leased parcels of land to farming
families. These tenant farmers
agreed to surrender a fixed share
of all their income to the
landowners. This arrangement,
while it provided lower profits
than before, did at least guaran-
tee the landowners a regular
income, which was important at a
time when it was difficult to find
a market for wine, oil, and other
estate products.
The arrangement was also beneficial
to the tenant farmers (or coloni, as they
were called), providing some measure
of protection in unsettled times.
Occasionally, a small landowning farmer
would even offer his acreage to a wealthy works programs, brought in barbarians to The emperor
landowner in return for a contract as a settle the provinces, and encouraged the Aurelian, depicted
tenant farmer. As the system became cultivation of abandoned farms. These on this coin, helped
increasingly widespread, landowners measures did not make him popular with temporarily halt
attempted to tie their coloni to the land. the army, and he was assassinated by sol- the decline of the
In the fourth century CE, the emperors diers in 282 CE. Roman Empire.
would force successive generations of The army replaced Probus with
coloni to stay on the estates, making them Aurelius Carus, a general who shared
little better than serfs. power with his two sons, Numerian and
Carinus. Carus and Numerian were both
The last Illyrian emperors assassinated two years later while on
After Emperor Aurelian died in 275 CE, campaign in Persia.
the senate appointed an elderly senator After the death of Numerian in 284
called Tacitus to be his successor. Tacitus CE, yet another Illyrian, called Diocles,
resigned (or was killed) in less than a year seized power.The son of a farmer, he had
and was followed by the Illyrian general risen through the ranks to become a
Probus. Probus successfully fought off a popular general in the army of Carus.
Gallic invasion and then turned his When Numerian was murdered by Aper
attention to economic reform. He (his father-in-law), Diocles promptly
employed the army on various public killed Aper and was himself proclaimed
150

THE DISINTEGRATION OF THE EMPIRE
emperor by the troops. Changing his

name to Diocletian, the new
emperor subsequently defeated
and killed Carinus.
Diocletians hold on
power was precarious.
Persians threatened the
empire in the east,
while Germanic tribes
harassed the north.The
loyalty of Gaul was
in question because of
the bacaudae (armies of
escaped coloni reneging
on their obligations) and
displaced farmers ruined by
war and exploitation. To
reestablish Roman authority in
these areas, Diocletian needed
to send in experienced com-
manders. However, he was aware
that, in the past, victorious gener-
als had often seized power, as he
himself had done. In order to bypass
this problem, he decided to share
power with his generals.
The tetrarchy
Diocletian established a new form of
government, a four-way sharing of
imperial power called the tetrarchy. He
first invited the general Maximian to
share power, giving Maximian the titles
Caesar (in 285 CE) and Augustus (in 286
CE).Then, in 293 CE, Diocletian select- This marble head, Peninsula and Africa. Galerius ruled the
ed two more generals and gave them created in 299 CE, Danubian provinces, while the western
each the title Caesar. He adopted one of depicts Diocletian, provinces of Gaul, Spain, and Britain
them, Galerius, as his son, while Max- who succeeded went to Constantius. Each emperor had
imian adopted the other, Constantius. in stabilizing his own capital city in his region; none
These generals were all Illyrians and the empire. of them resided in Rome. Diocletian
were related to Diocletian either by mar- retained overall supervision of the
riage or adoption. empire and the authority to legislate and
Each emperor was given a section appoint consuls.
of the empire to control, although no The system effectively restored stabil-
formal territorial division was made. ity to the threatened areas and improved
Diocletian took the eastern part of the provincial government. Provincial armies
empire, consisting of Thrace, Egypt, and were increased in size, particularly in
Asia, while Maximian had the Italian the border areas, and landowners were
151

ANCIENT ROME
The four members required to contribute either money or western parts of the empire, paved the
of Diocletians recruits to the army. Diocletian also way for its eventual division.
tetrarchy are established a tactical army under his On the domestic front, Diocletian
depicted in this direct control. The tetrarchy effectively instituted price controls on food and
fourth-century-CE ended the supremacy of Rome and the other necessities and established maxi-
sculpture. Italian Peninsula and, by establishing sep- mum wages for workers.These measures
arate centers of power in the eastern and went some way toward curbing the rag-
ing inflation. He improved administrative
efficiency in the provinces by appointing
equites rather than senators as the admin-
istrators.These appointees were responsi-
ble for all aspects of civilian administra-
tion, including police and legal matters
and, above all, taxation.
The changes that were implement-
ed by Diocletian resulted in enor-
mous increases in the costs of run-
ning the state, and these costs had
to be met by the populace via
increased taxes. To ensure that the
taxes were paid, Diocletian organ-
ized the empire as a coercive state,
enforcing universal cooperation in
its maintenance. To preserve the
status quo, he insisted that anyone
practicing an important profes-
sion was compelled to continue it
for life and that a son was to fol-
low in his fathers footsteps. The
coloni, the tenant farmers who
previously had some right to
mobility, were henceforth tied
to the land. These measures may
have gone some way toward sta-
bilizing society, but they came
with a price. For many Roman
citizens, freedom was now severe-
ly limited.
Diocletian was an autocrat, and
he believed that he received his
authority from the gods, with
whom he would take his
place after his death. How-
ever, Diocletian also wanted
to be considered a god
while he was still living, and
he invoked Roman religious
tradition to support the idea.
152

THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY
B y the second century CE, Christianity was

spreading throughout the eastern part of
the Roman Empire, and Christian communities
the rock on which he would build his church.
Regarded as Peters heir, each succeeding bishop
of Rome was seen as the natural leader of the
known as ecclesia (assemblies) were well church and would be approached to arbitrate in
established in Greece. Initially, the members any communal disputes.
of these communities were united only by
their common faith, and there was no central However, the bishop of Rome had little overall
authority either within the individual groups or authority.The church was actually a federation of
over the church as a whole. In time, however, the separate communities operating on an individual
administration of a community fell to one of its basis.They cooperated to the extent of giving
elders, who came to be called the episcopus support in time of need, exchanging literature,
(supervisor), the Greek word from which the and providing lodging for members of other
word bishop is derived. A hierarchy of priests communities.This very lack of a centralized
and lower clergy, variously termed deacons or structure appears to have been an advantage
presbyters, formed under the bishop. during times of persecution, because the church
could not be put out of action simply by seizing a
By the third century CE, Christianity had spread few of its leaders.
to the west, and the bishop of Rome had
particular influence. Rome was the city of the The church grew steadily throughout the third
apostle Peter, the man Christ had said would be century CE, and the Christians soon formed one
of the largest religious groups in the empire.
Solidarity, based on their faith, mutual support,
and respect for their leaders, was their strength.
Although they were often persecuted, they could
escape death if they renounced their faith at the
last moment. Perhaps many did so, but those who
remained steadfast and died were honored as
martyrs by the community, and it was believed
that their souls went straight to heaven.
In the later part of the third century CE, the

empire entered a period of prolonged crisis,
when rival claimants fought for the imperial
crown and inflation threatened to destroy the
economy.Yet it was precisely in these disturbed
times that the church gained even more converts.
It seems that the promise of a better life in the
hereafter and an eternal reward for the righteous
appealed to many people.
This vault was used for Christian worship in the early

fifth century CE. By that point, the Christian faith had
spread throughout much of the Roman Empire.
153

ANCIENT ROME
This 16th-century- Linking himself with Jupiter, Diocletian abdicated in 305 CE, the ferocity of the
CE painting depicts demanded to be known as Jovius and to persecutions had diminished.
the flagellation of be regarded as a holy person. This move
the martyr Saint put him in conflict with the Christians, The succession
Sebastian, who was who refused to take part in emperor After Diocletian had reigned for 20
killed during the worship. Incensed by the attitude of the years, he abdicated and forced Maximian
reign of Diocletian. Christians and alarmed by the increasing to do the same. The two Caesars,
number of them in the army and in Galerius and Constantius, became
his court, Diocletian became determined Augusti, and two new Caesars, Severus
to put an end to Christianity once and and Maximinus Daia, were appointed.
for all. Together, the four made up the second
The final, and fiercest, persecutions tetrarchy. In this way, Diocletian attempt-
of Christians began in 303 CE, primarily ed to replace the hereditary principle
in the east, where Diocletian himself with a system of appointing successors.
reigned alongside Galerius. Diocletian Within a year, however, the system had
ordered the destruction of churches and broken down.When Constantius died in
banned Christians from assembling to 306 CE at Eboracum (present-day York)
worship. Many Christians were killed, but in Britain, the armies of Gaul and Britain
regardless of how many martyrs died, the ignored the rules of the tetrarchy and
new faith was too firmly established to proclaimed his son Constantine as
be extinguished. By the time Diocletian Augustus. When he heard the news,
154

Maximians son Maxentius promptly had

himself declared Augustus in Rome,
ignoring both Galerius and Severus.Thus,
in 307 CE, seven men were claiming to be
Augustus (including another pretender in
Africa). Civil war followed, but by 311
CE, several of the claimants had died by
natural causes or been assassinated, leaving
Constantine and Maxentius in the west
and Licinius (who had been declared
Augustus by Galerius) and Maximus Daia
in the east.
Constantine, who was militarily the
strongest among them, invaded Italy and
defeated Maxentius near Rome in 312
CE. Maxentius drowned while trying to Diocletian,
escape. During the campaign, Con- depicted on
stantine claimed to have had a vision this coin, is
of the cross, and he later converted perhaps most
to Christianity. After his defeat of famous for his
Maxentius, Constantine joined forces persecution of
with Licinius. In 313 CE, they won over Christians. Constantine emerged from the con-
the Christians in the east by issuing test as the victor in the west, while
the Edict of Milan, which guaranteed Licinius ruled in the east. For a time,
the Christians freedom of worship. there was an uneasy truce between the
Maximinus Daia was defeated by two emperors, but in 324 CE, the ten-
Licinius and died the same year. This gold coin sions between them erupted into war.
depicts the emperor Licinius was forced to surrender, and he
Constantine, who and his son were both executed.
reunited the
empire in Constantine
324 CE. Now the uncontested ruler of the
Roman Empire, Constantine established
a new administrative headquarters on
the site of Byzantium and called
it Constantinople. Situated on the
Bosporus, a strait that links the Black Sea
to the Mediterranean Sea, this small
town occupied a strategic position
between the Euphrates and Danube
rivers and between the continents of
Europe and Asia. It was therefore an
important post on the overland trad-
ing routes between east and west, and it
was destined to become a major city
(present-day Istanbul).
Constantine, who had converted to
Christianity sometime around 312 CE,
155

ANCIENT ROME
now declared it to be the official religion the population but not with the taxpay-
of the Roman state.The traditional wor- ers who had to fund the scheme. The
ship of the pagan gods was discouraged; burden fell most heavily on poor farmers
their temples were ransacked and their and landholders and resulted in wide-
treasure, together with that of Licinius, spread anger among taxpayers and cor-
was used to benefit the state. To stabilize ruption among tax collectors.
the currency, Constantine had a new
gold coin minted, the solidus, which was Constantines sons
to become the basic currency of the Constantines death in 337 CE was fol-
Byzantine Empire. lowed by civil war, as his three sons bat-
Constantine continued many of the tled for power. Eventually, in 353 CE, the
reforms initiated by Diocletian, particu- only surviving son united the empire
larly that of separating civilian power under his rule as Constantius II. During
from military power. He maintained the the eight years of his reign, the eastern
separate forces of border guards (limi- border was under almost constant attack
Work on the fourth- tanei) and tactical troops (comitatenses), by the Persians, while on the Rhine
century-CE Basilica and he expanded the authority of the and the Danube, marauding tribes made
of Maxentius and Praetorian prefects, establishing four frequent raids. Constantius himself was
Constantine began great prefectures: the east, the Italian only a mediocre general. However, his
during the reign of Peninsula, Gaul, and Illyricum. nephew Julian, whom he appointed
the former emperor Constantines government was expen- Caesar and commander of the Roman
and was finished sive.Among other measures, he organized army in Gaul, soon proved to be a bril-
during the reign of a distribution of grain to the poor, which liant military leader. Julian campaigned
the latter. made him popular with that segment of so successfully in Gaul that his troops

declared him emperor in 361 CE. Civil Julian was replaced by Jovian, who The ruins of this
war was averted when Constantius died was put in place by the army and lasted temple stand in
in November of that year. for only eight months. A moderate present-day Algeria.
Christian, he attempted to restore reli- Northern Africa was
Julian and Jovian gious tolerance to the empire. He suc- part of the Roman
Although he reigned for less than two ceeded in negotiating a peace with the Empire from the
years, Julian proved to be an extremely Persian king Shapur II by ceding a con- second century BCE
capable administrator. He took steps to siderable amount of territory, including until the early fifth
curb the extravagance of his court, the city of Nisibis and the whole of century CE, when it
reduced the power of the secret police, Armenia. Jovian died as the result of an fell to the Vandals.
and introduced a stable copper coinage. accident in February of 364 CE.With his
He renounced Christianity (earning death, the empire was once again divid-
himself the title Julian the Apostate) and ed into east and west.
reinstated the pagan religion, hoping to
restore the traditional values of ancient Valentinian and Valens
Rome. Julian was killed fighting against Valentinian I, a capable officer and
the forces of the Persian Sassanid Empire another moderate Christian, was chosen
in Mesopotamia in June of 363 CE. by the army to be emperor in the west.
157

ANCIENT ROME
4-year-old brother Valentinian II. Gratian

was a devout Christian and attempted to
erase all traces of the ancient Roman
religion from the empire.
In the east, Valens was less suc-
cessful in defending his borders,
which were continually raided
by barbarian tribes, including
the Visigoths from Dacia. The
Visigoths, being harassed by
the Huns, were driven south
over the border and into
Roman territory in 375
CE. Valens welcomed
them, thinking that they
could colonize depopulat-
ed land and supply recruits
for his army. However,
Roman officials began to
mistreat the new arrivals, and
in 376 CE, the Visigoths
rebelled. Valens was forced to go
to war.
The next two years saw a number
of inconclusive battles. Finally, in 378
CE, Valens confronted an army of
Gothic warriors outside Adrianople in
Thrace. Earlier in the year, Gratian had
The army insisted that he share power, This coin bears the driven back the Alemanni and the Goths
so he appointed his less capable brother profile of Magnus from the border on the Danube. Valens
Valens as co-regent in the east.Valentinian Maximus.The had been advised to wait for the armies
proved to be an energetic defender of the commander of of his fellow emperor to join him before
empire. With the help of his general Roman forces in he confronted the Goths. He ignored the
Theodosius the Elder, he fought a num- Gaul and Britain, advice. In the ensuing battle, the Gothic
ber of successful border campaigns in Maximus was cavalry inflicted a humbling defeat on
Gaul and Pannonia and put down insur- proclaimed emperor the Roman forces.Valens himself died in
rections in Britain and Africa. On the in 383 CE. combat. The Battle of Adrianople was a
domestic front, he took steps to protect major turning point in the history of the
the poor, to maintain a strong administra- Roman Empire; the Goths now had
tive and tax collection system, and to control of the Balkan Peninsula.
encourage religious tolerance.Valentinian
died suddenly in 375 CE in a freak Gratian and Theodosius
manner; he burst a blood vessel in his After Valenss death, Gratian declared
brain while shouting at an ambassador Theodosius emperor in the east in 379
from the Quadi tribe. CE. Theodosius was the son of Valen-
After the death of Valentinian, his 16- tinian Is famous general Theodosius the
year-old son Gratian became emperor Elder, who had been executed in a purge
in the west, sharing his rule with his of Valentinians supporters. Following in
158

his fathers footsteps,Theodosius was also in 394 CE. Theodosius was victorious,
an outstanding army general and was making him emperor of both east and
destined to emerge victorious from a west. He was the last man to rule over a
very turbulent time. In 382 CE, he made unified Roman Empire, but he died only
peace with the Goths, giving them four months later, in January of 395 CE.
permission to live within the empire The empire was then divided between
under their own laws and leaders. He did his two sons.The western empire was to
so only on condition that they served in collapse in the fifth century CE, while
his army. the eastern empire would survive for
In 383 CE, Magnus Maximus, the This coin, issued another thousand years.
commander of the army in Gaul and in 390 CE, bears
Britain, was proclaimed emperor by his the image of See also:
troops. He subdued Gaul and killed Theodosius I, the Daily Life in Rome (page 116) The Decline
Gratian at Lyon. At first, Theodosius was last emperor to of Rome (page 134) The Edges of the
disposed to recognize Maximus because rule over a united Empire (page 126) Expanding the Empire
they were both Spaniards and orthodox Roman Empire. (page 100)
Christians. However, when Maximus
invaded Italy,Theodosius met him in bat-
tle and killed him in 388 CE.
Valentinian II and Eugenius

Since 375 CE, Gratian had nominal-
ly shared the western throne with
his brother Valentinian II.
Theoretically,Valentinian ruled
over Italy, Africa, and part of
Illyricum, but because he
was only four years old
when he became emperor,
power in the early years
really rested with his
mother, Justina. In 387
CE, when Maximus
invaded Italy, Valentinian
sought refuge with Theo-
dosius, and after Maximus
was killed, Theodosius
reinstated Valentinian as
the emperor of the west.
However, Valentinian died in
392 CE, either by assassination
or suicide. He was succeeded by
Eugenius, who began to reestablish
the worship of the old gods of Rome.
This policy brought him into conflict
with the Christian Theodosius.
Theodosius and Eugenius fought
each other at the Battle of Frigidus River
159

GLOSSARY
aedilis government officials in the Brutus, Lucius Junius legendary dictator magistrate appointed by
Roman republic; equivalent to figure who expelled Tarquin the the Roman senate; given unlimited
magistrate. Aediles oversaw public Proud from Rome and founded a authority in matters of state and war
order, the market, water, grain republic. for six months.
supplies, and games. Initially, they
were officers at the temple of Diana Campania region of southern Italy Epirus ancient kingdom that occupied
in the Latin League. between the modern cities of Naples the coastal region of northwestern
and Salerno. Greece and southern Albania.
Aeneas mythical hero who escaped
the ruins of Troy and settled in Italy. Cannae town in southeastern Italy; Etruscans ancient people of central
His story is the subject of Virgils epic site of the worst defeat in Roman Italy whose civilization emerged
poem the Aeneid. history. Hannibal surrounded a around 900 BCE, before the founding
Roman army there and destroyed of Rome.
Alba Longa city in southern Latium; it in 216 BCE.
considered the mother city of Rome; fasces symbol of the Roman
according to legend, freed by Romulus Capua major Greek colony in magistrates legal authority; ax
and Remus from a usurper; destroyed southern Italy; first Greek colony head projecting from a bundle of
around 650 BCE. to side with Hannibal in the wooden sticks tied together with
Second Punic War. a red strap.
Amulius mythical usurper of his
older brother, Numitor, as king of Carthage city in northern Africa on Horatius legendary Roman hero
Alba Longa; separated his niece, the shores of the Mediterranean Sea; who singlehandedly defended a
Rea Silvia, from her twin children, now a suburb of Tunis. bridge in Rome against the forces
Romulus and Remus. of Lars Porsenna and the entire
censor office in the Roman republic Etruscan army.
Anatolia another name for Asia to which two ex-consuls were elected
Minor (part of modern Turkey). for five-year terms.They estimated Lar (plural: Lares) Roman family
the number of citizens for purposes deity; originally were gods of the
Apennines range of hills and of categorization, taxation, and fields.
mountains that forms the spine military service, and they judged
of the Italian Peninsula. moral behavior. Latin League ethnic religious
federation of Latin cities on the
Aquae Sextiae Roman city in Gaul; Ceres Roman goddess of agriculture. Italian Peninsula; fought against the
modern Aix-en-Provence, France. Etruscans in the sixth century BCE;
Cimbrians people who invaded abolished in 338 BCE, following
Ariminum town on Adriatic coast of southern France and Spain around rebellion against Roman
Italy; site of modern city of Rimini. 111 BCE; defeated by Gaius Marius domination.
in 101 BCE.
Arretium ancient town in western Latium region of the Italian Peninsula
central Italy; now the city of Cloaca Maxima the first public between the Tiber River and the
Arezzo. sewer in Rome; completed in the Apennine Hills; the home of the
third century BCE. original Latin people.
Ascanius mythical son of Aeneas;
according to legend, the founder of consul one of two co-leaders of lictor attendant who waited on
Alba Longa, a city near Rome. republican Rome. Each consul served Roman magistrates and carried the
only one year in office at a time. ceremonial fasces.
Balearic Islands group of islands in
the western Mediterranean Sea.The Dacia area of the Carpathian Lupercalia (wolves feasts) Roman
largest are today known as Mallorca, Mountains and Transylvania, in present festival named for the wolves skins
Minorca, Ibiza, and Formentera. north-central and western Romania. worn by the participating priests.
160

GLOSSARY
Macedonian Wars four conflicts optimates conservative senatorial introducing grappling, they defeated
(214205 BCE, 200197 BCE, aristocracy during the later Roman the Carthaginians. Carthage then
171168 BCE, 149148 BCE) republic (c. 13327 BCE). ceded Sicily to Rome.
between the Roman republic and
the kingdom of Macedonia. Ostia ancient town at the mouth of Punic War, Second (218201 BCE)
the Tiber River; port of Rome. war between Rome and Carthage
Mamertines mercenaries from (under Hannibal) for supremacy in
Campania who fought on behalf Parthians Persian horsemen who the western Mediterranean.
of Syracuse but then deserted the gained their independence from
city-state and seized Messana the Seleucids around 240 BCE and Punic War, Third (149146 BCE)
(modern Messina, Sicily) around settled in northern Persia; conquered war between Rome and Carthage
288 BCE; later joined forces with the extensive territory east of the Seleucid for supremacy in the Mediterranean.
Carthaginians, thereby precipitating Empire; later fought the Romans. The Romans destroyed Carthage in
the First Punic War. 146 BCE.
patrician in Rome, an aristocrat;
mare nostrum literally, our sea; often a member of the ruling class. quaestor Roman official who
Roman name for the Mediterranean originally assisted consuls in criminal
Sea. phalanx battle array used by the justice; eventually, financial manager.
ancient Greeks and Macedonians, The office was often the starting point
Mars Roman god of war; father of consisting of a number of rows of of a political career.
Romulus and Remus. heavily armed infantry soldiers.
Thebans later introduced the Rea Silvia legendary daughter of
Messana modern Messina, Sicily; diagonal phalanx, which had Numitor, king of Alba Longa; became
site of an ancient Greek colony. more rows on one side. a Vestal Virgin; mother of Romulus and
Remus.
Mucius Scaevola legendary Roman Phoenicia area of the eastern
hero who is said to have saved the Mediterranean roughly corresponding res publica (public things) republic;
city from an attack by the forces of to modern Lebanon. Roman state (c. 51027 BCE)
Lars Porsenna. governed by two annually elected
plebeian any citizen of Rome who consuls. Citizens exercised influence
Muses in Greekand later in was not a patrician (aristocrat); through popular assemblies and
Romanmythology, nine sister member of the lower classes. the senate.
goddesses (daughters of Zeus) who
inspired human artistic creativity: populares patrician political group Rhodes largest of the Dodecanese, a
Calliope (epic poetry), Clio (history), in the late Roman republic that drew group of islands in the Aegean Sea off
Erato (lyric poetry), Euterpe (music), support from the masses against the the eastern coast of mainland Greece.
Melpomene (tragedy), Polyhymnia ruling oligarchy.
(sacred poetry),Terpsichore (dancing), Romulus and Remus legendary
Thalia (comedy), Urania (astronomy). Porsenna, Lars legendary sixth- twin sons of the war god Mars.
century-BCE Etruscan king who Separated at birth from their mother,
Numantia Celtiberian stronghold besieged Rome in an unsuccessful Rea Silvia, they were suckled in
until 133 BCE, when it fell to the attempt to restore a monarchy in infancy by a she-wolf.They later
forces of the Roman general Scipio the city. co-founded the city of Rome.
Aemilianus; near modern town of Romulus then killed Remus and
Soria, Spain. praetors political leaders of the became the first king of Rome.
Roman republic; later became
Numidia region of northern Africa; known as consuls. Rubicon small stream separating Gaul
roughly equivalent to the area of from the central Roman republic.
modern Algeria. Punic War, First (264241 BCE) When Julius Caesar crossed it in 49
war between Rome and Carthage BCEin defiance of a law that for-
Numitor legendary king of Alba for supremacy in the western bade provincial generals from leaving
Longa; grandfather of Romulus and Mediterranean. Rome adopted the territories to which they were
Remus; deposed by his younger seafaring armies to defeat the assignedhe precipitated a three-year
brother, Amulius. Carthaginian power at sea. By civil war.
161

ANCIENT ROME
Sabines ancient people who lived in Stoicism school of philosophy Titus Tatius legendary king of
mountains to the east of the Tiber founded by Zeno of Citium in the Sabines who combined his
River. According to legend, their Athens in the third century BCE. realm with Rome and ruled with
women were carried off by the men At its core was the belief that people Romulus.
of Rome. should do what is required of them
by nature and accept their lot. tribune in the ancient Roman
Seleucid Empire empire that, republic, a political representative
between 312 and 64 BCE, extended Syracuse Corinthian colony on of the plebeians.
from Thrace on the edge of the Black Sicily; flourished culturally and
Sea to the western border of India. It commercially in the fifth century tribus (district) division where
was formed by Seleucus I Nicator BCE and dominated the other Sicilian Roman citizens were registered on
from the remnants of Alexander the colonies. Syracuse resisted Athenian the basis of landholdings and assessed
Greats realm. siege and defeated Athens with the taxes called tributum.
help of Sparta (414413 BCE).
senate college of magistrates; the Troy ancient city of northwestern
highest authority in the Roman talent unit of weight and money used Anatolia (part of modern Turkey);
republic. by Hebrews, Egyptians, Greeks, and reputed destruction by Greek forces
Romans. Its exact value varied from formed the basis of Homers epic
SPQR initials, written on the place to place; in Attica, one talent poem the Iliad.
standards of Roman legions, weighed around 57 pounds (25.8 kg).
representing a Latin phrase that Vestal Virgins six priestesses who
means for the senate and people Tiber second longest river in Italy inhabited the temple of the goddess
of Rome. after the Po. Vesta.
162

MAJOR HISTORICAL FIGURES
Agrippa (c. 6312 BCE) deputy Cleopatra queen of Egypt from in Anatolia and Greece in 88 BCE;
of the Roman emperor Augustus; 51 to 30 BCE; ruled successively defeated by Sulla in 84 BCE.
defeated Mark Antony at the Battle with her two brothers, Ptolemy XIII
of Actium in 31 BCE. (5147 BCE) and Ptolemy XIV Nero Roman emperor from 54 to
(4744 BCE), and then with her 68 CE; committed suicide. His rule
Antony, Mark (8330 BCE) Roman son Ptolemy XV (4430 BCE). A is best known for its immorality
general under Julius Caesar and later mistress of both Julius Caesar and and violence.
triumvir (4330 BCE); became lover Mark Antony, she and the latter
of Cleopatra, queen of Egypt, and committed suicide together after Ovid (43 BCE17 CE) Roman
was defeated with her by Octavian their defeat by Octavian (the future poet; author of Metamorphoses;
(the future emperor Augustus) in Roman emperor Augustus). banished from Rome by the emperor
the last of the civil wars that destroyed Augustus.
the Roman republic. Crassus, Marcus Licinius (c. 11553
BCE) Roman politician who formed Pliny the Younger (c. 61113 CE)
Archimedes (c. 287212 BCE) the first triumvirate with Julius Caesar author of nine books of letters on a
Greek mathematician and inventor and Pompey. After Crassuss death, the wide range of contemporary issues.
killed during the sacking of Syracuse other two members became enemies
by the Romans. and precipitated a civil war (4945 Plutarch (c. 46120 CE) Greek
BCE). biographer who wrote Parallel Lives,
Augustus (63 BCE14 CE) original- in which leading Greeks and Romans
ly named Octavian; first emperor of Fabius Maximus Verrucosus, Quintus are discussed in pairs.
Rome; ruled from 27 BCE until his (died 203 BCE) Roman commander
death. whose delaying tactics during the Pompey (10648 BCE) Roman
Second Punic War bought time for statesman and general; a triumvir
Caesar, Julius (10044 BCE) Roman Rome to prepare to confront the (6154 BCE); first an associate and
general who conquered Gaul (5850 Carthaginian army of Hannibal. later an enemy of Julius Caesar.
BCE) and triumphed in the civil war
of 4945 BCE; dictator of Rome Hadrian Roman emperor who ruled Spartacus (died 71 BCE) gladiator
(4644 BCE); assassinated by political from 117 to 138 CE, succeeding his who deserted from the Roman
opponents. uncle,Trajan. His rule was a period of army and led a slave rebellion
consolidation of the vast empire. (7371 BCE).
Caligula Roman emperor from 37 to
41 CE; succeeded by Claudius I. Hamilcar Barca (c. 270228 BCE) Sulla, Lucius Cornelius (13878
Carthaginian general who made peace BCE) Roman dictator who tried to
Cassius, Gaius one of the assassins of with the Romans at the end of the strengthen the republic after its first
Julius Caesar in 44 BCE. First Punic War; father of Hannibal. civil war (8882 BCE).
Catiline (c. 10862 BCE) Roman Hannibal (247183 BCE) Tarquin the Proud traditionally the
aristocrat who tried unsuccessfully Carthaginian general who famously seventh and last king of Rome; ruled
to overthrow the republic in 63 led an army with elephants over the from 534 to 510 BCE.
BCE. Alps from Spain to Rome.
Virgil (7019 BCE) Roman poet;
Cato the Elder (234149 BCE) Jugurtha king of Numidia from 118 author of the Aeneid, an epic of the
leading Roman politician who led the to 105 BCE; fought against Rome foundation of Rome by fugitives
republic into war against Carthage. for control of his realm in northern from the sacking of Troy.
Africa.
Cicero, Marcus Tullius (10643 Xanthippus third-century-BCE
BCE) Roman statesman and author. Mithridates king of Pontus (in Spartan mercenary general who
On the death of Julius Caesar, he took northern Anatolia) from 120 to 63 fought for Carthage in the First Punic
the side of Brutus. BCE; led an uprising against Rome War.
163

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(c) 2011 Marshall Cavendish. All Rights Reserved.

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Early Rome 6 Daily Life in Rome 116

Rome's Early Wars The Edges of the

The Punic Wars 32 The Decline of Rome 134

Revolution and Reform 44 The Disintegration of the

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T o begin a study of Roman history is to

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THE ROMAN WORLD

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THE VESTAL VIRGINS

Pompilius.Ancus Marcius ruled until 616

The Etruscan kings

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Rome, he quickly acquired a reputation personal guard, pronounced judgments

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T he Etruscans were a people who occupied

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beians were generally peasants and had

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largely lay in the hands of the patricians.

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The senate and other assemblies

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By the third century BCE, there were

The rise of the plebeians

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Things came to a head in 494 The comitia tributa

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THE LAWS OF THE TWELVE TABLES

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beginning of the fifth century BCE,

In this 18th-century-CE illustration, a Roman

The Circus Maximus was used for chariot

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become predominantly plebeian. This

End of the class struggle

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This bronze helmet

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be easily destroyed, but at the Allia River

Mucius Scaevola thrusts his hand onto red-

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Apennines, the Latin cities supported

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THE ROMAN ARMY

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Rome. Rome had not always been

Rome triumphant See also:

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(c) 2011 Marshall Cavendish. All Rights Reserved.