8s ELECTRIC ENERGY SYSTEMS THEOM An traduction pes ) Copyright @ 1071 by Mee ie A Rohs Resaves uo oat ot hie putieavon maybe rerodct, red in» rsroval pete, or tants, n a fart 0B a4 a ‘etrnie mecha! photocopying, fcoeing atari ‘watout the ge wer pemiono he buh Pres nina erngeen wid McGrail Ie iow Yok “Ths tion can be expert to Inds ony he Publishers, “ate MeSrew i Ping Coma Lee ~ ibang oy Yaa Mere isting Company Linked and le by Mahan Maan st Rata Bevan B.S, Moye Den COED {| | Margaret Bik And List‘Moto: Think MKS 8 Preface “The Voted States elect wiityinguzy rats umber one in many respects ‘With a wal plat ad equipment neste of 2200 99 etn diss (1870 ‘uted iis he legs indy i he country andthe weed ‘With ap annual prediction figure of almost 2 wilion blowathous, tot only outpoduces every other eounty in the word bt actualy accounts for ior than oer of theft weld production of eee exe Te ea he wold In peaceful te f the nom of Te writing the ndsty har under development aod constuction more miler pat eapuciy then the re of the wort pt together 1s the oly Utd State inst tat bs been able o main an averane 7 1 8 percent anal growth rate oF slmst four decades, and om al id sions wil continue wo expan x che seme rtf the sex ve decades ‘And jt, somewhere along th ie, bas ended up atthe Baton of the 121970 only hand f United States univer cam websted snd moter proprame is power ssensensinering In lat, most univers fer nether andeepradunte eouner noe graduate resetch opportunites Ia the fed. This stustion has developed gravalysigce World War I. It would serve no useful purpose wo Uy bee 1 af the lane, "The picture id gat aways look #9 dma Daring the thie and fortis most coleges offered good power prgras, wll ated 1 the feed of 8 Times} Scme of today's power courses are actully resets trom those dy 1A large perceatage of toy’ pacing power ayes enioers i of pe ‘Word War Hite Since thse engineers ae leving he sane tough earl atin, the ele {Te emg “per” ad ee” are om i a ah aetna nt ‘oak Fiona arta pad, ure cts Sor ameter wh lec nergy, ecm hier form move Roper.tcc uly indy wil in Ss in somewhat of 3 manpower cris, And this oppess atte wher the iy inthe mut Of "neler Fevehon is encountering sn “environmental barrie,” an fas whole ne eo eh olga protlens dae tos esernereaing POWET density ‘Nowhere isthe academic pala role of the elect Uy Inde ore ga logy obvious than inthe etbook fel Ata ine when doves of se tet ate publiebed annul in speci areas like computer technology, contol theory. etwores, te. 4 pofetor offering a courte In else energy sates teary ost be content with undergraduate tons which ae anywhere fom ten 10 ten ear al ‘On the sesamption tata eaialy new teaching spptoach long overdue in ‘he energy syste el he aubor Sto to develop ae of cau notes eect ing such a moder tesehingphlosophy. The present ext grew out of thee ‘notes. Upon consting a reat many engineers and eddeators, i was peste to esya set of deat Seanves whic should characterize 2 meer Unset yaduate energy stems tet Thee “The main objatve ofthe else energy sytem shoul be cley presented sagsns = backround ofthe national ener stunion and pesied fre demsnas, 2 A pens sppicach should be followed, with primary eanphass placed 08 (he essen over epatonal fates. |, Mathmatial models of all main s)sem components should be icles. “The moder shoul be acurate enough ote wnt for bth sendy tte and ynamie ytens sade, 4 A curr Gemonstvation should be siten ofthe interplay between the fe ‘otro, Ylage, aed reat and reactive power Row varables whieh’ chars tere the quasistatic seadysiate operation ofa stem 4. A tecough dscussinn most be included of the stems cone problem, 6 aspects of sytem stability shouldbe given ample emphasis 7. Fault snlyss and unbalanced operation should be ested ‘Toece ae verging opinions in regard othe ned for nelson ofpriberl ‘opis he Dixebutonechnolony ‘Sostems protection Syms communication nthe ial anspsis they wpe all dropped for the simple resson of pace maton. "The end peasuct ¢ stems tet intended for wie by the senior unde radu and ft yer radate tent. The reader expected to have taken a8 Intoductry tess couse, and it x desl, Bos not nce, 0 Bare bad machinery core, He should algo have been expoted to Laplace transforms, ‘lemenary control theory ad linear arent auton, ‘Doe t0 the comply of even the elles power sytem, ii possible 40 esive analytical soitions of sytem models ony und de rare of cco stances Is therfore iperative to provide the ener wih an aml eerie fof compute sion methods. Suck methods fave been presesed in the for: ‘of computations fw ohare. Mos ergaduate sce ve ken roa hing cours and shold have 2 Problem in weting the nesay computer propa tom these Row chars. However, detalled computer prosam [etered in Appendix B forte important oad fow analyses. Matrix anal i sed thrughowt the text. Hower, the simplest of mats cpertons sie, and thy ate simimayied ia Appendix A forthe reacts te facia ith Ds to “The complete emptais on computer analy methe tony one of any ove fests of the text The profs of seem vel which determine Toth the sae and dynamic state of power stem} comtts a forovdble roadblock forthe stidest who wihes tp prin even ah inve understanding {Sf what goer ow isthe system. We bive ted to esove this roadblock by Inaking extensive ose of simple analogs. ‘We havea led fo pares in the pitare By the meta (devetoned once perl) of claiying the ast nombre ster alles ito “sal,” contl” and "trance variables. We have atempled to lai the cue fect eationshipe BY ae of modern seaskiviy anal To the exenve caper on system canta, we have neded the methods of epimm cone! aoa we hve ertcllypxamined (and fund Gas i) exist ing comrot pasties, We have sugested shermatve conta eps Linea graph theory, genera programing, and ui of saleable models Jo formulating the stbity peobiem ee also novel ina ondertraduate txt ‘The book ean easily be covered in to semeses of tree quar. In sme instances the material in Capes 4 to 6 may be covered in depth in he le tecl engineering curses n which case hee chapters maybe shied alge. ‘Asitane and encouragement wer received tom many souees during the preparation of thi manuscript, My colleague Proesnr Er ie ried ee}? ‘versions ofthe manuscript in ur undergraduate program. 1h, alg, the bel? ‘of dedicate suet, without whieh 0 project of this aaa ould hate Been completed, I remember With special pleasure and prattudethe many atnulating ‘iscusion sesions (many in ance in the Floriéabsckwaois) with Chares Fosha, Bob Solivan, Charles Dusck, Jin Dickenson, aad Doo Saith, These "ders have proofed he mancrp teed the compote flow charts, obtained ‘computer seartingn, 208 supgetd many tcovetents AoUghOU te txt 1A simple won ste epcting nea ti character by 12 variables.yr Till 11 tii i bp go ty en pt ic cae sexing, posted bythe Fort Poel aod Lp Co Pn one Crp, "Tanpa Ese Coy tad Gulf Power Co, Mice asta nthe fr Contents Sl tas rd an ses wi tard bom te enpy nd h : ta pr anode ytd Mess TF. Then. Jones WG Snes AN. Ag SK. Mead. BM “Te hares cae To sur ceparistet roid he proper aden seta, dwn est nr ote eet ora nd lg ee ‘Bip aos cans De wayee Che ‘iin vio Moppin pet the ele anor and He expert woo - fully appreciates. te L.Figert pnerace Vil fuerte 3 wrRooueriON : LY BiewieBiey i inpsctonSocey 1 152 Bhecse Enerky Soares 1-21 Hydropower : ‘ 122 Fosil Fuels 5 125 Nuclege Power 6 1.3. The Structure and Economy ofthe Beene Energy Induwry 7 14 The Futue of EESE 8 References 10 ‘CHAPTER 2 FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS OF FLECTRIC ENERGY SYSTEMS EMGNEERING 2D 2.1 The Fundamental Power Formli—Electromsgnetic Energy 13 22 Additional Forms of Electric Feergy 17 BRI Bletre Field Energy Wo) IT 2-22 Magpeti Field Enety tay 19 . 222 Onmie, or Disipalve, Foray wo 20 ' 2.3 DC sermon AC Poner-Conceps of Real sad Resetive Powers 21 2-31) Single-phase Transmission 21 . i 2-32 Threephase Transmission 27 i 2-4 Coneypt of Complex Power 3 25 ert Representation of Impedances, Currents, Volage, wires ke 2| Exercise 39 Referens 43 ‘hapTER 3 THE ELECTRIC ENERGY SYSTEM OPERATIONAL CONSIDERATIONS a 3-1 Objectives at 302 The Structure ofthe Elec Energy Sytem 45 3-21 Distibuion Lev 45 3-22 Sabtrmamisson Level 46 3-23 Trammission Level 47 3-3 Tranemision Capacity 49 34 Lood Chuscerstcs 53 3-41 Voltage snd Frequency Load Dependency 58 “3-5. The Real Power Balance and Is Elect on System Fresueny 57 35:1 Load-eeguency Mechanism 57 3:52 AMechinical Acalog 59 3-6 The Reactive Power Balance and ts Best on Sytem Voluge 60 ~3.7 Questions of Steuy aad Cost 64 8 Summary? 65 Reercies 65 References 68 CuNPTER 4 THE SYNCHRONOUS MACKINE—SYSTEM MODEL REPRESENTATION 70 41 Intodeton ~ 70 422 Elememury Maes and Analogs 71 4-21 Contol of Synchronous Machines 72 422 AMechanieal Analog 74 423 The Torgue—Power Aagle Mechanism 75. {24 Tongue Creation 76 463, Development of Geaeral Machine Equations 77 43.1 "The Basic Machine Parameters 78 432 TheGeneal Machine Equations $2 433 TheGenerat rower Equation 86 43. The Bloadel Transformation a8 44 Steady.state Machine Models 92 441 TheMachine tNoLosd 92 4-42 The Machine under Symmevical Loading Conditions 93 45 Machine Ratings 109 45 Sommay 110 Execs 110 References 142 CHAPTER 6 THE POWER TRANSFORMER 116 « 5-1 Practical Design Considerations 115 SeL1 Diferent Types of Cor Arrangements 117 5-12 Diferent Winding Arrangemeats and Flectical Connections HIT S13. Ratiogs 119 5.2 Equivalent Cres for Twoswinding Teaformess 119) 5-2. Bxaet Equivalent Circuits of Y¥-connered Teaasorners 119 5-22 Approximate Equivalet Circuits for Y¥-connected Transformers 121 5-23 Equivalent CucitforS-connecte ‘Teaslormers 124 5-24 w Equivalents 126 5-25 The Impedance Matix of @Symnetiealy Operated Three-phace Transformer 128 53. Eyuivaleat Circuits for Meliwinding Transtormers 129 5-4 Autouansfornes "135 5-5 The Transformer a8 a Control Device 137 S-S1 TCUL Traesocmers 137 5-52 Regulating Trasformess 138 5-6 Summary 148 Exercises 148 References 151 CHAPTER 6 THE HIGHENERGY TRANSMISSION LINE 352 6-1 Introduction 152 62 Design Considerations 155. 6-3 BecteLine Parameters 157 G-A1 Line Resistance and Shunt Cendvetoce 157 6-32 Lige fductance 158 53.3 Lise Capacitance 170 6-4 Longiioe Theory 183 G41 Longline Equations 183 6-42 Compusationt Considerations 186 6-43 Bquivalet Nework of LongLie 189 6-44 TheLosless Line 191 6-5 Summary 196 Exerciser 396 References 198AND LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS 200, TL ADemonstetion Example 29 TLL Sytem Model—The Stale Load Flow Equations (SLFE) 202, 7-12 Important Characteristics of SLFE 208, S713 Chusiseation of System Varsbes 206 T14 Soluion of SLFE—A Basic Dilemma 207 TALS. Mosied Specifations—Solution of Our Dilemma 207 CHAPTER 7 THE ENERGY SYSTEM IN STEADY TATE SYSTEM MODELING 7-6 Geveraliraton ombus System 208 TUT Practical Sttesvariabe Coastaints 210 TELE Practical Conol-variable Coastaims 210 TTA9. Praccal Variable Specification Procedure 7FAL10 Bus Classfeaton onthe Basis of Speciation au Type 212 7-2 Seastvgy Analysis and the Problem of Control 213 TH2.1 Perturbation ox Sensivty Analysis 213 7-22 Jacobian and Sensvity Mawes 215, 7-3. Defation ofthe Load Flow Problem 218 7-4 Network Model Formalstn 220 7-4)" & Demonsvation Example 220 742 SLFEIn General Form 222 43 Network Terminology 223 144 Primitive Networks 226 TAS. Linear Nework Graphs 227 7-46 Choice of Lincarly Independent Network Variables 228 7-4. Network Variables in Loop Frame of Reference 250 | an eee es Sens egieeng: Rewer thse ate onl sep ‘urlcaton an coe rev srl poral between the to geal) | fil and 47 Joe tothe vast esas between the cena phys! tare conned, omarion an eegy. The coms of tama Soa oa ard to dete Eo, om te coneary, a welded reared pyseal concept, The fear Is most certainly slay ae eee wn te demenary peste of elec eee), aos TORE aectap im magmas, ee Since wi be sje 0 tom eed acntan throughout te book, it may be appropcatef0 selena ime sme oie hrc kot hat for various eon, we sal nd it convenient en mE mo tanto the energy wl, os ‘Tac nate oe poser. dtnison we have aut gow ey ‘few words mst be sit aboot our choice of notation. We wre rower rots tiougout tones sn ution fiestas | TS SAL yma p tector Indates the magoitde of elec power TNE ming momen and should therefore, sre, be ymbolzed pO) Jistoser neal often fer the shots symbol From Eq, (1) obtained upon integration wo fire werd @2) [Note that w will depend upon the atbitrarly chosen ial time fy “this bc tne case with power, and constotes the basic reason why ™& refer is use. ree Se for lectic energy and electric power inthe mks system Shree erect es sence Se rae aa 1GW = 10 MW = 10" kW = 108W TkWh= 36x10" Ws cet or yl epee mag ed vert wh te TESTUSCREA Eiger te etcnaies pacar oF wine Sales Some “The entire technology of EESE i based upon thesphyialesly that ite possible to transform the “raw” energy forms avaiable in nature into electric Form, tansmit this electric form of energy to the potential user and then finally transform it back into useful energy forms of various types. These ‘nergy transformations take place often in a rather roundabout fashion, “Take, for example, te chemical energy stored in coal In pulveid form the coalismixed with an the combustion chamber ofthe bole, where the chemical energy i yelessed into thermal o eat, energy. Ina sequence of heat exchangers ts thermal energy i teansmited to another medium, rater, which spon absorption ofthe energy changes it phase into steam “The sles, upon posing through the turbine, gives of some ofthis thermal nergy in mechantealenergy. inal, inthe electric generator, the mechan {nal Energy i ansformed into electri energy. Th each of the above steps, the energy transformations take place at the expense of losses that may be of considerable sz. In the proces just described, the largest los energies are ound inthe combaston gases emited ‘rom the stack and in the condenser coling wate. Practically 100 percent of the elacrc energy that i produced ttay is obtained fom rotating generators, where the last energy ransormation step is mechanical to electrical Intensive research efforts ae being expended in direct energy conversion (DEC) methods. The outstanding feature of all DEC techniques is that ane tres to eliminate the intermediate mechanical ‘energy step and thot seeks to obtain electric energy siety from either ‘thermal, solar, or chemeal energy forms. ‘Although many DEC devices (thermoclectric, thermionic, fel cl, MHD, and others) have found important applications the low-power ars, {tis bighly doubifl tht they wil compete the conventional rotting gene= ator out of « market inthe high-power fed within the next two ot three ecades. Tn this section we shall discuss the charactersties of the energy once it has reached the eecrie form. “However, It is unimportant how it eached Where. Our starting assumption is therefore the avalablity of a device, fefered to a a generitor having a sini of to output termes, OM. Which we are able to draw a wafined curcent I at a ssfined terminal potential v. We shall make the ational assumption that © and ¢ are (quasi-static, tele variations are relatively slow, which in peactce means “hat they should not contain frequency components in excess of a few Kiloeyles. "The fndamentl power formula now states that the generator supplies energy a the rate a Ww es)fox pecon weommt uronic on lem a MEE eee ee Fe ee eT eras tit dhn atone a ay pion, Es ee AE eet de Bos, ce ae (as is commonly done in field theory) the so-called Maxwel!’s field equations, (i ie i i ee a ee ere CE rac sect a eer be per nn ee Oo a co af hey Sie eae een aloe peen eos See Te tela uepcee cane Se ete Lone LI . - at “Motor ee Fig 24 -Plenesty comgytnslion set (a) Ets cse; ‘Stine ‘The student say gain a still beter feel fr ity mesning by drawing putallel with the Bydraulic power tansmision system in Fig, 215." The ectric conductors comespond to the hydraulic pressure lines carrying a9 fncompresibe huis. Tee hyaaulie pump, corespoading tothe generator, supplies a fig dow off ms and malntins a presute erence ot « Nim If the sectional area of the presire lines pd my the Bud velocity wll therefore be 4 iss and the tual force (as fet bythe motor piston) 40 N By using the frenla ‘Mashanial power = force « velocity - we obtain te folowing expresso forthe mechanic power tanemited by Bis system ton = then W en en the same result asin Eq. (23). Thete are, to be sure, fndamentit Uifrences between the two sytem in Fg, Dasa b For example, theres no doubt that in the hydraulic system the eaegy transfer betwen the pump and motor actualy tals plae Inde the pressure lines, We have 0 sich guateatee in the clecine transmisoa system “Although Eq, (2-3) places the emphasis on the curen! which no doubt is ‘ocalzed inside the conductors, the moder physical view tends to place the nergy fw side the covets ie sheckonsenctc Bld that surrounds them. Supporters ofthis view delegate tothe conductor the roe of ware= vides, ewe aonpt his intrpretation, we designate the transite energy 1 electromagnele energy. We Would not, oF coure, expect find the fncrgy uniformly distributed the outside space, but rather having a vole ‘loneity that ould increare in Some proportiog to the intensity ofthe Held ‘vectors ‘The pheaomenon is besusfully and compactly described by the Poynting vecor P, XH Wint es Tn this formula the vector symbole represent = eee ld strength, Ven Him magnetic Bold strength, A/m “The vector P defined by Ea. (2-) evident has a direction pespendicule to the place containing E snd Hand a magnitude [P| eqsling JE Hsia «, wherewith angle between E and H, It hs the dimension of watts per reetes square, “The interpretation of Eg, (25) ie fellows ‘Theelectromagnetic energy race, oradater, ina dietion sitciing, withthe direction of P. The amount ofevergy that penetrates a unit ares PeCoveted perpen othe cation cretion) per time uit i ven by the magnde Te eaemplly, It us apply the concept of eetromagnetic enerey radiation to hesnglesyten ng 2a, Theccromagietifld pure rw he eh wich ae saune ight an reat, pe Wee Ta" The magnet eld tines ae actully perfest nonconeattic ‘Goaeh, andthe eet Bld lines consti segments of cies that are Ghogoaal ots magnet one. "ince E aod Hare bo locate i a plane perpendiculs to the come ductor willbe dete along the wires and (ling he alo wectoe Ses pode toward the lade Due othe orthogonality oF and Hy the mmagntade of Peal : P= tenth Wit and sine Band Ht have tei largest intensities close tothe conductors, the ‘ergy deny s highest othe immediate neighborhood ofthe conductors, in22. omg fel piste soon wins of Fi. 21a —— play diminishing with the distance from the conductors. Note that if ‘the conductors are perfect, the electric eld willbe 2er isi the con= ‘core, and thos no energy tavel inside the conductor. “The totally radiated energy i obtained by infegration over the ttat sectional area in Fig. 22. This isnot parueulalydilfleult in view ofthe Simple geometry, and if we actually perform the necessary operations, we ‘obtain the resul poe Ww Les the same’ result as given directly by the fundamental power equaiba @, ‘We ae free to adopt whatever interpretation appeals most to us; the cond eect she same. The entry is present; it does travel from generator to load and in magntades that db agre with £9, 3). ‘We shal, finaly, discuss one addtional and important arpct of the ‘eectromagnetic energy is sped of travel. Consider, ist, fr comparison, the hydraulic analog In Fig. 21d. How fat does the energy treel in that system? Obviously, with the same velooty with which a pressure di turbance propagates through te hydraulic uid, ie, the veloety of sound {or the fd ia question, Ta the eiectrie system of Fig. -1a the speed of energy travel equals the speed with wh a valtage (or current) perturbation propagates along the line. This velocity varies somewhat with the line parameters, uti alvays slighty less than the velocity of light} » We ea theretore eoelod that, for all practical purposes, the enseay transmission takes place instantaneosly, ‘Tals fact ha important pracieal consequence, to be decosed in laer chapters 22 ADDITIONAL FORMS OF ELECTRIC ENERGY In addition to electromagnetic energy, Weare concerned in EESE with three addtional forms of elec energy 1 Bret ld ner 2 apo el ey ar 5 Gums outs ee “This form of energy ents wherever in space there is preeot an eletie field, for instance, beeweea te plates of plate capacitor or surrounding the 1 Compare te dicing on wave propuatin Cup 10ites of a tmnsmision Line. I iy found in vem deste that can Be coupured fom t ds ‘Geol ~ Where E = electric eld strength, a before er Wel? eo 1 60 5pp X10? = dielectric constant forvaceem - 6 = relative dziectse constant of medium in question We ote the terminology thatthe letre ld energy storia the sets ” can nt cy no pt 3 ita mre sem meron Serengeti tearm, a Sauce tens teermas cette Sach Sag ope Siem oe Since is ces i conta roupou he Ho) mone Af we tu hint ney (Jermte s srecoont Bet wae en rar te Sti ux deny ene in Vat, We wl be chal cnr ‘Sth ori and ner eda, hare we ae he reeSonhip. andi sc.) ees the sel £9 28. ee —f tk Fe29 Silene capacton > “Tee cpactance Co theese i and tho oii wy ntor Ws os) “ri forma cam aly Ge pote ad for ay apo omy nd athe Magnetic eld enery tiny is found everynbere in Space whete there i a magnetic eld present. its enesy volume density is computed From diver kat) where H = magnetic Bld strength, as before iy = fn 10-T = magnetic permeability of vacuum (2 = eleive magpti permeability of medi in question = han HE Wain e109) Just as in the case of the cletic Feld energy. we obtain the ftal ragnetic field energy by integration ver the total Yolume whete the feld Fora circuit element (co) having the inductance Land earyng the current i, we can easily derive the formula ni Ws on representing the total magnetic feld energy stored in the coil The vo symeteicequations (29) and 2-11) are qt refunding the inductance fnd capacitance for various cirri elements We shal later we them Tor 1h for tal wae aa ere mes ey ie i Wns a rma Gm mutt wat ew thm ae £4,210 cee th Singer E10 ‘FToemapoee tl nny fovmaa ors son tinge soul code wena ‘donald tobe tuna nae Fares fra yam of ts fey the cen yan we mee HE (ot te asec he tar ne st em) Wie an osthat purpose. We shall also return to those formulas in our dtcusion of| ‘reatve power in Set. 23 ‘This oer of energy is dissipated imo heat whenever a cutrent Bows in a estive medium. "On pervolume basis tht energy dsipation takes place atatimerstet dre ti er where T= current density vector, Ala = specif resistivity, 2°, of medium in question es) Example 22 s contr of length Lm and wna rs A crying 4 ta rn fmm sure ryt Ni), wea rt a poles = o snd hi vs he wlan forma at sion, mont ow en 1s many instars his heat inipation ncn 3 afl ew fr, ‘erexamp, ianccaly Mad ow. Insts nan here te cen ergy ma tm conse so ergy." Tis aay ten ano bk cig Die Dustoioe ese hts romen wales ae ‘haved poner a Pan = 17 orm aly as to ae, Eo wie enw) nani ad ear edi we base Best Vin and 85 18 rs 10 ler Ea, 4, By making we fw elite he areata bin Pow . ats) By puting th powers in'elton tau omer we et tee ale 20 “Tis oma aches wa npr’ Rn The rei lat of pone lt Inert ppt he ie of he amo sige “The lst example brings into focus the need fr high transmission volt- ages, AS an extra bonus, a high tansmision voltage also rents isi treated “transmistion capocy,” x concept we shal explain in the next chapter. 123. De VERSUS AC FOWER-CONCEPTS OF REAL AND REACTIVE POWERS ‘The fist power transmission systems put into operation in the early 1880s Gncluding the historic Pear Street, New York, plant built by Edson) were ‘operated on dizectcutrent. Singl-phace alternating current came into use inthe United States in 1890, polyphase alternating cuenta few yeas ltr ‘Three-phase alternating current has dominated the Scene snes the lat ocade high-voleage direst curent has reetered th pictre, and a8 ofthis ‘wating several important diet crren links are in operation around the orld. eis sae to say, however, that three phase alternating cater wll eimai the dominant tansmision method forthe freyeable Tatu Direct current has some inberent advantages that make it the ideal tcansmision medium i cere stan, Alterralagcortent, oa the ater hand, can be easly generated and conveniently tansformed to high vlige levels, and sine cheap and effective ae mors can be Dut, this has naturally become our most common form of else enery. We shall proceed to present some ofthe Fundamental characteris of ae power. We sal tart with single-phase and demonstrat Inter the advane {ages ofthe thee phase technique Consider, therefore, dhe case where the voltage and current in the system depicted in Fig. 2-la.ae ofthe snusokdal forts aay 1 = fax Sin (ot — 9) YBy using Eq. (2-3) we thus obtain the folloning expression forthe. tl power: P= 21 = Paualane 50 sia (at — $) p= Sessets fos 6 — cos @ar — #)} ex We introduce at this juncture} the efective, or rms, values of eutent and voltage in accordance with L WIE Fatae 1 2p 11 tae may aad can then write Eq, (222) a5 follows p= [Viliicosd —[VNle0s Gor 4) 029 “The teansmitted pover evidently pulsats (Fig. 2-4) around an average power (\V||1\c05$) at double ragian frequency 20. During certain periods fhe power actuallys negative, indicating thatthe energy How during thee Interval i in the negative dreton. Lynn th sini ie a el tay at fae ‘Bw ttt scout dro rove sy yb ef "Comer he ena volage tn ennai) Wy ym i nag ew wt = ttn) = Vit tnt = fo eso i he pe ote = Vitm vem) ‘We teh olloning eae about pases: 1. We ymtoize tem by capa ter mle 2 Apher maps = na eget maf cempondig 2. Aphtor asa piss /¥ = ta gu de pase angle othe tne ction. Fig 24 Vos, cen and peri saghephase cit Equation (2-28) can be transformed into p= [Villloos 61 coe ot) — [ViMisin sin 20 025) We have actually decompose the power ino two components (marked 1 and Hin Fig. 240): the fist plats around the same average valve 38 before bur never goes negate, ad the second has a zero average valu "We intodace here the fllowing two quantities: 2 |V|INc05$ real, or cto, poe VIllisin reactive power ~ and can then write Eg, 2-25) more compactly. p= Pll ~ os 2at) ~ Qin 2or -‘These newly defined concepts ae of tuch fundamental importance io TEESE that we find it appropiate to say few words about shar meaning 1, The eal power P is defined asthe everage value of p and theefore, ‘physically, mean te wefel power being wansmited. Its magnitude Legends vey strongly onthe pomer factor cos. 2, The reactive power Q ie by definition equal the peok vale of that power ‘component that travels back and forth on the line, resulting in zero fsverage, and therefore capable of no useful work " ‘Pand 0 both have dimension watts, but to emphasize the fac that the latter represents a “nonstive,” or “restive,” power, i i messed in e>o eco | | . 8 “|b Bo soltomperes reactive (ears). Laggerand move practical units are ilovars nd ‘epavats, elated, a5 follows, tothe base ual. UE ntvar = 108 kas vars ‘Table 2 summarizes the real and reactive powers for the most ‘commonly encountered load types, Note in particule, that an inductive load absorts postive Q. Tn power lingo, we say thst an inductor consumes reactive power, A capacitive loud, onthe otber hand, absorbs negate Q. ‘Wesay that a capacitor generates eactve power. The'gn situation should not pest any mystery tothe atetiveceader, who wil cline that a gn change in Q simply means 2180 phase shin the second power component in Eq. 225, a the following example we demonstrate the physical relationship between “reactive power” and the magnetic Bld eer. ample 24. consider the ouh enya Table 27, Le these AE eu, Ihe Tote the fom i = VEIN enw ‘en Ano fom pl it aay tse cet il be fe fxm f= Visor = yee Teron ae sng . Tren By utattton to Eq (229) we heroes po gta - o rei a tee Ona wr ‘es polo sate be ace power to the stra magi lé nergy sate cdg sncecewtsEg (21), ey ale venience git mea] om “The rte of charg fh aed cme it et aan gr — eon at Fin (or — eos oe = 8) yn =e snae net $2240) ~ #)~ Osn2001 —9) om Te at tp ftw rm Bg, 2-20, We cbc: “To opel ny at vrs telly with a eqn f 20, eng nay nee “Ta fem fly ifs tae pve ompoen in Ey. 228) ther compen a ria, sd ie pe es fal) oe ad (Songer hea whe mgr ld gy ‘antl mala ae Bre} of he apc cis woud reel sinatra eee een per he ted este ed nary ‘te caput Treen hurl comer et oer sine he aly expan the ply nate of ease per "wel continatnso a a ad a eau, a shown Fig 2A spe patent Eg.) elu tt aanecae powers 28 pe sro ‘ibe el tad epson especie are pom — (PM sin200 p= Md in200 [Anca exp the power ate 10" ou of ps, Th tale power p wl ‘etna vem of 4p pret pe= Pld ~ a0 Nat hat re poe pp and ee py ate, ‘As inuretng yr ue bane ion seh onelf rene ‘oe cae and id Be now eel ae hoor te owes pp Fin 25. Poner fom in LC cect mae Taamiion ee Pow tom Fie 24 yc analog of ogg ten, ste sgat capes Te pepo Amb eae Ppl Spot Tania, ele ere rs ae Coenen ae eo Seem ta Sa caper See oe Ferrin ‘The transmission system jst deserbed & referred to a8 sngephave. TE probably kas occured tote reader thatthe gest drawback a thi arrange= ‘ent isthe pulating character of the power. -Wernay ras ausefalyralel ‘with the hydraube system in Fig. 246, characteried by a pulsating motor Shalt tongue. Considerable torque improvement can be ebisined by an “2d Fe 2 ys ang of repay.‘poems toss Fig 24 ‘Thee phase anin ystem, arrangement of the type shown in Fig. 2-7, consisting of three parallel: ‘operating single phase systems. Note that i the crankshaft hat the pat= ticular design showa inthe figure, then the iastantaneovs total id flow i ero, This means that we ean diveard the thee individual return pipes. Note also that we very well could have used larger nomber of pistons fo achieve the same smoothing effect onthe shat tongue By taking acue fom theaboye hydrate alo, wearrveat the clase three-phase transmission system depicted in Fig 28a." "The theeepbase generator supplies the thee sinusoidal phase voltages VMI sin or y= ViIMLsin (or 1205) i ean VAM sin (ot ~ 240%) Invernally inthe three-phase genetitor (Chap 4), the thre phases are cconected 10 3 neutral point which usally is growed. “The tee phe tollgges tt, ade ate therefore Usually measured relative to ground he If the load is balanced, oF symmetrical, the three phase currents will then be ofthe symmetrical frm . = VIN si erg . Vili (or — 0-4) * ean) b= VB IN sin (or — 240" — 4) I we utlize the phasor method of characterizing voltages and currents, we obtai the phasor diagram shown in Fig. 28. ‘The toa transmitted three-phase power equals the sum of the ndvid- val phase powers Pam ht Oh od, aay By using Eqs. (231) and (2.32) and ater some simple trigonometric manipulations, we obtain forthe balanced ease Pg = SIMI Mleos g os) We note thatthe tots! instantaneous three-phase power is constant, having a magnitude of three times the fel power per pase. We thus have Py a 3P eas) In these two ast formas P [7], and [represent perphae valves, We make the following easly’ confirmed observations about the alonced tee phase tansnsson system 1, The algebaic sum ofthe three phase currents equal zero. No return ‘conductor is therefore needed in a balanced threephase system. 2, The algebraic sum ofthe three phase voltages alo equals 20 3. The three Ine volages (neasured between the three phases) are of equal ‘nagnitude (VJ. The following selaonship exists between the line and phase voltages a l= V3¥! ~ z a) When refering toh otage eel of tree phase sytem, one inaribly amderstand the fne voltage, Ta teas of the ine voltage, the power ‘equation 234 rads = p= VSIA em 4 Since the instantaneous powers constant, we are tempted to assume that the reactive power sof no importance in three-phase system. This is not the ease. Note thatthe power in each phate sil sof “sagle- hase type," as dascibed by Eq. (2-27) .eee etl lel leeks Compare: The three phase caren add upto 2er0, but they are still ery och in evidence in each phase. 5, Equation (2-35) telus that the three-phase ea power equals three times the single base real power. Weare thus led to ask whether smi orm, i, C= 30 23) is aplicabe forthe reactive power, We realize immediatly thatthe concept of “three-phase eastive power” Qs, makes a8 ltl physical sete as would the concept of @ hreephase‘curent” yy 231, "Newrteless, when ‘we refer 10 reactive power ia a three-phase system, we-ahaye expres it as & “ehree pase power” in accordance with Eq. (2-38). The only reason for thin strange custom” i to obtain symmetry between fala reactive powes. (Compare Example 26, below) It shovld be added, however, that the use of pet-unit values (se below) eliminates {ny confusion between “pins” and "three-phase" values. 6. Due tothe complete symmetry between the thee phases, iti sufcient, i analysis, to determine the curtent,vokage, and power in one phase, the "reference phase" only. The knowledge of these varabls fo one phase immediatly implies knowledge inal phases. We refer to this fs perphae anal ‘We exemplify some of the above points by tie following example Example 24 Theale induction mtr oa ote of SEXY tanainion ‘vor an beeps an mgeance 210+ 020 pepe ; shown nF 29. (St sho dnsion of fond fepresentation Chap. 3) ‘ z ‘We wh dete the land restive powers bce by ad pr 5 to te ase ‘Soe th choles tet te pass, we iit on lis topum noni We commer heen ahr edorom pase Ye DHE aptamer eA . . nn t= BOG amie cots = ae wo + Tear rer by wig 9.23, we hen bain forthe ot pone (e510 pr fase) “sot tf ylage a creat ath form re sre in Ab vas, he Soha pone cone ont ety in megs) From Ey (20 we en (hale fore ate pone pe ase rags VI AM x 0798 1 O80 = 1S se 0998 0600-382 Mompise (e166 Moa te ee pe) 24 CONCEPT OF COMPLEX FOWER tier he snp cat sho a Fig 1a, wich may, fo xml re he be the hepa etn 29. Weave forte o = i ia.240 Perpineeproeatton of trees 0Gr voltage and current phasors vane raed We introduce now te conjugate current deied by ~ heyew ex) ‘wbereupon we form the product ve 40) ‘This product has a very useful propery, which we may confirm by subuituting I into Eq. (240), We gst . Sa Mt = Meets = yin ere ‘The phase angle /V — /Listhe carl introduced 4 angle (Fig, 2-108), and we this get Sa [Met = (ViMeos $+ jIVIMsing=P+j2 G41) | ‘The las step follows directly from the defini of Pand Q. We can wre Eq. (2-40) ip two alternative forms by using the relationships Vazl nd ‘we obtain Inw Sayryt- rp sour = 200 By summarizing, we ths have the thee alternative power expesions S=P+j/Q= Vl =ZUIh= ¥e\Vp em ‘The complex number S defined by Ege, (2-40) is relersed tos complex ‘power, Upon computing 5 Trom either af the thee alternative expressions (@-12), we obtain P and Q simply a5 the real and imaginary parts of S, especialy. "The magetude [S] ofthe complex power is referred to a8 apparent power, Tecan be expesed in any one of several ways I)= |= VP es) ‘The unit of [S| is obyjously voltamperes (VA), but in ELSE we prefer the larger units KVA or MV. The practical signiennee of appceat power isan rating wnt for generators and wansformers (Chaps. 4 and 3). = o ig. 244 Muon ce. ‘Ver ote we dit convein to we he matin ule for comple: power" Conte te to case sown nig 2-11 Tote ses eat ie {eadul sees elements abort, scoring to Eg. QA) the idl powers sv=unZ, Sour, unZy “he fol power eq Sqm Siac we hve Vat lt Men wecan wrt he ot power an Shag (Cy + Tog $b LI PZ Ma We herr obtain the summation rile ' ser$s sae etnies“The caer wil easily verify that this summation rle also applies tothe parallel iri in Fig 2-11, where S, now means the power absorbed bythe 2h admittance, Let us give examples ofthe use of complex power. ample Lsicimpeti lan power ene ESSE know nis emp, te sag and ings bt mt te wr iconv eet fr EG. P= _ 960s jams +78" ie 908 +006 = From Eg (40) me hen gt ey rye (few ienes0ype2 “Tee, the, athe perp as of P and Q, Sie he vgs ea tivo he owes Come tn sewn tn, we we eae ‘lng deci we met obtain el, or Be pas, alge Pag 10g C38NCONE + 0006) = 188-4116 | __Terae soul ompare hs oe ethod Wh the one edn Example Example 2 Coser a4 snd expe he sion ink epic in Fig 212. "Psi coulé mpm anemone sonsstog two he, a08 of 8 peop Fi ora dacs ah ym nF 212 a oe ein of ne hap 3 = % . : Fe 2 Fepae prsan of pe estane .... esta negro or po ane) ig tad ‘rs hin te owing tapes REISS rite fen 7g nde nee NGS anttigs i! Foray tt ence ay ‘palette Cal ont een eh nl ie ibsrtep” weap espn ya eee TASS eee ab gd es (drectd ent fom the reco bce Siac we ota for he ie powers Wraekterten Sam tt foun Mae = YL = WE WA eter 7 se araencrrers as Sim fn vicar = warts We tod som he rere cael ~ 8 Le, th pies ang een be wo bs vag. Uj mbiuton of 3 in 0B edhe cptag pain nol tcupy CEIPAY— RIANA + XU dla) coed cv ee ive —r0v4rtc008 LH IVh=08) ey (RIV ~ RIV — XIV and) @, crim a ppt rir faems ation Ao lf gs ee tio tn saad al ee neha sect at ata ora one el ~ 25 ERUNIT nuPRBSERTATION OF IMPEDANCES, CURENTS, ‘The eects power systems engineer prefers to express impedances, currents, voltages, and powers in per-unit values rather than in ohms, amperes,Iuloyolts, and megavars of megawatts, Several advantages can be gined by this pct 1. Per-oit val repretentation results in more meaningful and easly ‘coreated data 2, There willbe less chance of mixup between phase and tne voltages, Single-phase or three-phase powers, and, inthe cate of transformers, between primary and Secondary voltages. _Ascume we are informed thatthe armature resistance ofa de machine ‘equals 530. What does this piece of information communicate to us about te relative magnitude ofthe resistance? Realy, very ite! Ifthe machine ielarge, the given numeri value could indicate an unl high resitance vali ifthe machine happens tobe small the opposite wil be tue, ‘Assume gow that We ae informed about the fsstace in question in the following roundabout manner: "The resistance has such a value that if ‘avd machine curent is pased through it the voltage aos the Impedance ‘will amount to 11 peceat or 0.11 per uot ofthe rated machine voage.” ‘Ata fist lace the second alternative would seem tobe an uanecessary complication. Certainly “$382” i more concise statement than the 33+ ‘word gentence. However, It us now initead of using the gven sentence, Sinply debte thatthe resistance equals “O11 per nit,” of "Il peeert”” "Thetwoalternativeate cow equally concise, bet the perunit vale gives, In addition, arelaize-magnitude ifrmation wissing in the Best ateroative, "In sytem studies, when many machines of difereat ratings ate it~ voted te more practical to choose « common bave clue for curent and voliage, to which we then can refer our actual values Let [hl and [Val epresent the base current and base vatage, expesed in kiloamperes and ovots,respetvely. The product Isl= mi ova es) is then referred to as our base MVA. Note that, of the three base values ‘thut defined, only two are Independent. Rather than choote the [4 1% pai as we did, we could have chosen (and thei far more olen done) the [S31 pai. ‘Tn terms ofthe chore base Values, we then dine the base impedance eee e8) 1 Not tat, ent nth ner, he bas pean i spl ta pea one ‘ich we can mene tb ange the caret ough oe [he second stp follows dey from Bq, 248) “The last formula can be witen Birr iS . . ‘nd thi then sigs that our rests come out the same wheter We use perphase valves for|/ and Sor ine values and threw-phase values. But ‘we must always be consistent. Ts tert ofthe four base values thus defined we can now compute pee it value of voltages, eurtents, powers, and impedances, ample, expres the omic impedance Zq in per-unit valde Zu From the dsintion of perunit impedance we bave the following alternative conversion formulas" Za _Zalh\ _ Zalhl a Fe Bie Ke on) ‘When we work with admittance, the las conversion formula reads Lm oy Wa 1 Ym EF ais ~ "1ST on ‘We sometimes need to convert an impedance from one base system, (1S to another one, IF, [5]. From Bq. 2-50) we et By eliminating Za we gst our conversion formula: 7, SIM ISN cos ISP os sample 29 We hve eda pr ty eng a a vu 10 isi 8 Mv, We want to expr in peranit aus te folowing wel, crens, Powe singetan ta ae:We fr compure te tae caret an bse peda Irae son ‘We’ ten diy: ‘Saba mt are B AKO Spee jpn 00 Toe ithe: anspo op > call our problems in this book willbe worked in per-uit vues, ‘the student will get ample opportunity to get aoguanted with this practice, We have attempted inthis chapter to give a brief demonstration ofthe baie physical laws upon which the EESE technology based In pertcla, the ‘arous ele enesgy forms with which we shal be concerned have been discussed. The practically important three phase transmission technique dna teeo presented, and its basic advantage the constaney of transmied over, has been sresed ‘The concepts of rel and reactive powers ive been rGvewed and ‘elated tothe three-phase sytem. These concepts are of sich fundamental importance thatthe reader should not proceed unt he has gained s thorough \oderstanding of them. We have algo reviewed the concept of complex power and introduced’ the reader to the practically important perunit bes: -epesentaton of electrical quantities, Both wil prove invaluable through- ‘out the book. > exercises “a ‘ 2 For hepa apse oy Tale 21 lem), dere epee racine pont Thc pov ta taser th hal t cange fe er ae pe Cope a) 532 The pou option (20 war tad 0 he sump the hae pase oad SE REET ci stain see woh ghd cttw dp Fig 24 Untlacedeepaead . + i212 show pith pew ow ne anal ing com bon, te amptude of wih roporoa! tthe untae BR We ake 8 xno date utaensrettvgy sal Le, Ree Te a num eraee ieee Seem sehr eter ets oon ceeee eee amar aig ent SSme Snes og dea pana PA Ss te tg apt fil a, jn cenit rscymerian pie net oaths ot Ge See ett ao asin hat Vas ¥ by 10.” Taconic wih 9,40, eta ave dF owt ase sg a scaly be con! wtb be eae thee)(Comat ral ad ative ne poner in each en of he ne (6 Compute he tal ine oes Pie + fu Expre al per 2 ol hee pte alos 10 eto thenasume a “Rat vgs profie®[7)= 1H) = 340 and = ‘onchange Comte sgn he inet pours "chang te vlogs rt ck to ee cipal aloes, te, Vj = 350 Vas a0Ky Aad nese he ng 9 se vale 315% nd vlan eve tne pores ‘ot: Your sls hl deorstaehe llowing import i: 1. Atough V7 > el power on si te dein f= 2: Thee ae re iste sal compared with te ral pow fo a he 2 Age abe cage tne ofa tus ot he How of ei owe Dt leat he el poer flow enna eat 4A lange the phe age ae he a ine Rw son 215, For Eaecie 74 t wcoon th loving tse aes [si 2 100MVA — meptase = U1 2365RV | tee vonage (a) Expres the ingesace 5 +40 pe ie then ceva. (6 Expres al ges voltage aco pone in eri of hse basen 26, Example 24 denon that wer ora rons the i es re tiny Sima The power latog bs 1 tas sprout ea the power eng bs ‘West lato hi power computed ft camp tthe erage ls the ee 3 (Sib) ahead power ad symbole Sy Pr ie “Fel vlage twinge eye om Send ale w he te lac tnt tapout, themes lap i re SEO Pov ae tasnon oun my Be nt fe arin es) bh oe + mw EO es) (© Sie hat and Vy te en a perp val, the a oul eer ephe an t 3>repesesitepnte per nd Milne ogee {Belo power come ot ep alin “eS Conpare te le pen computed fom the aproxite equation @3) snd So site seta cuted ure Exe, ‘ote: Egan 5) ant (2) tv a he tied real and reasie pons trie pul toes nc ins pea! ston we seed pay ‘a's woman of a po, an ey animne he anni ose ‘ecg GTi ct pied 0 "pote te mac foe aly ze. Equations (25) and (2) so cote out eas igs hatte Hse ae ave proportion fe tee sie aoe rirnecabecpcactia Fg 2H. Hold thinner conductor a he pt "Fe ute los rum. (Gq) Fd formula forthe eae Sl ecngy rd in he ale, expe 8S ae cel irda Sct nits naga i roporna Te te 9) totnd ae enpaon or he calecapacs,xprened Fr Gamer the bowing mans ete: entoen sete tee or te pas niin 18 (igi an He cope Hite Gl ymca mae 09) Wa ote i en tg the racy 0 9H hat 4st cet Pe coms gine iene rv xr, Asan ht ae ae ea ng te ld ters pth Neon “le Pe” a IE MAM zeny dearest condo J rss pref echoed hag Ot ai ikanswSemaasp inal Beeman, Com serene pre.Fig248 Daeconnetsiot. 29. Comite te sum mF 215. Toe od cams of tts el ingots of 21 5 jos ue ning» Wet cries nd The Scat ‘Ree ge 0 pCa he force end cen in. as we sae a hap. $8 pons omer cn be peal y an eet Seve! costing sapy of sake tnpaaes’ "To utter weno pet {evi cnt repose by eng ances Bows'a i216" Prom tt F244 Esai cet of 190 ill wotgtactomers cio cou ea wae 8 at eee eg "Theatre ingen are oye 2 = O05 + jo10 pu, ted spon 20 and 50 MV, 2.= 0006) +0086 ‘pu, bsed on 20 KV and 75 MVA. (Gand 75 MVA arte ating of eh arse) spre he owe seperate bate 00 MVA. - zak tte 27 hoa oan ik pede rm Cope thc per el ant ra) sre by he ae tec cae The [spetune and on or aend MVAAY ue ae ZO pe dk ak Zearpanye z Hi 2, ead po Zaaao pe AM od iq 47 Ci wed ins 2 {E41 Ina symmetrical pase sem be ae volage ate of te fom, = VEIN sae a= Esa (« os, vatrisn (oS) Compute tea power comumed ty a bled load soning of» taco et npn. rove parle tat he power = aR Tip tin wy Garr” Hct ek ‘Coan. New Yh 168 2. rugeny Sand Rip 2 a. wetan Hered Mtn: “omsni! Dyn sh ky & Sora, In, New Yor “ 1 pe Thay tn We Sos Ty Nw York, 182 vr mreecory cher of Rls 103 eae alt spleen ag estes eR Tt tryna a PIR mer mH)3 The Electric Energy System— Operational Considerations 1 omcrives “The basi obec of an loci energy spt is to supply elec energy to ihe various de trouphout ages ten aren, Propel dged and operated, shold et he folowing requirements: 1 Te must supply energy practical veyie the customer demands 2 The ood Sando eal ad eee pone ay wi We The ysis mst be abl to supply ths ever changing demand 3. The delinered energy mt mex ein minimum requirement in regard to "quality." Thve basic factor determing ths quality (2) coastant feoqeney;( constant voage: (2 igh aii) 4 show dive energy at minimem economic abd ecological eons Ia this chapter we examine those factors that closely affect these objectives. We start by discussing the system structure as being of basic Importance in regard tothe geographic avaaity of electric energy. We next deine the iranamisson egpacty, which concept determines the power Uwansision capabilites ofthe network. "The character of the (pial “Toad” i Investigated, followed by isussion of those factors that determine frequency and voltage conten. Lastly, we concern ourselves with the questions of relailty and economy ‘An Getic power system is ever a simple sth ont depicted io Fig 24, characterized yo generator, ooc lod nd oe trammion line ied, en the smallest power system constitutes an eecrc eter of vas con pleuty. The oe factor ha Getermine the stem sua more that aay ober syste BE ~The ag intl oer company ithe Uated States hasan operating are covering sven sas and has speak Seman of 10,600 MW and an sonal production in exes of €7 ion EW (1970 figures. The engineering objectives undeying the ign of fe 6 000-mile network must of neceaty be very difeeat from those Cat ove the contruction ofthe sytem fos sal ical company witht toad less than 1 MW. We shall not hee eter into = dicussion of the fessons of economia, pola, historia, and sechoolgia nae tat lie behind the present sie dissbuton. By pointing ow te get diversity itsyrem magnitude, we wish omakeit carta thre are wo ett Ts ‘egacding pe stucre thal apply toall sens. Is poste however, {oer ceri smarts trating the aot, deed mon ths sysems, ‘All systems do one thing common: opet at various voltage eves separated by transformers. Stating wh the lowest Voluge lovee can iingsth the following Iyer ntl zed 1 Distibution fe! (econdiy and primary) 2 Submision lee 4 Transmision an po! eel Figure 31 shows schematically how atypical sytem i srutured from a yoltagelevel point of view, ‘The dtribution ccs one te Gt meses in the over neon Uta, wo don vhage ev a td etn 1. The primary, or der, vohage (fritid, 13200 ¥) 2 The secondary, cotangent, OV) ‘The distribution cigs, fl from the dirburon subsarions (rah former stations), supply energy to the small (Somes) oF medium-sized (mal industrial and commer) eastomers + sets Distribution enginerng is io itself a subtchnology of considerable Jmportance and varity, covering the problems of overhesd or undergrouodae | = OT) PF t a gol y Ea ee an Fie oversea sce ¥ service, metering, switching, and fusing. A typical system may have Bali ‘apt investment in distribution cris . ‘The subtrensmisioncircitdistibues energy to a numberof distribution substations in a certain geographical area t a voltage fvel that typically aries between II and 138 AV. Tt ceceives tha energy diretly trom the ienerator bus ina generator station or via bidk power substations. Large fustomers ar served diretly from those stations ‘The role nf a subtrasmission sytem is mainly the came as that of | stibution sytem, except cha it serves a larger geographical area and iscibutes energy in larger DIOSKS at higher power sod voltage levels. Tt ‘should be poated out that in many systems there ae a6 clear demarcation Tines between subiransmision and tanemision creits Increased load density makes it necestary and economical to supernipse @ new and highs ‘oltage grid on the existing one. In this way yesterday's transmission network becomes part of tomorrow's Subtracamitsion newark. haiecs: : E32. Radi and oopsiycued ystems, ‘The ttansmision system is distinctly difereat in both its operation and haractristcs from te distribution and subtacsnsion systems. Wheat" te later two simply des energy from a single source and east i individual loads, the function of the wansmision sytem ite dferene ‘Not only does it handle the largest locks of power i aso atrconnet al the generator stations and all the major lading pont inthe system. The ergy can be oud, generally in any desieddieton oo the vaious Take ofthe tinsmission system ina Way that corespond to test overall petting economy or best serves a technical objective. Via inverts, transport of saergy cn ake place to or from ater power syste ts belonging tothe Power pool See rate a ‘The fundamental difeseee in the purpose ofthe transmison sytem ‘8 compared withthe subtansmision and Ssibuion stems shows ep in the network sractre, Wheres the ater two grea (but aot away) are af ras stevcture (hig, 320, the former tends 0 oan s logp ssc,ss cxemplifed in Fig. 325} A radabypeoetvrk i the obvious station ‘there the energy flow his a predominant don, The loop nveare vow gies ore pth combaations and therefore beter sus the pure po ofthe tanatisien eve. ‘ecase a mentioned, th tanamislon astm isto be capable of sanding the ag lets of peri th yn, we rai agents thr the components (enetore, sores ny nd witching Ee) that ake up this pr ofthe power tem ae not aly the most important, etal tens eginerng it of ve, he os nee one ‘Tranamsion voles ued in hs Coty are ugh at 168 KY as Of ths ting "Kithouph ih design and operation of dition and abrasion eons enti ny important ab iting technical problem ares, Ae are fered fr testo pace, o exclude them frm he seope of is took. The mos sophisticated engcesag probes, an etl the most inporaat om the tysem engacew viewpoint, vale the amin {nanos excel. We reler ber tothe problems ssociatd wth the contol and routing ofthe large Backs of eng tat shove on tis lvl ‘oth daring somal seadystate operation and duriag normal fault oodions ‘Deng onset energy ansminion sytem fas mays withthe dig of anyother tanmporation spe, for example 2 fad Stem,” Many contains mut be een te sso, of hic the more important ate 1 Exiting em 2 Geopapie aon ope nd projet ater cet 3, SER geographical locaon for gonator stations Ta particu ‘vale a fn nd colng tt for the conden mute roan lena ts worth pointing out that the developmeat of a power transmission system isa grdsal growth proces. Te designing gew Ws Tr the set, ‘we mus alvays base the desig on predicted Ovi pateras ofthe popula: tion density aad iadusty of the area. Power companies, by proving {uarates fr cheap and abundant power for tn undeveloped repon, can scully strongly aft the growth of hat region. thin the given constants, and after decisions of economical and often political naire have been made for expansion ofthe system, i 8 up {igs 234 mpm itd “or dag a iin pt, Te Sys fr grenoble, aces ta we alle ght Rese wemtil pe Assi atl stemnon sewer bret es. to the energy systems enginrr to develop designs te are sun from a ‘ecbnosonemicarecolopea vewpis ee conan the geopephial state ad the abc olg apcy of ur intra superhihvsy tem tot be determi’ by een and ‘fate tne tot patterns aod ole 0 mit the desgh of an ete {amit syste be governed by pret nd utire od Bo pater nd fad volume, otto mete 23 Tmansmssions earaerry - ‘Act factor inthe design and operation of «trasmision ster isthe Toad capacity ofa specie transition lik Gai eccn anempng to asst occ energy via «trans sision ik, we would expect for no ate eaton han pte national, tint we would rach nit byoad which no mae energy ean be “jmsned into the tine” In tection we shall vestigate the ints or energy ttanamision under sve condons Le, we sal deve the tl ran Ison capt, o¢ he sate say Tin, of tansisin lnk." The SSrompton we make i tat, y slow creasing the load, we ore slow imeeue ofthe enetey tate cing tanoited va the ik under sty ‘Tobe spe, kt us consider the linkin Fig 212, fo which we hae already derived expression for he tant power “To make the siuaon ar simple ad 5 clean-cut spose, we shall {ntl ake the addon aur tat eine loses we sal Eg th ine rexstance Resides the reactance X. Ths isa reasonable racial sumption, the vay of which ne stall corm in Chaps, 416 {With no real losses along the linet the "seddiag nd” and the “rediiigy nd real power st be egal For R= 0, Egy (247) actualy give fr the wanted real power, = : Wawa Pym Pa sind on ¥ \We remember that 3 cepresened the phase angle between Vand Vy the bus voltages ae kept coast we can write the above equation a Py Poses d 02) where % ne Pros const on 1 We ttf coune ane ec lote in the se stece 1 ug [nics og socompuind by macpsiion of he mace power, a wl be ise ented a Bure(Not that Pe tobe in hreepasemegvat ntif the votges {tensed ithe formalin Woven velar) Tie enly ay inch ve con ofec the maple ofthe onmted perineal, by changing the pc engl 9. When nce oad ees {be raamited power ops his tae place by an incense ofthe pase fnge betwen Py and Yr igure 3-3 shows te reaoaship betwee the tans paves and” Note that he power ees Sig Sg ever ‘tints e decton of power ow i eterine sap by which of the ‘oye, Yor Ye eadig the ober When we fore the t tng a ced ae ay ed roe ot tot ret ina coping nee the tranuited power Aca, ‘then the added load forces 9. B5jo88 90°, the ansmited power stars to Terese, At tis point fered toa the stone statiy Ute stem “pul apart sarily" he, we lowe saehronin betwee the ses and "We may obtain 8 good analogy by consieig te tecanieal ene- snson pura Fig 2. Toru ansion betwee the res Fang CGovresponting to bes Fad) takes place via vo spingoupled dk, fires on i wf ered ree " Ns )—itiyanemiteg aly renee rom bao! “tem bass) $823. oe pone yma peer <> Wipe. seco: Fin 24 chase analog of eloe ‘If we aisume thatthe distance between the disks is negligible, and ifthe spring forces proportional to the length ofthe spring, tbe the frgue T maintained ‘between the shafts eduals T= force x moment arm aR aE and Nm Find 04) where isthe spring constant, measured in newtons per meter elongation. ‘Transitled mechanical power Poy 5 gy, T, and we ts Have Pom= ta snd = Pad W os 4 campasion of Eas. 2) and 6) shoud conf the analogy berwern the ectteal and mean tanssion stm The reader Sica undertand what happens in be mechanical csr wen we atop {Denn power incre of Paws va ‘the enimut rel Powe? Pou 0 £4. G2) represents the state onto ope ft ak opted aed i th Senta‘bus voltages). We pote two important characteristics of Par? 1. Te increases as she SGuare of transmission voltage. 2 Ieninvene proportion to ine eau. ‘We therefore agin bave found a good reason for high transmission voltage Low series rectaces ia our tassmsion systems are ali. Gesrsble feature, They may be obtained by paralleling lines, using “bundle ‘conductor or insertion of eis capacitors, We shall discuss these matters Chap. 6 ‘The above derivation of Paar Was made fra Jsslesstansmision link. ‘Theseudentis invited to perform the analysis forthe lossy casein Exercise 32. “The incremental igcrease ia wansmited power, AP, as caused by 2 smal increment Ad inthe angle 8, i a measue of the “letra face” of the transmission link. These increments are shown in Fig. 33. We efine a sifes, oF synchronizing, coefiient Py a Ty Se a FE = Puc 06 ys obviously measured in regawats per radian, and the reader should appreciate its close analogy with spring constant, Not that, as 3 Spproaches 90, the tifinesr goes to zero. This isthe reason why We Seldom operate ur lines with pawey angle 8 in excess of about 30 t0 45". ‘Thespstem i geting clecicaly "sli" the closer we approach the stability imit (The mechanical system jn Fig, 3-4 has the same feature) sample 34. To obi fe fr te sings ved, tw compte eta ‘alot foto let int hanna ne nn 10 rl ca be Sienna of ah keri ct eis ena osu aes ap Pa = 12" sew reeginse a BT i mi weg 1 ne of fag nat "Ean 0 ol ae aon ge TM 7 woh ne ee pe 8 a ie 24 LoaD CHARACTERISTICS We have on several occasions referred to “load,” “load inpedais," et, “without giviog much juaifeaton for oUF assumptions. For example, we have assured symmeity between the phases, wich presupposes that wbat- fe the load {it i equally dstbated between che three phases. This Sppropriae at iste to presenta more detailed discussion of ypeal Toad characters. “General, the term load shall efer to 2 vie or conglomeration of ceviees that tap energy fom the network. Ina practeal situation the Toad levies ay cange ffm a few-watt night lamp to moitimegawatt induction stot," poner sytem, prope Gexgned, sal becapate of sping Tiley wal orien, ts powbito dive the vas oad devs we may ‘ncounter into the fllowing categories: 1 Motor dees Gtaing tionary oe inte ny and porate fpesin transportation equipment tras, 2, ffating equipmeot 3. A diversity of electronic ges. 4 Lighting equipment Raise From an eletial point of view the multitude of deviees are charac- terized by vast dflrence in egard to: 1. Sie 2 Symmetry ingle or three-phase) 5, Load constancy (in respec fo time, feguency and voltage) 44 Use eee (regalar oF random use) Foc example, indus loads may hve fe, if any eemblaees to ome onde reper tall she sbove catego. A cerain 3p of sere oe may se had up 09 pent flare ice-pve mote with ‘eluate oad contany ad very peditable dy je (on at 8AM Sita Sra). Acyl desi nd onthe contrary. ay const mst SFicplte appt operted in random nun: by howseives How ot nmap sour puting any vein sh ptr? Th it fr hat he stoacon ota hopeless appear at ist lace ine tr oe ono Che sence) thee, ‘Rabdeaonds may beeney random in characte, acetal average pater reas stad at the dbution ensfomer At he sUUaRE wie is averaging ett sll more pronounced. Finally at he enum vel, we rte an almost predictable satin, +‘To ve fair, we must admit that we “hep” the aw of statist to work theie way. For example, onthe distribution lew! we always dstibate, by pn enon (sono bel arr. r 1. Medi voaepoi tTe ot volags mt e ep fo n= 1.00. pe Twristore decir . 2, Tie ean equ 93 9a Restance I age! frases ayet0 |-175"| roows20 2oatit00 ” ig. 17, Twobus em S02 100499 po Sm= 2004/1009 ‘pe 4 Of he ttl el nd (— 3007), ony 109 pu cab generat a C2, de 10 {ereator sins "Thrdoe eld off yom beer ram G1 wean Bee we ped wth te say et ed the olwgfrma for the ne pwede fom Egy beng =O. HM ay it WA ona) ow 4 stv eed) - ‘Shs meow he agua of ele power andthe magus of ‘ibaa, we on fm wo ar ouaone ed Temong npcaomeaty meen preter aap, S27 iS pent mgouate or et) (© Compr E05) the hg nF ad 0 vag ne eaeney ‘shinee bp tp a 132 Theat nsmion capt ge in Eg: wa dried one aumption of ‘Sorufnoua Rae tion pon Neha i eld recongend al powers tt mo gel ia Fide mia for ‘Stage be) ht a eit i he co pe 2. Comider angle 32. Compute erga rece ott rom each ert ie nh Nd stage pie cancer Sy Wl= 100 pe ¥ Wi 095% pe a ‘eh eee ata sits au el geen a was ed Inthe te Wat doe he eee tae you? S44 A tannin oe raed By 4 pl etune of 30.0 par pee To inert power tasmlsion cpu, we Sigs to rece th smgedan® 40 poet fp by nering eer capo each pase ale “sre ompenan), $e ages magrtds evn expe Row ne hee EA pe ae Fos ion soe {cee he capaciane pr pe a st be ital in ero ecomsh he dl compen Ui te tad commarcily Sue capac Hevea votag aod ue cage tion Yo mts mihi is a nee cevicdcnpton? What bust oe gi! eapatunce pnt be ‘Hon acy lava wld ech oat pegus enn coe Boye ae tne? low many than moult posed flyin ve Pe 35. A poner sem hat an nse feta pay 3 200 MW. "The oy Sion ee etn st es en fur ote yf oe sry of 10400 A (or OKWH) The een ‘0 Hs ante Sten en pert energy tlie orate ero ‘Soden al rene o30 Sw (22. pce oft apa) At wot alee ‘Spot in era per con, wil the hegeney Seca wo compere iy he inh ta te en den hat ee ig teal tts of tne when, deo Ute ag nthe ean op, he ns ‘ale ave oo yet ste open) 135 Comer» iarsnin ln acter ty R= 0, Te ne 6 opriel at Imam psc, Pa 8 ~ 9% and wth bah ei vlageeal Of pene Dhaeas me ponte = “s) Prive tne evo he ne ait oth sing un po, (Prove that th soag sr messed wade oly 0.1 23: ie Eerie 3-5 on aor” the sgn og ig, we oud inane ie canon spay ofthe Specialy pov that Pe oe can bs Se yet nig po et eo a ‘Spec te mle volges I puter tee lug ay. the ens ‘Sota be he ecco ae ate pment dpi Compares Bane 32) Sg Tete (10) conan ari, FIV: Pn iy AN On. Thc, Hemant sa equ we mst spay fe fara the eg ‘neo flow estos Sf he epunons For ange Exple 37 we had spied] == Lp ant Pg = 10 pu_We cold afr 8, Od Qu “el Spaay 338s | “ind = pu You should at ave ay aie svi fo ete akowns Pa Qu 288 Oy. same = 8 py ‘d'spesy Pa 10 pe t8d Oa r= 0 pr NOW youl ave, ity fading etki 3, [Pe and i Epa why 2.9, dering Eq. 0-13), zou tly he sponte sito ha he ie poets eel aught helo ee ta ou er be cme {nome computational sles when we att fod the cure fe rE (Gia)and appv hone sendngend weno Vf he ome nee we Js kn Plies) omen, ne pp the or ote eng en we bape pou ‘rr be stage Pct we do notin ae oe olge ). ‘se an approach the pobam i he owing me. We sine» reonabe vale for Fad te yon th spon, ean ln ta praia sso fr ‘On the ba of taf va, we song he wll pan teh tin spproninae rete va for ha we Srl sued. "Ws hu ot ‘Wecsmpute «con, an eer, ate fea ne an he pat the le re ‘Tassel an te computtinl proce r atenwe conjnton th 2 ipl compute Tye erate prose opped when we converge 08 * son (ow do we knew went sop tae aon ids for Ya a po te wing Line spite: 2a +00) yu hatm fe ps Leeda be2:100 #80" pe Ti youve the petty, rogram te tern opltins on a amp. 1510, Comite RCS ingens oe Gem 6) in Table 21. We me 100) af eadone “The vole 10 on, Copa Sef. 27311, ef and 22). hs ea. ‘st, Asus that th od Exec 35 taste cacti = mote y {ene aseme hate ageing ace the rte moe seg a wha ne sues lhe ste ee of olonng heSOMW boa? Capes pt ‘thane ens vera ee feign oad cee “512 Concer he easnison Ine Fig 2-2. The Ue hua recta of 0095 po Sad nepiple rstance ‘Slaton re ering th haa aoa ge pulsing i the ‘uid cleats of ve great ar aig te to Ds veges ate at In) =100 pe ‘ ivi=08s pw : “he ste ity et fh ne evenly 10 po MW, .i We consider now the operations! ees cacti y the lowing a ie owen Case By = pew (Ge Fym Spo MW (Coe I = 8p “The tie cn correspond 10, modal, 8H ne od. (a) Conpte the tne he ows, ad Qui thee ae 6 a anh etc cadet nh, tag ng inh renin fo Prine tage oe ep comat rughou, G Netang nth Plow caeny ase Q Bom Dilley sate, he @ ‘tow imine change tbe Pf, Doe the ero al ine oa ait te sii? How? 1 Zateanty, 1, and JW, Riterhowe: “Else Power Trnemiic,” The Rol ‘Pre Conan, New Yok 93 2 Morlee, Ife nd M. We Homey Dave, “Power System Anas" Chaps tnd Hal id Landa, 188 9. simenaan, W. Bat of Power Sytem Analy” 24 ed, McG Book Compa, New Yor, 1962 4. Taboun G latodactn to Ekt Power Spt 4: naar fanvloin Poe Amon iy AS ‘Now Yor. 53. 6, sg 0. Wand LEAs: “Coop Meh in Powe Stns Aa ‘Mecra fl ook Copan, Nes York, 198 2. wendy, BM "Ente Poet stone” Jom Wiey & Sons le. Now York, 1967. 1 Waodkor, Hs sPence of Ext Por anon" Chapan sn a Lids ‘ongo, 16 : 9. abl Ke! “Evcieal Power Syren Engng Problems and Solon.” "WcGrawil Book Company, New Yor. er sn pty tie Um of Bgl Cpe io Eat ove: See" ‘cl re, News up Toe, Egan sou BGA ed) Hecne Trsemiaon td Diirbuon* Msi ‘Book Company, New Yor, 1984 12, Hore, RA Adal Sto in ea PonerSytem Dein" Chapa & TH Londen, 196, ee tna bi’ nr eel Ald ppt esetostnlcuey rn eon ep en ray Ree although not uming to bee cera, Rant gen cel or sring mw sade itt she Per bless arto be uningrdane st tt suerte usantagel bgt spel) Inno! Teook 18. Keni, M, H. al "Dynamic Modeling of Londs in Sabiity Studies.” paper 6 “PE ePit, ASMGEEE hat Foter Geonon Cov, an Foto, Stes ioe 1: se & wes ae Coputon: Nanton Sy, on 15 re in th Na Penn Sp 1, oy 10, 16 too "Pome Geneon Syn" Mr Bok Campy Net 10 The tof Fregny and lage co Power Syem Lan IEEE Comite4 The Synchronous Machine—. System Model Representation — “The synchronous generator, the three-phase transformer, andthe high-energy tepnsvisson line consiute the basic components of an elestc enerzy fystem.. The reader hat no doubt been exposed tothe theory af all these devices in his previous couse work. Ieis tempting, therefore, © skip these topics altogether and proceed with our main busines, the study ofthe overall system, However, we will not take this approach, forthe folowing reasons 1. I the ceader ie junior: or senior-level student, he will most probably have been exposed isthe theory of some or al ofthese devies ina lementry way ony 2. Ifthe reader is «practicing engineer, bx most probably has 9 thoro¥eh knowledge ofthe operating characteristics of Yes devices in terms of clasical steady-state models. From a ystenranalyss point of view, ‘hese models ae not powerful enough, pacar) iT we ae consemed ‘with the dynamic system behavior Boos 4 Seat Sig of phn you acing ‘Gur discussion of syncizonows machines in this chapter, and of the teatsformer and wansmisson line in the Next, does not pretend to be a Comprehensive treatment, | We ae focusing atotion on omy those charac> teriscs that are important from a spams point of view. Indeed, we will assume that the reader {s fir wih these devices tothe exeat core sponding t a modern introductory course. ‘Arnot of caution before we proceed. A synchronaus machine isnot 4 simple device. The multitude of windings all characterized by time Varying selFinductances and mutus inductances tend to complicate at and obscure the physical behavior. Whenever possible we shall ry 10 make Use of simple analogs It's Fruitfolto consider the psc! behavior of the synchronous machine ‘before we present its materiel model. - When the machine is operated balanced steady state, it posible to expose some of is most important haracerses by meant of simple aplogs_ We ist remind the reader ofthe buscdesign fates ofthe machine, a sketched in Fig 41. Ifthe machine ‘operated asa generat, Which wll mos often be ie case ia oUF story he‘otoris driven by a prime mover (steam, ga hydrotrbine, fr example). ‘The armature, of stator, wind (only hase as show), i arranged in thee symmetries! phase belts fo soe in th stator surface." ‘The magnetic feld Intensity can te controlled via the de eurrent ia the rotor, or fla, wining ‘A synchronous generator may conceivably be operated alone with single load or is paral with ther generators into &targe network. The later arrangemeat is most common, We have depicted a typical sytem arrangement in Fig. 42. A toa of ngeerators are connected toa system, ach generator vi a generator hus ‘The th generator Gr supplies the comm: plex power Sq, = Poy + 0a to the system. Its bus i kept at the volrge Iagaizae [Vj and te system ie running symchronosly at the lrequenty Each machine may be controlled by means of two contol forces, oF input, ‘the rotr (of feld)curtent andthe mechanical shaft torque tan Wht ‘ther one or both ofthese inputs are changed, all the above four Guanes, Pow ow Vl, a f, wil generally change, To use the terminology of we may Tepresent each generator asa “plant” having oO ‘control inputs and four control outputs, as depicted in Fig. 43.” From 2 systems point of view it would be desirable o Rave so-called noninteracting conrl ie. by manipulation of eneinput, we would with one, and only one, ‘output to change Tass not generally pouible. Ta the fst place, we have foot outputs but only two inpus. Furthermore, because ofthe inherent physical behavir ofthe machine, thet wll always be eros coupling Between {he two inputs and the four outputs. The degree of eros conpling depend upon the Stem sie ond structure. ‘The best degiee of nonintraction be “ rs = fw $6.63 agtept npn a ‘ion of fed yeaa onto obtained when th system is very large—in the limit case we tak abovt an "iainitely strong network.” Such a network (and i elty many networks come close 10 this theoretical ides) represents a very large moment of Inertah in comparison with any one of the individual machines. I i ‘bows, therefore, that by manipulation of the tongue put ofan invial tmachine ite change wil take pce in the system speed, or Feguency, f ‘Also, since the large network 6 viewed from the individual generator represents 8 270 impedance soure, the individual bus voltage mageinde IV.l ml be Bued and beyond conta bythe ed current In the cate ofan infty strong network, the system requeny f and ‘the individual bus voltages |, are therefore beyond the infence of the individual contrat inputs, andin such a case the four outputs af Fig. 43 feduce to two, the rel and reactive machine outpue Py, and Qn. To tit special ease the conditions for noniteracton are almoet satisied) Masip- ‘lation ofthe Bld current wil lfc the reactive power output only, whereas ‘change nthe salt argu initiated bya change inthe valve or gate settings in the prime mover wil manly affect the real power output. The Jorge change wil alo, ina relatively minor way, afc he reactive power outputs isu we ave a weak ces coupling Setween yy and Qo “The “inate strong” network eepreseas one extreme case of network sian, The other extreme i represented By one singe generator sUppying ‘energy t0 one single load Let us for simplicity assume this tobe an “impedance load," as defines in Chap. 3. Assume now that we increase the forgo input. What will Nappen’ Since no large externa system ae a8 a resent, the increased orgue wil mean incfeaed. speed and thus incresed frequency. The increased speed means increased emf, and therefore increased bus voltage, land we conclude that both thr restive and feal powers wil change. In Summary, the ruque change sets inmotion changes in all four outpts. The reader should similarly examine what happens when we perform & ‘change inthe fed curtet input T¢should be clear from this discussion that we mayexpectin the general ‘ase a fry compliated interplay Between the inputs and outputs ofthe individual machines. Our mathematical medls must be aerutate enough (0 tel the fll stony 1 Compare with th“ alg in Chap. 3| “Te catonship beers the torque apt ad the tal power oui of ‘puchonous chine operate a large stem aye Semone by tens of te mechan analog depted in Fig, 4, Hete we have 8 bomber of "ie" wie, vin ig pear bok re together Dullng& ge teecharel oad. Assume, Bt, tt one of the mesa diese ds onnedad rom he sytem (whch unang aa constant sped) and we ae Sour comet tw he sytem, How wool? te be soxmplicd? Cheat, the conditions mus be se Uelore we can mesh the pas 1. The drive gear A must run with a speed equal to the system gear B and in Proper destin. - 2. The gears muse have matching eth 43. The gene mt have a matching relative postion (phase). Clearly, we cant mesh the gear if they can tooth to tooth Tike above tre codons ae said, we ean smoothly lock te sive gs he te ty Jost pain the ens ose. ‘cr hi "qncrotnion han een scomplied. we ap Fore the inavidal div eet dle power tothe uem ("geet of 10 tte pow from he sem (mor) simpy by contig i trgue, se vung iw hatte vrque ends to alert the ig system, then he she cae ay on pone te te alent Goa weve moter coon ns? te Matson Fig. 44 Meanie aslog of dete tem a Fi, 42. Fige4$. Matis ansog a owt angle 0) Noa poet eau: wae we astume in onder to ake thi sil beter analogy. that the ge ate ettute (or example, made of had rubber, then we ean determine just ty viewing the gears vn a stroscope wheter we have generator of motor Shon and also the depres ofeach. ‘The picture we sts tbe oe in Fig 4 nthe “generator cave," shown in Fig. 458, the drive gear ois ronaing & tain angle abead of the system gear B. The magnitude of the ale ‘Depends upon the magnitude ofthe torque, ix, the power élvered tothe Sfuem., Inthe*motor ete," the situation i reversed, Ta ier the mower Dr ganerator casei the torgue (or powet) is too large, we start fo “skip eth wth desracive resulta The magsitnde ofthis iit (or “pulloot) toegve depends upon (sizeof eth and (2) stesso gear material ‘After this excutsion into the mechasieal domain, et us now eur 10 He ‘ests sytem and ty to interpet the lessons we have learae ‘Ac fo the mechanical eae, we fine rust connect OF “syachronize™ ‘our rochine to the network. ‘This i done by closing the groerator cit Breaker "Thee conditions mast be satisied before we can hse this breaker 1 The generator must run witha speed equa to that ofthe system, an in fpuper diction. ‘This is accomplished when the generator voltage seer teequancy equal t that ofthe system volage a4 the two ae Of ‘equal phase sequence 2, The machine and sysent lege phasors mot be of gual magnitude (, Sse must adjust by meany of the feld current the generator emis 6 Thatch the network voltages). 13. Te machine and system voltages tust Save equa pase ‘Win fete imagination we ea coreate these conditions one by o0e with thoe tha we had to sty for mechanical synchronization, “Goce ey “rare said, we a close the cit breaker, and the machines smoothly Tocked to the systemgrein we cee nah rei ine to opetateasa many cen sly yaa of sca Srtain mechanical angle, power angle, eadi aging trie Breit case machin ie pare Aalog io ourse ou ot pet For eaple itdoey ou eae per Homer oe ot y complated deve and ne slr bee thine" MONE ie similar sitwation preva reppin he eescaease, but che alncing ee ‘machine the required forces are electromagnet a carare se TER 0 Rand he cues inthe a ier re wining 8 the situation as existing Ssie ‘eat cle acing onc i cl se, thecal wl early oo oa ead on tsi app hel ene, fe comping at ctodyamiretcnne se T= FDsin« = BLD Sax Nem (For definition of Vand &'se Fg. 46 ae Fe: 46. Morbi clin mage fl I the losd torque i increase, the lt angle « wll ineease until, for 2 =90", we rach the pullout rogue. Clearly, by increasing V and E, we an obtain a greater pullout torque ‘The torqe-balancing mechanism inside the synchronous machine is quite similar in nature although diferent ordeal “odewiop il understanding of tebe othe roots machine ne heady te and ne condtony eb our bt Sack efutacce poe of devig matin guns rhe mot evssicingsndom “Tomita tan Bison ans eu (tvs) mle ceain spine Sssimptions. We hal point Out hese assumptions asthe analy proces satya the seronsuy mace as pene tems of tae phan artery a nv eay st tenors af fie Sere ote fsa esi be mone sively cindy cena ay Sit operag hotest Tie apyench roe een pee tel when t becomes necessary, asin ou ae to expe te beaver tbe‘machine under transient conditions and its interplay withthe exteral et ‘work. For this purpose we know of no more powerful analysis method tha {he one that follows, The cetral feature of themed i the exclusive se Of the cicut egnept; the machine is considered as set of magnetically couple circuits the main parameters of which are me-varant. ‘The machine Fig. 41) contains four basic windings: the tre ientca and symmetealy paced distributed stator windings (dented bythe subsp 4,b,and c)and the rotor, or Bld, winding (subscript), An actual machine ‘may be equipped, in edition, with damper windings, consisting ofa short- ‘routed squire cage winding placed in slots on the rotor surface, Since we ‘wish at this time to expose the ase features ofthe machine, we shall ake ‘ut fst simplifingsesumption Assumption 1 Neglect the influence of damper windings (We shall later oaltatvelydiouss thee eect) Each of the four windings is characterized by resistance, sll inductance, and mutual inductance, relative to the other three windings (ig. 4). For the ah winding tese parameters are symbolized 7, Ty ad Lyy respectively. "The reader should note tht in making the Sump tha hee inducune paral es we have tly Asimpton 2. The machine is sumed tobe magnetically linear. The son expt of inductance makes sese only if we assume dies proportionality between currents and fluxes [A this point we make the folowing important observations in cegard to these parameter: 1. The stator estes ty andr af all equal and of atively small imagaitde by design” Henceforth we shall proceed withthe aoalyss om the bass that a= rye 2. As can inmost be abertined from Fig. 4, all 16 inductance lement, withthe sing xceton oy, depend upon the postion of {be rotor and are therefore functions" the time-anieg angle = (Gor definition of see Fig. #1) 5, Shoud the tor b nan (or ond) a8 sppronimately the ease for “a tubopsnerator, hen linucance clement wl be constant exept {Bose mf element containing i heir sobecp. se pen hanger winding inp. RESnaTe ac oa) tacos on og os Fig47 Wing ntactace and estas parame, “The selfinductance fof stator winding a varies periodically wth postion ‘angle 2, a8 shown in Fig. 48, reaching peak when the rotor axis oincides withthe winding ais, thai, For 3 = O and « = , that 8, fice during one fll evolution ofthe rotor. Ac this jonetare we make ‘amptton 3 The inductance raion depicted n Fig, 4-84 Us comidered “hermani; i, We ay Write eas follows: Ly + Lycos? ws) ‘where the positive inductance parameters Ly and Z4are defined in the Figure Note that Ll eo for rund rotor. ‘This astumption is very goad. We wit, actually, to eliminate higher harmonies and therefore the pole surfaces are shaped s0 a8 10 ‘obtain a sinusodal reluctance as possible)| 5. The sPinductances fy and, wil ook identical with ly but snc the ‘ator windings and cate spaced 2e[3 and spat radians de peed from winding 2, ve must replace i our formulas the angus vordinate «with (# ~ 2n/3) and (a — 43), respectively. | | | By making use of assumption 3, we therefore have yates towa(e—3) wc voraty 2) ees indie igenafe—*) 6, Tema ya) egos ina as tude trina ly nate gan (scones ett cnt wining wage nna eget ee seo ee ee ee erat SELLE eel cn i nar oe al et ‘egatveduxlinkage component inthe twa remaining stator windings. This, ‘then, means thatthe thee stator mutual inductances are nega. 17. The uy linked wo aor winding b by & given curent in winding a wil have its largest magnitde when the rotor angle « i ether — 30 oF £150", sine the rotor in these two positions offers the least magnetic reluctance, Sinlny, the ux wl beat minimum magnitse for « = 60 oF 240° “The mutual inductance fy will therefore ook s depicted in Fig. 80. Note thot the double frequency component wl have the some amplitude ae nthe care ofthe selfinivctace. We therefore have ant teoferd as ‘wbete La is defined in ig. 48H. Note that Za ig postive, 2 25-102 + For énaton ofp cura oe Fig 67, Se alin dato fc jy ones. nie 7 - Fig. 48 Vario ia indsciance paramees With angular fotor =n8, A similar easoning reveals that wil have a numerical maximum for ‘90 and 270" ad for « = 30 and 210, We therefore have =if-9) 9, tn regard to the rotor inductance elements, we at that (@) The rotor selfinductace |, is constant (as was mentioned above) ‘We symbolize tL, (Fig. 48) (©) The mutual indctances Between the rotor and stato windings vary between positive and negative maxima. One cycle corresponds to 340" of the rotor poston Mics tere 0 op tae omg Ing by co ete (¥) - ws 5 = too (8) = ye (e win ts ind ain i 484 10 at le So tp st eden oop ‘Seterialngeatshowary tists ma scoetueon'ttwepue Rane beg 2 woke i ; sande ow 1, tnsummary, we may conclude that al the 16 ndetane elements can be ‘expresed in tent of a set of five posuive inductance parameters {arses fs (ll defied in Fig. 48) and the oor poston ange mIn the folowing anlyis we shal asrome there parameters known, ether bytes or from manufacturers” datz Note also that inthe ease of round rotor the inductance parameter set redues to four (La, Ly, La, faa ‘At this point we possess il knowlege of all iret parameters pertaining to the problem. "We shall fow proceed to write the general set of circuit qustion, from which we Subsequently shall be abe to deduce all informa: don relating to our systems studies Ti we wite the Kirchhof's voltage equations for the four separate rae on veges 4 44, fay . nt fais Za +See naree fide Zant $e oy i 4a ~faiy densa i wv funda fuurdun i vee ere an pose i unl il mtu a tt Eerie a te rear re es . lee yeep cr rs te mesh mayo a ml eae teehee ec entnertes ceeiebareaeiesp arent a og ne a ce cin et ee Cee tee Neate Ee an ae tel et fa eo ee el ek ree ee " yr impcty ow a eee ee bs a) 0 0]0 on 00 2 r aw Ral og 0 0 0 OF 1 Se Appendix A, fore31 important to elie than the case ofa round oral stators sod mutual inductance elemeats are independent ofthe rotor angle, which ‘a tantamount to saying tat the inductance eaeiceat Lyin Fig. 48 i chs ease he inductance matic assures the simple Value b a oat) (ote at the ¥ a0 matics cota ony one sium, We sal vay symbol sch cel mateo tear mi lnece ol faeleter ts. All cer maces wile nmlasd wih col ol fae leter bol, Te asd prion incr shown nthe ura wl tespisined ner) "tems of the above mats we can thn te he stem (10) sary orp vB ay ‘We hope the reader already impressed with he useflnesof matrices, (Oace we havernade the “abulalous” (11) to 414), wecea work with pact sector equations, and whenever we wish etalled data We need Only ook Up the “tables” Delors proceoting Rcther with our analysis, we shall make a few remarks in regard to Eq. (410) [or 415) 1 Note cha, Because ie element ofthe Erateie depend! upon «(and thus ‘upon time #), we cannot write the second term 4 a fay ait es ‘The ditereuiat equations therefore ate not ofthe constant-parametet type. and for this reason we are mor able to wse Laplace tansformt iret for their sltion.2 Consider pial erm in Eq 1), for example, Wd . ne Filta : ~ By pesforming the derivation called for, we obtain term of the types ptr eye cme bye sg rt 7 fo wot om ra os sade sere nado inate ca esin(or + aig and cos (or + 0g) We conclde that our general diferent equation inthis cae is of the Hear ‘ype with tinesaryng coeticients. In that cae we sal be able to obtain solutions forthe system of Eqs. (H18).On the other hand, under the influence ofthe eleteodyaamical torque (of which we have not yet spoken), Should the speed 4 change, then the diferential equations (418) obviously ‘would be nonfinar, and general analytical solutions cannot be found. In fuck eset would stil be possible, of couse, to obtain numerial solutions by compote. In Sex. 34 we shall reuon tothe problem of colstion of| gs (15. ‘By making use ofthe fundamental power formula presented in Chap. 2, we hive the following expression for the total generated power dellered by the ator windings : 7 pain thn tie, W «1 ‘We emphasize that pis defined positive ina generator sense. ‘We note that this p formula contains those elements of the v and & ratioes that are associated with the stator} AC this point we therefore find reason to work with only parts of the matrices ealer defined. If we then, fora moment, return tothe defining equations 411) 0 (414), we note 1 hd at he = ao Eg (17, we wold inp fae band the ta ‘ome ele by the cine ay he or adie ae ae geal net Tacria in ton fom af that they have been partitioned so as to make a distinction detween the rotor ‘nd satr portions." In view ofthese parttions we define the following new submatrices: : wale 4 co) 0 0 RAlo 10 oo, age 4 Ty 2 | he has the] Ue |e (420) in tnt In ‘Cleary, the foal maties yf R, and Lave composed ofthe sub- smauices inthe folowing manner: ~[] en a (2 Superscript Findcates transposition (ste App. A). Returning now tour power equation (4-7), we conclude immediatly that we ean write aterm of the and, matrices as follows: - tt =i, Ww em We’ shal find it convenient inthe folowing azalyss to express the gzneral equation (£15) in term ofthe submatrices defined above. We ee Sirecly, by substittion, - . ffl d-ate Je)‘We may wrt this euaton in “component” form: $040 as) 4a hy Ei Il) [Note thatthe firs “component actualy tnree-vector. Tereader should perform all the matrin operations in these lst two equations and satity mse that they are indeed identical with Egs. (410, We have indicated that itis possible to obtain analytical solutions to the system of diferemial equations (4-10) onthe assumption thatthe seat is Constant, Although we could arrive at theve solutions dzectly fom the tquatons as they stand, itis posible to simply thew equations to a great extent hy meses of a special Lehnique, which we shal hee refer to asthe ‘Blonde ranaformation(BT)- The techsique involves the introduction of a new set of voltage and current variables or components, he So-aled dct ‘xls (@), quadrature aus (), and zero-sequence (0) comgunents ‘Thee Blondlcucent are dified 2s follows:t 4 te oa, —Fsn(o¥)n 3a («4 %) ress 426) 1 The intense rom Ande Bia! in rnc, but ac tie deeapt fhe etd ms rd ut by Doherty, Nie, Park ad oer 116 prey pol to posed sh testy by ening se Bln ua a Inthe ifr Hower, thet ina heer titan a hare ‘uth operatons elo by yg atch pea igre ete Foe ‘Seal tee tony the eae Got hat Dao ented 19 the sal ‘Subatn of esate wang ge fe oan ve peopel a he rae Sucton. ina courte ste fd wih ep to he ran having or Sci wt han of he 9 ming tect abe bythe # ar ‘Reseed poproa le Fore de cet pa or soda em ised wi pet 0 the reo and bing te Sia Soi” ‘eng th th ol fol pt Ite soe nf ave ar a ney ogee ‘owttoveso 2 Lente em api fence etl ane Pie mt mG cued by al he sor Cre a mead te maple Sec aetan Silly, pe te mo guaran pol deco ‘Fin compact mats notation, any hese the stator current vector easier intaduce, defined by Eg. (418), and the I aad 8 mates are defined by (428) coe cole) oles] x -e(-8) alert] os os as mis ie “The currents ify and i ate called the drectax,quadratue-xis, and erosanquence components, eapetively. Collectively, we rler to them 35 ‘Blonde! curens.- Equation (421) is teferred to es the avect Blondel ansformation. By sting fr the stator caren in sccordance with 4 30) ‘we have, in eft, ntrouced the dav onde raformation. {is rendly checked by the mode of matrix inversion presented In| Appendix A tat (3) ae3): wn ces) sn fee®) ation (427) defines the BT of the stator currants, We similaly Baranslorm the stator sollages: te, a2) with the asiocinid inverse tranifornation " a By 439)Upon substitution ofthe Blonde! voltages and currents for the actual “ator volnges and curtents in Ege (25), we obtain 4 fee m oH werden feat tas pon premultipying the frst ofthese equations with B, Eqs. (+38) take on the fem vente Sty) a. (435) wacadare—ay isnot immediately alias fom these equations that has been achieved indeed Jooks asi the sew Eqs (4-35) ace tore com plex than Eqs. (425). Ith caled-for matrix operations are performed Uihey ae suaighforward but somewhat tedious), Ege. (435) reduce tothe following component form: te die jd eye re EF AS hE ea de We r= GE tla LG i. “ eo st ly ile . Let th em <1 ‘These new inductances ae refered to asthe directs synchronous indue- tance, the quadialweaxis spnotronous inductance, and the Zero-seguance Inductance, respectively. “Without exception, we shall be concerned with case where the sotor speed is constant, ora et lost constant. We can then st const 28) and the dferential Eqs. (436) are then recognized as linear wth constant ‘oeficients, Weean acta wite them inmate forms + a oa | late +,” 0 otal a] wf="]o 0 nell af, : ol loo on dl-s Lyfe eo a Tg ne oR 0 oll 4 lo on ola e es i oo od Ls ‘The Blondel transformation bas reduced the complexity of out Eqs (4-10) in 0 ways [Tt bas transformed a set of difretit equations with dime sarying coeticients 10 a Set characterized by conan! paramere. (TRE ‘esas, fr example, the the equation are now made amenable the rently powerful Laplae transform saalysistchaigue) 2. The new transformed equations contain comparatively few terms. This ‘means that the parameter matics (£38) contain man) zeros (we refer {eo them as sparte). Whereas the physical statoreurrent jae rong ‘coupled to each oer, the Blonde rents ar oy weakly coupled ‘We proceed now to investigate what the Blonde! transformation has one to the power equation (423). Since we have ha By, vse get, by using Eq, (A30) in Appendix A, iron (oo) ‘Thos, by substitution into Eq (423), JOB y aan) Wis easy to confirm by direct mutpication that i : zo w= |0 3 0 a oo 3and thus we ean write Eq. (441) oa nee eh 6 PH He al) 8 wea 9S (aay “This, then, is ove power formula in terms ofthe Blondel current and voltage variables. (4 STHADYSTATE MACHINE MODELS "We ave developed ou prending chine equations uider very geeaized Assumption. Now we shall aply them to sone speci St important fperatingcondbions "Iie ogi! to star with an anaysof the machine ‘hen operated in wat ten sate The sip form of ey tate open cain by sey tr currents and constant rotor current and speed. This type af operation Cbisined when the alternator citer daconnced from the network and ning al comme te vor at leigh 28 feactive power. Since the Stor cutents ae ae0, the power and forges bre, of ebune ho nr. : renee aaa one With, = Oand i, = 19 = const Bas. (429) reduce to din @4qge OTE ne fein Zane ot an ow rit Sona : . {The em (it) = 9 base = co tem . “ cone wan 2 Le e0(--3) . 3 tga 4 cose) and nee «= ot (er constant), we can wel the Sn of Eas. (4 as follows: a ea) | es) 1 Ticoughct the ook the pene O sgn conta steady state varie Fig. 49 The he nor ens ap ‘ened aor om, ‘We conclude that the salr voltages ae sino and the voltages in phases band elag the veges phase a by 20and 240, respectively ic, Thay are charctrind by three-phase symmetry. We rele to these voltages ste satr en, and sall henceforth symboize them by the leter symbols fn fe and €, Since they ate harmonic time functions, we ean symbolize thom ss phaora, sin Fg. 49, The ems teach ther thaximums in order 5,6. nd we eter fo this the phase sequence of te machine. The ‘mf in phase a can be writen , = lyf! sin at = VE i (Et) 2s ete the em phasor E, is defined by _obat vi ote tat the magne s proportions to the eld curent apie i and atrspeed eS 40) Derivation of voltage and current relations The most important mode fof operation is the symmetrically loaded machine. This case occurs in formal operation of the alternator whan contcted to athyee-pase bus, the oltages of whichy 1, ty. And %, pases threephare symmetry. We shall4 418 Mato ds nd emia vote pe sssume that the feld current is constant, (2, which guarantes a set of machine emf a: aso possesing three-phase symmetry an hav constant magnitides. The machine is tuning synchronously, which means {hat the bus voltages v and the emis e are of ideatial equences. Tae E nV phasor ace has epee by 2 conan angle 8, 8 shown ia Fig 10, Since both the emfs and bus voltages have three-phase symmety, the ‘Sime alo applies tothe stator cureats, which ae therefore of the fort 4 V2 Mlleos (or +8) 4s = Vanco (or - 4-¥) ua) Lavina (os 49) where thesms value ofthe stator curent and is theas yet undetermined phase angle ofthe cure, ‘By subsiution of Ege. 4) inte Kgs, (426) we pst a VAM cose Bava? 98) aa * le, the zro-sequence cotponéin of stator curent zee and the die and (qusdratreazis components are cnutetst The machine equations (436) ‘ow take onthe following simple forms: * os) We define at chit juncture the direct and quairture-axie synchronous 2 (420) XAot, and can than writ the fre two of Eqs (448) a Fllowe: let Me tye ade Md + wba? ‘We make the important observation that eg andy jut ke and are constant. From the general power equation ($43), we thus conclude ‘hat the power constant} ‘Upon making use of the inverse B transformation (4:33) and emer bering that ¢ = oF, we get forthe ator Wolage oy fy ANd sy = sc08 ot —oy3in ot = ie KE cos wt + ode + Xie Obi in ot By = de Rd) o0s (ue ~ 12) + let Xa ~ esi sin (ot — 120°) 26 Ards ~ Ke) €08 (08 $1209 + le + is ~ obas)sin (or + 120) 45 19m pp sian et a ad acy etc Satis al ear en tps Lon iy ‘te cr mea sap a pe ta deen Wik act rasan tuna coe) ‘iy ee oe oi wl EAS Spomal ete ntoocny phe penal eng ee 2a Tt pn Rote RAE geet ape pcs ‘lone ae) 2 pore rane pls Sepiaa a CT Syudronut: |. Hyo | Tae ewter| Haghiped | Lowipend | “tons grwaes | gems 030 wo ‘At this point we shall elest the rete voltage doin ig. 4.52) ‘The amature esisance 5 ey sa (oll les than 001 Do interne the mghine ratings), compared withthe reactance: Xz and 2 Table 1 Boe fverage vas for thos yeastaner for various pe of pact foehconous machines (The lst Tour rows inthe ale ter to trae ‘eats, introduced a Chap. 10) ‘Upon dropping te two reve terns ein Es (452), we Rave the simpler orm vo Xe coser + Ud, otsin ~ 4s We ato hav, forthe caren, i teoor—isiner (4s Because of the existing threesphesymmety, we do aot car 10 write ‘ou the current and vole relations for phases 8 and Phasor diagrams. Since both ox and aie harmon, itis instructive to represent the foregoing equations ia phasor form. For ths purpose we write them in complex form. = Im (Xd — baie + emp f= Ime — he) ‘We have made us of the lations ss) Sint = bm fe) 0s = Im (je) Figt41 Phar Gagam of synmetialy opted hin. Only phase shows At tis junsture we introduce the fllowig phasors a4 ae u 39 i Vi ” savin Elbe] em VE Im (+ Me) V2 Behl as) WALth ATi abo place shown in Fig. 411. This isa etemey 1. Sine complete symmetry exists betecn the tice pss, we have “dropped the ship oon phasors YE, andl 2. wenn Went he power angle 8, node in Tig 410." We shall ein 9 pie when eas V. * 13 Wel ao ened both he phase ange intoduedn Eqs 4 “dao te move important one, at, the plage angle BetweedStator voltage and cutrent_ As usual, is defined positive when voltage leads current, as in Fig. 4 Power relations Whea operating the ashe under symmetric com ions, the questo that ost ftn ae ake ete oe el and eave owes consume by of dlveed fom the lernser Me fave seaoy ‘sbserved that he real powers cosas” We cul eal bala snenee, sio for i By wing Bq, (4), bu intend peter to we ou wellClown formula for complex power, which wil fender Sth the el and tetas pores, We have So~ Por jQo~ (Milos 4/1 Ising Werave made we of Eps (2.29, which sate that Po=WViltees$ MW phase Oo Iisa Mvarphase Ytsand ar all deed and appes in Fig. 4-11, Note that beause 1is defined postive out rom the machine, Eat (139) de Pool Oe ‘pos ina enero sere." Note aoa tie uation ge ws per place Wales of power" Six Eas (4-9) conan the eure, wich Sams own expt, msl wit te gation nile form Frome aor digeam ia Fig 411 we oban pon projection along and perpee dicular to E Poors ane ree (El = td Kem (Mcosa Utd Ke= Wind We as tve nh = visinye Wetion® ao and forthe ange Shoe ¥ =o 40) From the last equation we derive 439) any 608 § = sin F605 3 + cos sind ‘and therefore = icos $= isin ¥.505 3+ Uh eos¥ sin 8 463) ‘By making wse of Eqs (461), we have, feom the last equation, Uje0s 8 = Ih co83 + Hsin ae and by susttting this exresion for] eo8 into Eqs, (459, and atthe Same time making use of Eqs. (4-60), we are, ae some simple algebra atthe following formal forthe real power: ins EEG — 2) snz8 » ass) "The importance of this formula is due to the fact that te bus voltage IVs afaily constant quantity ifthe network sof reasonably large szet “The magaitude [FoF the emf is constant f we bod the Bld eurent constant We conclude therefore tho, forall racial purposes, Pls a futon only ‘of the power angle & ‘The power formula become, simple for a machine lacking rotor saliency. In such a care Xp 2, Xa. and we get DAE iy a Pom GE ne 6 ‘The second cermt in Bq, (465) referred to asthe saliency or the reluctance, component of torque, tnd isa 2 rule felativeiy small (101620 percent), in comparison withthe Sst term ° Tn the folowing dscusion where We shall place more emphasis on| quatatve than quantitative Behavior, Ww aba therefore Us the “round tor” equation (4-66) ag a bas. We nee, fst, a sma forma forthe reactive power and bain it realy from the second of Eas. (439). A servation analogous to that of Ea, (466 gives AHEM ogg = Aeon won ‘Again, the reactive power out from the fachin is defined a postive. ‘Also, the forma applies tothe aoaslint cae, with Xm Kee eehould be noted that bork Eas. (8-65) and (67) ve Pound Oy pet phase, If, however, |E| and |¥| are expressed in lin volages and kool, Real generator power fy Let us now first display some of the chirac- ‘ecsis ofthe real power Pp, Ifthe network i very large “finite, we can consider pracially constant. If we donot vary the eld eurent {Eee te nr eon a at aye { Noth ne ican erga amps eens et lb preset fen hen rotr Sol cura i. Avrg, iis mek one’ ea has ad ‘Sh U saint pls fas sh oor Ti pe of Sueonour ron aed Tite deca!the smf|£| wll also be constant, ad we cc ten write Pom Pan is «a 2M “i wn ais plotted versus the power angie 8 in Fig. 412, Positive Pp, indicating generator ation, is obtained for 3 > 0, that i, for £ leading. Negative Pa, coresponding to motor action, is obtained for negative 8, “The pallu power Py that 5, he power at which the machine steps out of synchronination, equals, Poe Pag = a HEI sw (410) ioe Gener a,412 Rel ponte gon wera pone ang soma. ‘Theses of the machine i defined as, ao _ IEW" ok and indzats the diferental power increase obtained per deren power ‘angle increase. Note thatthe stifiness i220 at the point of pullout We fon eoiently make our machine sifer By either ineresing I, ai, wing Iighagnitade pole ur or By deroaing the synchronous reacance Xy ‘The later method eas, of course, be employed only asa design Wel. The oe fective way of building 2 uchine with lowwmapnitade is by using elaively large air gapat (We pay a price or hi: @ very powerful de ‘xcttionsoutee must be used to cvercome the ai gap reluctance inorder 0 bia required fx density) "The feader, at this point, mont hve tied the great similarities ‘beaweea the concept of “pullot power” fr a generator and “Yansnisson capacity” fora tanemission in Compre, in parila, Egs. 02) and 8), ‘We know now how Py varies as «function of 8, and the next question |s: How is 8 made to vary? “This is wher the forge enter he picture. Since the sped is constan ‘we know thatthe mechanical driving torque emanating fom the prime ‘mover rq ‘ust equal the lecuodynamie torque +, The powers being constant so are the torgues, and if we aegiect the loses, we ean most omenienly bain them from the equation 88 MWiead ‘ en Pe sanem “en lie there isa tet proportionality between the torque and power. We tealize now how the power angle, and thus the power, wl change. When, ‘by means ofthe prime mover, added positive torque is applied (2 “postive ‘orgus woud tend to aceserte the generator if decoupled from he setwork), the fotor wil advance sceain angle (compare Fig. 43). This means, a ‘ec, atthe phasor F, the phate of which depends upon the rotor position, Sel pol away from V reeling in an iterease im 3, and thea incease in Fo. The new 8 alue wil correspond 1 exaely the power needed to balance jut the aad torque inaccordance with Eq (72), Ifthe orgbess increased beyond the value Poaléggay thea a Further increase will not rest in a cotresponding increas Band the machine wil step out ofsyebroaiss Sod “sip pole.” The process just described canbe easly vewed by means ofa stroboscope cs {The eer shoal oa hi stent by fog back a he eon f Yea 6 ins Hime ht he ap cei ea ts ect1f, by means of some mechanical los, we applied a negative torque to our nahin, then ent woul ageing and we would have motor action, Too large negative torque cold spun cate dxyneroniation Tt is important thatthe student filly eadeand the torque power rmectanism jst deseritd,beease it base tothe upeation os powes System. Cleary the queson whether an alternator tees tikes gertar r motor depends entirely upon how we teat torquense, “Once 3 honed onto a network, stands ready to serve us in ete wa ‘Before we leave this tops iti of interest one more to male com: pation beeen the torguesitiaton inthe syechronous machin and the System depicted in Fig 46. Returning to Eq. (42), we aot the great similarity between tat formu and Bq (4-60. “The ony tae difeenc that nthe on case ut vatabls ate of de ype andi te other of te ae vit ‘The reactive power Qq._We have so far said nothing about the reactive power Gg elvered by the machine. Inthe dscursion that fllows we shall make use of Eq. (U6), ‘The Op formula for a salient-pole machine it somewhat more complicated, and we ave not bothered to derive it How ever, what we are about to say will apply als toa sallentpole machine in ‘alate sense. The Qo formoia tele us that if Bleos 8 > V1 ery then Op > 0, and the generator produces reactive power, i act fom the network point of view, a «capacitor, Equation (6-73) evidently depends ‘upon d thats, upon the rea power Pot Generally, however the inequality 'ssaisied for high-magnitue (|, that, for srong excitation, We tele ‘We therefore have the folowing important rule: An oneexced syekronat machine (Operated ther as moter ot scrertor proce rete power and acta then capa ern ithe network. 7 * ‘An andrecited machine, 08 the conta, consumes reative poner ftom the aetnrk and ats, coseuxy, a8 shat col wens t neon. Undrtcation deed byte neq Fleer mn 2 2 Phaser epromtation of pinay abd sonny vefages of rsormes ft i. $2.” Note tat & wading inode 5° pane tit in plas tags When the transformers are operated ender folaced steady-state conditions there isn ax eiference between the YY andthe YA tansformer, ‘except tac the ater introdices a 30" phase sift Between primary and secondary phase and ine voltages, as shown in Fig. 5.3% Under unbalanced ‘Operating conditions the two are quite diferent. "We shall postpone & ‘Sseusson of these matters unl Chap. HAs long af me ‘actly assume balanced operation, we shall ot mele aay ditintion (except in regard (© ‘he phase shill) between the various connection types, ‘Transformer loses are related to winding currents and emf in the same manner as we found tobe the ese ina synchronous machine. Weeonelude, therefore, tat & transformer mn be ated in megavollamperes rater than megawatts, Sa EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS FOR TWO-WINDING TRANSFORMERS Consider the Y¥-conaected tansformer shown in Fig. Sl. (We shal sacern ourselves with phise @ only, 0 we will diseard superserpis) For the two windings we can write the following welhknown voltage equations Vim hb + hols + bled Vem liRe + hijole + hiv te « where Bz and Re winding resistances and 1, = ellinductances ‘Mg mutual inductance between windings on same core Consider next the circuit a Fig Soa, conte of two impedances, 2, anda "blackdox” charetriaed bythe folowing properties {A voltage applied atthe put terminal wil appear at the output terminal in the reduced magnitde Yl 2. A curtent [injected into its input terminal wil exit fom she output terminal magnified 1 a, The Muekbox shal be regarded asa mathematica stir catber than @ physi device. I sometimes releed toa an “ial tansforme, “The output variables ay and Vola ate si 0 represent the eurtet voltage of winding 1 "refered 0 winding 2" [ae vent ren cng. tn i. leotier spas st of 30” Caage te pony af be wing na pie fw wil be 0PO faa I | ig. 54 ule astrmer cea (e) Leng end mage seling ints ee sonny) gta o ‘The impedances Zand Z, are referred to as the “magnetizing” and “eakage”intpdances, respectively. We have atitanily chosen t0 place the impedances onthe right side ofthe ideal transformer, and we ay thal bey have been “referred fo winding 2." We could equally well have represented the transformer ar shown in Fig. 5-40, The parameters in Fig, Sb wil, of course, not beequal to thse in Fig. $4 ‘We show now that with proper choice ofthe three parameters, Zn and Z, the Geuit in Fig. Sota obeys Bas. (Sl), which is tantarunt ‘ying that we hve found an epusalent creat fo ove tansformer Beaten” 62) Vem Zoloh, + 1) +Z che ‘We confi readily that Eqs. (1) and (52) ae identical i we choose the following values for our three parameters: a Rit Joly oa — Mat 6 RF hb Ret jolet Za ome Ree a, For the inductances fy, Ly, and My, we have te forms b= bine pares re) y= VE, mabe tere N= pany winding 0s N= Keon 11 pemeaiy forthe core 15 Sant depending upon core gomety leakage coin sein very igh for tn iron coral thes indutanes at ve and iy WSigatwe nae he encase NE ole & 65) one Troe make wi f thee nega, we obtain om E58 the fatowtagspposinate panto ur quale! Si wt Me oa mM Zam ja a jah 66) a otdt Zim Ret Rte vege ear On mie sa am gay es ety nene denen see pte ed The ate ny po sent ne tn LE*SSPAELS Boy STG a gata tee ao Eg.Ms c ‘ 2B = phn votge ati oo) In system sti itis customary, in view of Eq. (6-7), to set al nd this obtain the simple equivalent circuit shown in Fig. $5 [Note that ‘tye can also set = I (entey) and neglect the esistanes, then the eakage impedance vanishes and gut power transformer equivalent i denial with the "eal tease} ° From Fig. 3 we conclude that ~ Le aah . Tn view of Eq. (58), we have forthe currents ht Nahe 0 « We also conclude from Fig. 5.5 thi if we peti the transformer at 1g toad (tat i y= fp 0), there is 0 voltage drop gross 2, and we es have . “Thi means thatthe a parameters obiained most conveniently by means of an opencicut test. ‘Should we ple 1o expres voliages and cursente in per unite of rated values, thn the approximate equivalent diagram of Fig. $3 reduces to the fone Fig. 56, The reason ta the “dea transformer” dsappeats fom Ue picture i that its input and output variables have equal values when expressed in per unite. af een | ay p24 I. T. » | eu bags 2 a hae Ww SIS atlas prod per as + ample £4 Ainge gbase oni the tras bank stows in ig, tba he 200 VA, «0H nay voluge: MEV sect ohage BEY . _ earner ener Et tie eg inoue From tse Gna Semi te Sethe tee 10) po votuge ™ aay = 2 sine the cue i 1.0 pu we stain ety rom Fig $6, by sore pe : “in wn nny nf i ce vous SSNs Mes el wanes Sie Sarina nex on R=0002 Weta, ten i i= VOTO ZOO = 2107 we saath 1 Bene ony tot 9 prc fsa as PEa sslomie eter se MORE: poe Tice aia ¥ vay jg TL aware La 30) ae inpesnosteeel nee ed ne apache Vang een OWA 1 IONS UNE os anes yy ‘Oavay ~ aii” ar pS” ie ae sei 4h oe BSD eceiy dnd ht te ioe ie ei a i, ._satve ood halve pope od ee ee : Bel iol pt ate or gan iy HO 1 i ington -faly oo td oo ln et {stich one at eet Se unseated when bah of es eee ae Se aero gmn a eng For many purposes, particularly, load flow sties, itis conteaien? 10 feptrent 3 two-wiading eansorinr ith 87 equivalent ofthe type dees | Fig. 89. For this coat wy obtaa ton inspection ern-dn Fer tesiainy sSyehee Tie ET on : u en) ‘The latter equations can be written il ty d at Aled ea) oF gua esorne Chery, Bae (5:17) ad (819) can be made idea we set. via 3 Ls isan zat, . 1 1 . Ze ‘We thus obtain fr our» paraeters L 2m aly ine . yet _ a em Tent 3, , Za : Inthe fregsing equim be parame 82 compl, as would be the cio of he winding wee 3 pe ™ sample 4. The cep aeolian ig: 0 MA, Oe Fae a i singe pe, whe oth owe ange) ses hgh by BES he vag ings he oper sage mio, weg = peace Te et Loe m1 From rch f te op Gan a Ene 1, we be tect eg spe pose . 4/0100 pe cee pc} re ees ete in here 1 he ow ie 8" 2 rps BE ae “The vat fd hat we hve tae compra am hve he it OPE om Eg. (S20 wegdiety 22, ON OIMYBE 182-4 /ES ‘Ta ae he paruien of Fig $10 eesti ot an os.In vector form this equation can be writes) © "Ty Vira V Fo Sve] mela te im a m0 0 H - 0 Z 0 (524) - 0 0 Z ‘The vector Vy represents the secondary-phase voltage wctor. Tbe vectors Vj and I, represent the primary phase voltage and curtent vectors ‘ferred tothe secondary. The rai Z's the eakage impedance mates of the transformer. Iti diagonal, indicating nnineracton betwee the pase. ‘Compare the analogous stuation forthe syameticaly operated synchronous machine. [Compare Eqs. (4-77) and (W78)}) 2 HQUIVALENT CIRCUITS FOR MULTIWINDING TRANSFORMERS eis common to design power transformers with tore than two windings per [hise, The different windings have diferent klovlt and megavotampere {atings and provide means for transforming power between more than 0 Soltage levels. Algo, a regular v-wioding Caasformer i sual provided with s connected tertary which, under normal Balanced operation, ie « ‘ut which, under unbalanced conditions, wil ear sodalled “zrosoquence cugreat’” Mote will be sud about roch matte a Chap. I ‘Consider the m-vinding transformer depicted in Fit S-l. The core represents phase @ of a three-phase arrangement. The sth winding obeys 1510 Two poe ic penton of nome a Example 4 sphatasmmse gam era grmermenss Hence oper Fromteequnentvrta igus ofr phume bande Yom lel eit BB 4 as teri tonte a9 1 - alt ebezy Ve 1 is easy in principe, although considerably more complicated in 1 detail to extend our previous two-winding anlysix tothe wavinding cee, Ve ~aNZ, = re eet oa» ‘We stall limit oureives to summarizing the results of such an analysis : Figure 5:12 depicts the equivalent sxtwork for # multivindng temsformer. B ‘Whereas the two-wingingtraesformer is characterized by only one leakage i impedance, the nwinding transformer has atta of [n(n 12 impedance | elements eoanected berweea them erminals. ‘The networkin Fig. 5:1 refers* . a eS ee es to the case where all parameters and variables re expresed in pout ‘tif we wih to eyes votage abd erent in. vols ad ampere nador if 8 windings are present, we mst capstone” 1 ne ‘etwork ~, we sa evo 4 ett mode fer te actly ingrion sample 55. We sl ida ig Seep nie cree ‘hcg rao, ant a comnced iin) 0), We bee NE Bi cece eat is ont be doe fre TF as os = pan | - 5 ab ia eo 7 ‘ + Fe. 42 eure i 0 Sg 58 Thewinding tanfomer an its cet ‘acing tao és nesste ccniy c shore dt, we sal erin the i Za Zae td Zp Weal nei he tea pt oa ‘sand urdemore expres nn prey lcs ~ “Te wading dn af bao tem Take ©, vo \Wenot tal winding Go aot aay hve ein powe eee. The ‘enya, iged Yc only about dee fms th ay te roe athe pears ante sebeten. We shad a see ta he try falda, to cnny an let Sy To MA ey eat ‘ely re ry. “To bia tee pean, we mut ccy pera the nde ‘een Tea Soa woo neanpion We mute cane Stor tbe scandy ged lave the oy oped The topes en wl ire he pry hu 4) wel nay, ‘sconce wih FH, el ote tam Zu sad Zoe We poten ‘tne ech masta, maura the ipsa he ee ere we, i ei eal Gen a9 oul cornet Othe ile MVA bse we hve a xpress Ue pscenage impedes tn manera he ny ee shone So crete oy ning mt © “eee aa ng, nde mre he hrs age nt ss nnn ne et ‘ae teh pi we pene shorter weap prey aon stoi of het, ba am apts peo eae, ‘pondag to 429 MVA) and ead 4 shntcieun volge 38 pct oe \Gvertae” These arguen applestotbetidmeatoenet We ut te {Which pysay means hat is cpp weigh aly ba» id af at fe Sewing Win? rememie tate preg impeimee fe diferet MYA hse, an out ‘pukalm darant wesc sou 0 cv ne oa ee he pete ane ne avant grin we obi owt boing gatos bate the leks inpetecs Zu. Zn td Zn tl aioe Ips ZZ From Eg. (520) aly ove Zum Mn+ Za 29) Zu Het Zu 2) oan Zan int Zu 2) IpGpighincea ead teint secon ae can Bon 56018 pa 8 pa zon(ne ps «82-688 «py euni(pes BS na «28 3) por “Tis compete the example Noe tht tetany bane eooae an ida antome!anog Scene acid by “hie tanfomer seo forte et tat he tetny phase le ound sola ed th pe volage ef he oie mids by 3 ramples4. Thetansormeria Eunos actasshovajn Fig $14, ar3contetig ink bree tee om fe milton aot DONIVA tasstort I as tered tose te #60: nad CASLY tres Eos fd fm te hy eto the twtr Sue "Th663V ba ch, fr pal purpone, be ‘tei inate" AStine at saya soe ee pas shat Se ‘esis the 44a" Fg the ahr cea fa the bed Bae + Wetahia poe igo of em ie us, Such tu wl main 100 pret votge leaped oon tach ever nest fom Toate Wore i one cet panning ‘sfeoune, ht song Thera gent ed im ESE oom tow song ely ‘iif tango tang upon he agate ft urns tt the sem tht prslar i no tr een forthe elon 6 Re atten sth eile cad rca CO) Istana uae nen SMA RI® Z . v . VE nares inet Brose v= 100% eve 100% o : a Pi $1 np yt eho oa dw, fom th ein windlag. Wessel the SOMVA vafoer isan Inte ts ee etn omg ‘eet A ie bad on 13 VA I ute toc wl cp stow in Pig 1h We bn eed tr mean es ert a te ene Fig "Fo terns we cui t= Sag ape ett feof he ld repo. Semon «cng ato of vansomnar impetncss , ™e From vluge 0. ‘Shoud ba <0 tea AY would be of Sp se te ote, rn EG) er cone tha the crcl casen wl be eee 9° lagi ur retrence volage 8" Tes pending pon the aon stings Pitre a crrepon egg "nthe iu ior gra of Fig, $23, ve dws proper se the crn anf om Ege 6-0) ce epee |p ren A ‘ren st exe eulof ta sideu epres tn ade an fee" ading a sabacig the cresting Curent et Teoh feng taj noon oth E-news dead tad towed the ce fam the ote Lad Ind, spn By {tats or (or move sophie sie iy we nd at ‘hose spony out 033 yu te tres fafa sgh ote cos Ween Cn ren ty aac m= {Fora desion ohare se Cp 10 ‘intr shown in 35 ei | ‘ate agi ping ces cot of FE 22 We mad = 025 py abd ht mes, scot with C40, at ‘ns Y = Lot, eee et 2 -ommepu or 396% veces rac ns hope en dow tibet tlm) oe Sere ean mie aera cae 1 ryidiceigms ou oars Eee a ‘bus voliage closer (0 the required 100 percent. Why? stvngeompiedoursltionw make af inporantcbienatn ot fi ier 250, wean 1 Sie hepa ang af he esting eto 7 satel nly the reactive component ofthe transformer catent This con ae te ano he eae Pv ‘ante er foc sgend orem, srr ter arose ange wa ue sp sea hath 0 i ens ohh gel #608 npn) " 5, volage pnd cot2 Wein he above example, we would ke a have onto ove the al power flow aso, then we would need to add a componeat t lewkehor Phase with our reference voltage. This would obviounly segue «Air omporet having a haus of 90" in resent or relent lage ‘Such a component could early be obtained by phase angie ete! teak vate inthe present case. 3, We submited in he above example, to trakand-zo analysis (which was really ot neesary since exact analysis would be qui simple) {his Pe of analysis we converge on an accepabls olution afer s fit unr of tl Solutions. In many itatons tsi the ony rorible approach, and this is particularly true with many probe’, in EESE. Fortunately, we cin combine Wsland-etor anaes with {he compsttiona ably of the dptal compute and viain eatenely owedhil ants methods. We shall exemplify this laters nome ey flow studies in Chap. 4 suMMaRy In this chapter we have exposed the esential features ofthe power tank former tothe extent that this device concerns the systemsenginas, We hoe Foloied the sae sophy as we applied i our Gscasion ot ciahroroes ‘machines; relatively unimportant design details have been Ie car cont story, (The systems engineers particularly interested in simple adel of the \tansformer, and we have presented those equivalent disgeans tne sone articular value in subsequent systems studies ‘The advantages and disadvantages of autotransformer have been Pointed out, Considerable emphasis fas ben placed on te transferase contol device, “We have toed that phaeanle-and voltage mapa, Fegulating trasformers ean be used in controlling the touting of eo reactive power within th network. More wl be said about ths age ‘cansfrmers in Chap. 7." Lite emphasis has be placed on ations hpee of transformer connections since this topic is of importance only veer unbalanced loading conditions, which willbe disused n Chan 91 4 Comer th equa » ork Ie Fig. $c, tthe tcondary teria are speci hele Ys bunds by lage Se Yet ame ins compte Example al or we appy ‘sainpt vote of ¥.=220V3EV. Note that Jou shuld aban Peetosree 2, Atenas anormer a eating, n " 2 of a rated punt et i li ad Serine tengo, Th eT AST neo on vergence getter co es deaf erg cy I he fee pete at x pee soe rather mma caps, Compe stem atone ate = Cornett arinittanore Theo wndng ebony co pth irda na chow nen ‘Aue at we mae he ogee th eh we hve 2 ner tema ao” ae ae (Sa ge mew i a ‘he Ul hay pe sede Sp, edt we ‘omnia! vag be ypoonct mgr Sonia oe ‘ogsa'y on hat le te ew ting aoe ed a op cae it same napster 0 Wa uses ln he sew nttion we tole only 8 percent of the tl ne sz the vin tension, ota ete acute 1005 pen ofall pone ane Copper tnes 125 pase at 10% ete, Edy caren oer 0625 | e100 ng Fyweeirfonerogaskw | 4 ate cachet pees vrei ig 18s urate ‘queer Ont aya cenan nb abts nome tun as from he mame ee srs 1A pe pone So gre eg Snip ie bea el ow vite 30NVA in mobo the compute soso ce be censtomar Et {8 we wh edocs ie thee clr in he erly wing ta the cenpotd ae 0 926 pret tnt ae tan ren by pling Snes reneTerra Me 6A ba ad he Ge wing of he wig taoenm, rove th et pombe. Eagan (0 rove tat the ote of par) can bathed by diss econ ‘ote hghotage emia af he 9DSEVA tnforner sige ne (o) Asn at ne se eel rats sera with pe Come ae enim ree, peed In hs ar te wo £8, Coie ample 7 Asa hat we with ode tnd ear yo al cone l= ta= 08 pos Symon ning nore () peda shown ig 2” We nuove -08-jo8 536 Ld tow cont by meas fog DURES RET fh oe stow arg 520, congue vag cmprons ‘eta te two SOMA tafomer ba gull lo 1:40 kV snd agit be impedance fhe Rt . 59. Fox meting sd ein pps oe mikes eo care end prema! ane Som Gr seg: eres cc te cag be (0 tha ln dn he vos muse ay Ho wotage v [I2-£35 piel corotion of potential and ewes kane icra eat . api peyote ‘ 3 oe)! toeser . CT ith sal P42 wih a gs a8 ety op-ed ie deve wl e momen dees oa qlee coe lowe War PY i acento, Hl Oe Seto eco coppers. Expin ~ ase orfmes ofthe coe tom depen Fg $18 as a vo igo nas Ws Fed lode por oe endo Sige {os votoger con Ge ented arent te renaining open 8” (reat wean trfrm oe tet he stove Sue a ny one sf the eng Ine ge Wh oe seers Tag gan cm pn at a iene i a et PSPUAE inc tea en hay Sew tee eh ln ‘Ren a ig Se gt Te, a 2: as Wael eta HY Ape o Antafoees “meal PAS, no. pp. 385100, Auge —— «we 1 mie Tern gf mes, 1EEE Te, cry Srp: Teor Ob evelied Fore afore, HEE Comet Rpt, 7 STBEE oe, Pats 2 Feary. Seen 1 Mh igh Tafa ind nh hom, IEEE ac, no BAD pp a2,6 The High-energy Transmission 44 rRopUCTION ‘The transmission lines constitute the arteries ofthe electic energy system. ‘The avalaity ofa welldeveloped, high-apacity system of tansmsion lines makes it technically and economically feasible to move lage blocks of electric energy ove large distances. History, log high-vellage transmision lines were used for the ‘were consequently made in eountves (Swedea,t USS.R., Canada) which

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