Dietary Reference Intakes (DRIs): Vitamins

Food and Nutrition Board, Institute of Medicine, National Academies

Selected Adverse Effects of Excessive Special

Nutrient Function Life Stage Group RDA/AI* ULa Food Sources Consumption Considerations
Biotin Coenzyme in Infants Liver and smaller No adverse effects of biotin in None.
synthesis of fat, 06 mo 5 g/d* NDb amounts in fruits and humans or animals were found.
glycogen, and 712 mo 6 g/d* ND meats. This does not mean that there
amino acids is no potential for adverse
Children effects resulting from high
13 y 8 g/d* ND intakes. Because data on the
48 y 12 g/d* ND adverse effects of biotin are
limited, caution may be
Males, Females warranted.
913 y 20 g/d* ND
1418 y 25 g/d* ND
1930 y 30 g/d* ND
3150 y 30 g/d* ND
5070 y 30 g/d* ND
> 70 y 30 g/d* ND

Pregnancy
18 y 30 g/d* ND
1930y 30 g/d* ND
3150 y 30 g/d* ND

Lactation
18 y 35 g/d* ND
1930y 35 g/d* ND
3150 y 35 g/d* ND

NOTE: The table is adapted from the DRI reports, see www.nap.edu. It represents Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) in bold type, Adequate Intakes (AIs) in ordinary type followed by an asterisk (*), and Tolerable Upper Intake Levels (ULs)a..
RDAs and AIs may both be used as goals for individual intake. RDAs are set to meet the needs of almost all (97 to 98 percent) individuals in a group. For healthy breastfed infants, the AI is the mean intake. The AI for other life stage and gender groups is
believed to cover the needs of all individuals in the group, but lack of data prevent being able to specify with confidence the percentage of individuals covered by this intake.
a
UL = The maximum level of daily nutrient intake that is likely to pose no risk of adverse effects. Unless otherwise specified, the UL represents total intake from food, water, and supplements. Due to lack of suitable data, ULs could not be established
for vitamin K, thiamin, riboflavin, vitamin B12, pantothenic acid, biotin, or carotenoids. In the absence of ULs, extra caution may be warranted in consuming levels above recommended intakes.
b
ND = Not determinable due to lack of data of adverse effects in this age group and concern with regard to lack of ability to handle excess amounts. Source of intake should be from food only to prevent high levels of intake.
c
Note: Given as dietary folate equivalents (DFE). 1 DFE = 1 g food folate = 0.6 g of folate from fortified food or as a supplement consumed with food = 0.5 g of a supplement taken on an empty stomach.
d
Includes nicotinic acid amide, nicotinic acid (pyridine-3-carboxylic acid), and derivatives that exhibit the biological activity of nicotinamide. Note: Given as niacin equivalents (NE). 1 mg of niacin = 60 mg of tryptophan; 06 months = preformed
niacin (not NE).
e
Includes provitamin A carotenoids that are dietary precursors of retinol. Note: Given as retinol activity equivalents (RAEs). 1 RAE = 1 g retinol, 12 g -carotene, 24 g -carotene, or 24 g -cryptoxanthin. To calculate RAEs from Res of
provitamin A carotenoids in foods, divide the REs by 2. For preformed vitamin A in foods or supplements and for provitamin A carotenoids in supplements, 1 RE = 1RAE.
f
Note: As -tocopherol. -Tocopherol includes RRR--tocopherol, the only form of - tocopherol that occurs naturally in foods, and the 2R-stereoisomeric forms of -tocopherol
(RRR-, RSR-, RRS-, and RSS--tocopherol) that occur in fortified foods and supplements. It does not include the 2S-stereoisomeric forms of -tocopherol (SRR-, SSR-, SRS-, and SSS--tocopherol), also found in fortified foods and supplements.
SOURCES: Dietary Reference Intakes for Calcium, Phosphorous, Magnesium, Vitamin D, and Fluoride (1997); Dietary Reference Intakes for Thiamin, Riboflavin, Niacin, Vitamin B6, Folate, Vitamin B12, Pantothenic Acid, Biotin, and Choline (1998);
Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin C, Vitamin E, Selenium, and Carotenoids (2000); Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin A, Vitamin K, Arsenic, Boron, Chromium, Copper, Iodine, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum, Nickel, Silicon, Vanadium, and Zinc
(2001); and Dietary Reference Intakes for Calcium and Vitamin D (2011). These reports may be accessed via www.nap.edu.
 Dietary Reference Intakes (DRIs): Vitamins
Food and Nutrition Board, Institute of Medicine, National Academies

Selected Adverse Effects of Excessive Special

Nutrient Function Life Stage Group RDA/AI* ULa Food Sources Consumption Considerations
Choline Precursor for Infants Milk, liver, eggs, Fishy body odor, sweating, Individuals with
acetylcholine, 06 mo 125 mg/d* NDb peanuts. salivation, hypotension, trimethylaminuria, renal
phospholipids and 712 mo 150 mg/d* ND hepatotoxicity. disease, liver disease,
betaine. depression and
Children Parkinsons disease, may
13 y 200 mg/d* 1,000 mg/d be at risk of adverse
48 y 250 mg/d* 1,000 mg/d effects with choline
intakes at the UL.
Males Although AIs have been
913 y 375 mg/d* 2,000 mg/d set for choline, there are
1418 y 550 mg/d* 3,000 mg/d few data to assess
1930 y 550 mg/d* 3,500 mg/d whether a dietary supply
3150 y 550 mg/d* 3,500 mg/d of choline is needed at all
5170 y 550 mg/d* 3,500 mg/d stages of the life cycle,
> 70 y 550 mg/d* 3,500 mg/d and it may be that the
choline requirement can
Females be met by endogenous
913 y 375 mg/d* 2,000 mg/d synthesis at some of these
1418 y 400 mg/d* 3,000 mg/d stages.
1930 y 425 mg/d* 3,500 mg/d
3150 y 425 mg/d* 3,500 mg/d
5170 y 425 mg/d* 3,500 mg/d
> 70 y 425 mg/d* 3,500 mg/d

Pregnancy
18 y 450 mg/d* 3,000 mg/d
1930y 450 mg/d* 3,500 mg/d
3150 y 450 mg/d* 3,500 mg/d

Lactation
18 y 550 mg/d* 3,000 mg/d
1930y 550 mg/d* 3,500 mg/d
3150 y 550 mg/d* 3,500 mg/d
NOTE: The table is adapted from the DRI reports, see www.nap.edu. It represents Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) in bold type, Adequate Intakes (AIs) in ordinary type followed by an asterisk (*), and Tolerable Upper Intake Levels (ULs)a..
RDAs and AIs may both be used as goals for individual intake. RDAs are set to meet the needs of almost all (97 to 98 percent) individuals in a group. For healthy breastfed infants, the AI is the mean intake. The AI for other life stage and gender groups is
believed to cover the needs of all individuals in the group, but lack of data prevent being able to specify with confidence the percentage of individuals covered by this intake.
a
UL = The maximum level of daily nutrient intake that is likely to pose no risk of adverse effects. Unless otherwise specified, the UL represents total intake from food, water, and supplements. Due to lack of suitable data, ULs could not be established
for vitamin K, thiamin, riboflavin, vitamin B12, pantothenic acid, biotin, or carotenoids. In the absence of ULs, extra caution may be warranted in consuming levels above recommended intakes.
b
ND = Not determinable due to lack of data of adverse effects in this age group and concern with regard to lack of ability to handle excess amounts. Source of intake should be from food only to prevent high levels of intake.
c
Note: Given as dietary folate equivalents (DFE). 1 DFE = 1 g food folate = 0.6 g of folate from fortified food or as a supplement consumed with food = 0.5 g of a supplement taken on an empty stomach.
d
Includes nicotinic acid amide, nicotinic acid (pyridine-3-carboxylic acid), and derivatives that exhibit the biological activity of nicotinamide. Note: Given as niacin equivalents (NE). 1 mg of niacin = 60 mg of tryptophan; 06 months = preformed
niacin (not NE).
e
Includes provitamin A carotenoids that are dietary precursors of retinol. Note: Given as retinol activity equivalents (RAEs). 1 RAE = 1 g retinol, 12 g -carotene, 24 g -carotene, or 24 g -cryptoxanthin. To calculate RAEs from Res of
provitamin A carotenoids in foods, divide the REs by 2. For preformed vitamin A in foods or supplements and for provitamin A carotenoids in supplements, 1 RE = 1RAE.
f
Note: As -tocopherol. -Tocopherol includes RRR--tocopherol, the only form of - tocopherol that occurs naturally in foods, and the 2R-stereoisomeric forms of -tocopherol
(RRR-, RSR-, RRS-, and RSS--tocopherol) that occur in fortified foods and supplements. It does not include the 2S-stereoisomeric forms of -tocopherol (SRR-, SSR-, SRS-, and SSS--tocopherol), also found in fortified foods and supplements.
SOURCES: Dietary Reference Intakes for Calcium, Phosphorous, Magnesium, Vitamin D, and Fluoride (1997); Dietary Reference Intakes for Thiamin, Riboflavin, Niacin, Vitamin B6, Folate, Vitamin B12, Pantothenic Acid, Biotin, and Choline (1998);
Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin C, Vitamin E, Selenium, and Carotenoids (2000); Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin A, Vitamin K, Arsenic, Boron, Chromium, Copper, Iodine, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum, Nickel, Silicon, Vanadium, and Zinc
(2001); and Dietary Reference Intakes for Calcium and Vitamin D (2011). These reports may be accessed via www.nap.edu.
 Dietary Reference Intakes (DRIs): Vitamins
Food and Nutrition Board, Institute of Medicine, National Academies

Selected Adverse Effects of Excessive Special

Nutrient Function Life Stage Group RDA/AI* ULa Food Sources Consumption Considerations
Folatec Coenzyme in the Infants Enriched cereal Masks neurological In view of evidence
metabolism of 06 mo 65 g/d* NDb grains, dark leafy complication in people with linking folate intake with
Also known as: Folic nucleic and amino 712 mo 80 g/d* ND vegetables, enriched vitamin B12 deficiency. No neural tube defects in the
acid acids; prevents and whole-grain adverse effects associated with fetus, it is recommended
Folacin Pteroylpoly- megaloblastic Children breads and bread folate from food or that all women capable of
glutamates. anemia. 13 y 150 g/d 300 g/d products, fortified supplements have been becoming pregnant
48 y 200 g/d 400 g/d ready-to-eat cereals. reported. This does not mean consume 400 g from
that there is no potential for supplements or fortified
Males, Females adverse effects resulting from foods in addition to intake
913 y 300 g/d 600 g/d high intakes. Because data on of food folate from a
1418 y 400 g/d 800 g/d the adverse effects of folate are varied diet. It is assumed
1930 y 400 g/d 1,000 g/d limited, caution may be that women
3150 y 400 g/d 1,000 g/d warranted. The UL for folate will continue consuming
5070 y 400 g/d 1,000 g/d applies to synthetic forms 400 g from supplements
> 70 y 400 g/d 1,000 g/d obtained from supplements or fortified food until
and/or fortified foods. their pregnancy is
Pregnancy confirmed and they enter
18 y 600 g/d 800 g/d prenatal care, which
1930y 600 g/d 1,000 g/d ordinarily occurs after the
3150 y 600 g/d 1,000 g/d end of the
periconceptional period
Lactation the critical time for
18 y 500 g/d 800 g/d formation of the neural
1930y 500 g/d 1,000 g/d tube.
3150 y 500 g/d 1,000 g/d

NOTE: The table is adapted from the DRI reports, see www.nap.edu. It represents Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) in bold type, Adequate Intakes (AIs) in ordinary type followed by an asterisk (*), and Tolerable Upper Intake Levels (ULs)a..
RDAs and AIs may both be used as goals for individual intake. RDAs are set to meet the needs of almost all (97 to 98 percent) individuals in a group. For healthy breastfed infants, the AI is the mean intake. The AI for other life stage and gender groups is
believed to cover the needs of all individuals in the group, but lack of data prevent being able to specify with confidence the percentage of individuals covered by this intake.
a
UL = The maximum level of daily nutrient intake that is likely to pose no risk of adverse effects. Unless otherwise specified, the UL represents total intake from food, water, and supplements. Due to lack of suitable data, ULs could not be established
for vitamin K, thiamin, riboflavin, vitamin B12, pantothenic acid, biotin, or carotenoids. In the absence of ULs, extra caution may be warranted in consuming levels above recommended intakes.
b
ND = Not determinable due to lack of data of adverse effects in this age group and concern with regard to lack of ability to handle excess amounts. Source of intake should be from food only to prevent high levels of intake.
c
Note: Given as dietary folate equivalents (DFE). 1 DFE = 1 g food folate = 0.6 g of folate from fortified food or as a supplement consumed with food = 0.5 g of a supplement taken on an empty stomach.
d
Includes nicotinic acid amide, nicotinic acid (pyridine-3-carboxylic acid), and derivatives that exhibit the biological activity of nicotinamide. Note: Given as niacin equivalents (NE). 1 mg of niacin = 60 mg of tryptophan; 06 months = preformed
niacin (not NE).
e
Includes provitamin A carotenoids that are dietary precursors of retinol. Note: Given as retinol activity equivalents (RAEs). 1 RAE = 1 g retinol, 12 g -carotene, 24 g -carotene, or 24 g -cryptoxanthin. To calculate RAEs from Res of
provitamin A carotenoids in foods, divide the REs by 2. For preformed vitamin A in foods or supplements and for provitamin A carotenoids in supplements, 1 RE = 1RAE.
f
Note: As -tocopherol. -Tocopherol includes RRR--tocopherol, the only form of - tocopherol that occurs naturally in foods, and the 2R-stereoisomeric forms of -tocopherol
(RRR-, RSR-, RRS-, and RSS--tocopherol) that occur in fortified foods and supplements. It does not include the 2S-stereoisomeric forms of -tocopherol (SRR-, SSR-, SRS-, and SSS--tocopherol), also found in fortified foods and supplements.
SOURCES: Dietary Reference Intakes for Calcium, Phosphorous, Magnesium, Vitamin D, and Fluoride (1997); Dietary Reference Intakes for Thiamin, Riboflavin, Niacin, Vitamin B6, Folate, Vitamin B12, Pantothenic Acid, Biotin, and Choline (1998);
Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin C, Vitamin E, Selenium, and Carotenoids (2000); Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin A, Vitamin K, Arsenic, Boron, Chromium, Copper, Iodine, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum, Nickel, Silicon, Vanadium, and Zinc
(2001); and Dietary Reference Intakes for Calcium and Vitamin D (2011). These reports may be accessed via www.nap.edu.
 Dietary Reference Intakes (DRIs): Vitamins
Food and Nutrition Board, Institute of Medicine, National Academies

Selected Adverse Effects of Excessive Special

Nutrient Function Life Stage Group RDA/AI* ULa Food Sources Consumption Considerations
Niacind Coenzyme or Infants Meat, fish, poultry, There is no evidence of Extra niacin may be
cosubstrate in 06 mo 2 mg/d* NDb enriched and adverse effects from the required by persons
many biological 712 mo 4 mg/d* ND wholegrain breads consumption of naturally treated with hemodialysis
reduction and and bread products, occurring niacin in foods. or peritoneal dialysis, or
oxidation reactions Children fortified ready-to-eat Adverse effects from niacin those with malabsorption
thus required for 13 y 6 mg/d 10 mg/d cereals. containing supplements may syndrome.
energy metabolism. 48 y 8 mg/d 15 mg/d include flushing and
gastrointestinal distress.
Males The UL for niacin applies to
913 y 12 mg/d 20 mg/d synthetic forms obtained from
1418 y 16 mg/d 30 mg/d supplements, fortified foods, or
1930 y 16 mg/d 35 mg/d a combination of the two.
3150 y 16 mg/d 35 mg/d
5170 y 16 mg/d 35 mg/d
> 70 y 16 mg/d 35 mg/d

Females
913 y 12 mg/d 20 mg/d
1418 y 14 mg/d 30 mg/d
1930 y 14 mg/d 35 mg/d
3150 y 14 mg/d 35 mg/d
5170 y 14 mg/d 35 mg/d
> 70 y 14 mg/d 35 mg/d

Pregnancy
18 y 18 mg/d 30 mg/d
1930y 18mg/d 35 mg/d
3150 y 18 mg/d 35 mg/d

Lactation
18 y 17 mg/d 30 mg/d
1930y 17 mg/d 35 mg/d
3150 y 17 mg/d 35 mg/d
NOTE: The table is adapted from the DRI reports, see www.nap.edu. It represents Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) in bold type, Adequate Intakes (AIs) in ordinary type followed by an asterisk (*), and Tolerable Upper Intake Levels (ULs)a..
RDAs and AIs may both be used as goals for individual intake. RDAs are set to meet the needs of almost all (97 to 98 percent) individuals in a group. For healthy breastfed infants, the AI is the mean intake. The AI for other life stage and gender groups is
believed to cover the needs of all individuals in the group, but lack of data prevent being able to specify with confidence the percentage of individuals covered by this intake.
a
UL = The maximum level of daily nutrient intake that is likely to pose no risk of adverse effects. Unless otherwise specified, the UL represents total intake from food, water, and supplements. Due to lack of suitable data, ULs could not be established
for vitamin K, thiamin, riboflavin, vitamin B12, pantothenic acid, biotin, or carotenoids. In the absence of ULs, extra caution may be warranted in consuming levels above recommended intakes.
b
ND = Not determinable due to lack of data of adverse effects in this age group and concern with regard to lack of ability to handle excess amounts. Source of intake should be from food only to prevent high levels of intake.
c
Note: Given as dietary folate equivalents (DFE). 1 DFE = 1 g food folate = 0.6 g of folate from fortified food or as a supplement consumed with food = 0.5 g of a supplement taken on an empty stomach.
d
Includes nicotinic acid amide, nicotinic acid (pyridine-3-carboxylic acid), and derivatives that exhibit the biological activity of nicotinamide. Note: Given as niacin equivalents (NE). 1 mg of niacin = 60 mg of tryptophan; 06 months = preformed
niacin (not NE).
e
Includes provitamin A carotenoids that are dietary precursors of retinol. Note: Given as retinol activity equivalents (RAEs). 1 RAE = 1 g retinol, 12 g -carotene, 24 g -carotene, or 24 g -cryptoxanthin. To calculate RAEs from Res of
provitamin A carotenoids in foods, divide the REs by 2. For preformed vitamin A in foods or supplements and for provitamin A carotenoids in supplements, 1 RE = 1RAE.
f
Note: As -tocopherol. -Tocopherol includes RRR--tocopherol, the only form of - tocopherol that occurs naturally in foods, and the 2R-stereoisomeric forms of -tocopherol
(RRR-, RSR-, RRS-, and RSS--tocopherol) that occur in fortified foods and supplements. It does not include the 2S-stereoisomeric forms of -tocopherol (SRR-, SSR-, SRS-, and SSS--tocopherol), also found in fortified foods and supplements.
SOURCES: Dietary Reference Intakes for Calcium, Phosphorous, Magnesium, Vitamin D, and Fluoride (1997); Dietary Reference Intakes for Thiamin, Riboflavin, Niacin, Vitamin B6, Folate, Vitamin B12, Pantothenic Acid, Biotin, and Choline (1998);
Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin C, Vitamin E, Selenium, and Carotenoids (2000); Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin A, Vitamin K, Arsenic, Boron, Chromium, Copper, Iodine, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum, Nickel, Silicon, Vanadium, and Zinc
(2001); and Dietary Reference Intakes for Calcium and Vitamin D (2011). These reports may be accessed via www.nap.edu.
 Dietary Reference Intakes (DRIs): Vitamins
Food and Nutrition Board, Institute of Medicine, National Academies

Selected Adverse Effects of Excessive Special

Nutrient Function Life Stage Group RDA/AI* ULa Food Sources Consumption Considerations
Pantothenic Acid Coenzyme in fatty Infants Chicken, beef, No adverse effects associated None.
acid metabolism. 06 mo 1.7 mg/d* NDb potatoes, oats, with pantothenic acid from
712 mo 1.8 mg/d* ND cereals, tomato food or supplements have been
products, liver, reported. This does not mean
Children kidney, yeast, egg that there is no potential for
13 y 2 mg/d* ND yolk, broccoli, whole adverse effects resulting from
48 y 3 mg/d* ND grains. high intakes. Because data on
the adverse effects of
Males, Females pantothenic acid are limited,
913 y 4 mg/d* ND caution may be warranted.
1418 y 5 mg/d* ND
1930 y 5 mg/d* ND
3150 y 5 mg/d* ND
5070 y 5 mg/d* ND
> 70 y 5 mg/d* ND

Pregnancy
18 y 6 mg/d* ND
1930y 6 mg/d* ND
3150 y 6 mg/d* ND

Lactation
18 y 7 mg/d* ND
1930y 7 mg/d* ND
3150 y 7 mg/d* ND

NOTE: The table is adapted from the DRI reports, see www.nap.edu. It represents Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) in bold type, Adequate Intakes (AIs) in ordinary type followed by an asterisk (*), and Tolerable Upper Intake Levels (ULs)a..
RDAs and AIs may both be used as goals for individual intake. RDAs are set to meet the needs of almost all (97 to 98 percent) individuals in a group. For healthy breastfed infants, the AI is the mean intake. The AI for other life stage and gender groups is
believed to cover the needs of all individuals in the group, but lack of data prevent being able to specify with confidence the percentage of individuals covered by this intake.
a
UL = The maximum level of daily nutrient intake that is likely to pose no risk of adverse effects. Unless otherwise specified, the UL represents total intake from food, water, and supplements. Due to lack of suitable data, ULs could not be established
for vitamin K, thiamin, riboflavin, vitamin B12, pantothenic acid, biotin, or carotenoids. In the absence of ULs, extra caution may be warranted in consuming levels above recommended intakes.
b
ND = Not determinable due to lack of data of adverse effects in this age group and concern with regard to lack of ability to handle excess amounts. Source of intake should be from food only to prevent high levels of intake.
c
Note: Given as dietary folate equivalents (DFE). 1 DFE = 1 g food folate = 0.6 g of folate from fortified food or as a supplement consumed with food = 0.5 g of a supplement taken on an empty stomach.
d
Includes nicotinic acid amide, nicotinic acid (pyridine-3-carboxylic acid), and derivatives that exhibit the biological activity of nicotinamide. Note: Given as niacin equivalents (NE). 1 mg of niacin = 60 mg of tryptophan; 06 months = preformed
niacin (not NE).
e
Includes provitamin A carotenoids that are dietary precursors of retinol. Note: Given as retinol activity equivalents (RAEs). 1 RAE = 1 g retinol, 12 g -carotene, 24 g -carotene, or 24 g -cryptoxanthin. To calculate RAEs from Res of
provitamin A carotenoids in foods, divide the REs by 2. For preformed vitamin A in foods or supplements and for provitamin A carotenoids in supplements, 1 RE = 1RAE.
f
Note: As -tocopherol. -Tocopherol includes RRR--tocopherol, the only form of - tocopherol that occurs naturally in foods, and the 2R-stereoisomeric forms of -tocopherol
(RRR-, RSR-, RRS-, and RSS--tocopherol) that occur in fortified foods and supplements. It does not include the 2S-stereoisomeric forms of -tocopherol (SRR-, SSR-, SRS-, and SSS--tocopherol), also found in fortified foods and supplements.
SOURCES: Dietary Reference Intakes for Calcium, Phosphorous, Magnesium, Vitamin D, and Fluoride (1997); Dietary Reference Intakes for Thiamin, Riboflavin, Niacin, Vitamin B6, Folate, Vitamin B12, Pantothenic Acid, Biotin, and Choline (1998);
Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin C, Vitamin E, Selenium, and Carotenoids (2000); Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin A, Vitamin K, Arsenic, Boron, Chromium, Copper, Iodine, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum, Nickel, Silicon, Vanadium, and Zinc
(2001); and Dietary Reference Intakes for Calcium and Vitamin D (2011). These reports may be accessed via www.nap.edu.
 Dietary Reference Intakes (DRIs): Vitamins
Food and Nutrition Board, Institute of Medicine, National Academies

Selected Adverse Effects of Excessive Special

Nutrient Function Life Stage Group RDA/AI* ULa Food Sources Consumption Considerations
Riboflavin Coenzyme in Infants Organ meats, milk, No adverse effects associated None.
numerous redox 06 mo 0.3 mg/d* NDb bread products and with riboflavin consumption
Also known as: reactions. 712 mo 0.4 mg/d* ND fortified cereals. from food or supplements have
Vitamin B2 been reported. This does not
Children mean that there is no potential
13 y 0.5 mg/d ND for adverse effects resulting
48 y 0.6 mg/d ND from high intakes. Because
data on the adverse effects of
Males riboflavin are limited, caution
913 y 0.9 mg/d ND may be warranted.
1418 y 1.3 mg/d ND
1930 y 1.3 mg/d ND
3150 y 1.3 mg/d ND
5170 y 1.3 mg/d ND
> 70 y 1.3 mg/d ND

Females
913 y 0.9 mg/d ND
1418 y 1.0 mg/d ND
1930 y 1.1 mg/d ND
3150 y 1.1 mg/d ND
5170 y 1.1 mg/d ND
> 70 y 1.1 mg/d ND

Pregnancy
18 y 1.4 mg/d ND
1930y 1.4 mg/d ND
3150 y 1.4 mg/d ND

Lactation
18 y 1.6 mg/d ND
1930y 1.6 mg/d ND
3150 y 1.6 mg/d ND
NOTE: The table is adapted from the DRI reports, see www.nap.edu. It represents Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) in bold type, Adequate Intakes (AIs) in ordinary type followed by an asterisk (*), and Tolerable Upper Intake Levels (ULs)a..
RDAs and AIs may both be used as goals for individual intake. RDAs are set to meet the needs of almost all (97 to 98 percent) individuals in a group. For healthy breastfed infants, the AI is the mean intake. The AI for other life stage and gender groups is
believed to cover the needs of all individuals in the group, but lack of data prevent being able to specify with confidence the percentage of individuals covered by this intake.
a
UL = The maximum level of daily nutrient intake that is likely to pose no risk of adverse effects. Unless otherwise specified, the UL represents total intake from food, water, and supplements. Due to lack of suitable data, ULs could not be established
for vitamin K, thiamin, riboflavin, vitamin B12, pantothenic acid, biotin, or carotenoids. In the absence of ULs, extra caution may be warranted in consuming levels above recommended intakes.
b
ND = Not determinable due to lack of data of adverse effects in this age group and concern with regard to lack of ability to handle excess amounts. Source of intake should be from food only to prevent high levels of intake.
c
Note: Given as dietary folate equivalents (DFE). 1 DFE = 1 g food folate = 0.6 g of folate from fortified food or as a supplement consumed with food = 0.5 g of a supplement taken on an empty stomach.
d
Includes nicotinic acid amide, nicotinic acid (pyridine-3-carboxylic acid), and derivatives that exhibit the biological activity of nicotinamide. Note: Given as niacin equivalents (NE). 1 mg of niacin = 60 mg of tryptophan; 06 months = preformed
niacin (not NE).
e
Includes provitamin A carotenoids that are dietary precursors of retinol. Note: Given as retinol activity equivalents (RAEs). 1 RAE = 1 g retinol, 12 g -carotene, 24 g -carotene, or 24 g -cryptoxanthin. To calculate RAEs from Res of
provitamin A carotenoids in foods, divide the REs by 2. For preformed vitamin A in foods or supplements and for provitamin A carotenoids in supplements, 1 RE = 1RAE.
f
Note: As -tocopherol. -Tocopherol includes RRR--tocopherol, the only form of - tocopherol that occurs naturally in foods, and the 2R-stereoisomeric forms of -tocopherol
(RRR-, RSR-, RRS-, and RSS--tocopherol) that occur in fortified foods and supplements. It does not include the 2S-stereoisomeric forms of -tocopherol (SRR-, SSR-, SRS-, and SSS--tocopherol), also found in fortified foods and supplements.
SOURCES: Dietary Reference Intakes for Calcium, Phosphorous, Magnesium, Vitamin D, and Fluoride (1997); Dietary Reference Intakes for Thiamin, Riboflavin, Niacin, Vitamin B6, Folate, Vitamin B12, Pantothenic Acid, Biotin, and Choline (1998);
Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin C, Vitamin E, Selenium, and Carotenoids (2000); Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin A, Vitamin K, Arsenic, Boron, Chromium, Copper, Iodine, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum, Nickel, Silicon, Vanadium, and Zinc
(2001); and Dietary Reference Intakes for Calcium and Vitamin D (2011). These reports may be accessed via www.nap.edu.
 Dietary Reference Intakes (DRIs): Vitamins
Food and Nutrition Board, Institute of Medicine, National Academies

Selected Adverse Effects of Excessive Special

Nutrient Function Life Stage Group RDA/AI* ULa Food Sources Consumption Considerations
Thiamin Coenzyme in the Infants Enriched, fortified, or No adverse effects associated Persons who may have
metabolism of 06 mo 0.2 mg/d* NDb whole-grain with thiamin from food or increased needs for
Also known as: carbohydrates and 712 mo 0.3 mg/d* ND products; bread and supplements have been thiamin include those
Vitamin B1 branchedchain amino bread products, reported. This does not mean being treated with
Aneurin acids. Children mixed foods whose that there is no potential for hemodialysis or
13 y 0.5 mg/d ND main ingredient is adverse effects resulting from peritoneal dialysis, or
48 y 0.6 mg/d ND grain, and ready-to- high intakes. Because data on individuals with
eat cereals. the adverse effects of thiamin malabsorption syndrome.
Males are limited, caution may be
913 y 0.9 mg/d ND warranted.
1418 y 1.2 mg/d ND
1930 y 1.2 mg/d ND
3150 y 1.2 mg/d ND
5170 y 1.2 mg/d ND
> 70 y 1.2 mg/d ND

Females
913 y 0.9 mg/d ND
1418 y 1.0 mg/d ND
1930 y 1.1 mg/d ND
3150 y 1.1 mg/d ND
5170 y 1.1 mg/d ND
> 70 y 1.1 mg/d ND

Pregnancy
18 y 1.4 mg/d ND
1930y 1.4 mg/d ND
3150 y 1.4 mg/d ND

Lactation
18 y 1.4 mg/d ND
1930y 1.4 mg/d ND
3150 y 1.4 mg/d ND
NOTE: The table is adapted from the DRI reports, see www.nap.edu. It represents Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) in bold type, Adequate Intakes (AIs) in ordinary type followed by an asterisk (*), and Tolerable Upper Intake Levels (ULs)a..
RDAs and AIs may both be used as goals for individual intake. RDAs are set to meet the needs of almost all (97 to 98 percent) individuals in a group. For healthy breastfed infants, the AI is the mean intake. The AI for other life stage and gender groups is
believed to cover the needs of all individuals in the group, but lack of data prevent being able to specify with confidence the percentage of individuals covered by this intake.
a
UL = The maximum level of daily nutrient intake that is likely to pose no risk of adverse effects. Unless otherwise specified, the UL represents total intake from food, water, and supplements. Due to lack of suitable data, ULs could not be established
for vitamin K, thiamin, riboflavin, vitamin B12, pantothenic acid, biotin, or carotenoids. In the absence of ULs, extra caution may be warranted in consuming levels above recommended intakes.
b
ND = Not determinable due to lack of data of adverse effects in this age group and concern with regard to lack of ability to handle excess amounts. Source of intake should be from food only to prevent high levels of intake.
c
Note: Given as dietary folate equivalents (DFE). 1 DFE = 1 g food folate = 0.6 g of folate from fortified food or as a supplement consumed with food = 0.5 g of a supplement taken on an empty stomach.
d
Includes nicotinic acid amide, nicotinic acid (pyridine-3-carboxylic acid), and derivatives that exhibit the biological activity of nicotinamide. Note: Given as niacin equivalents (NE). 1 mg of niacin = 60 mg of tryptophan; 06 months = preformed
niacin (not NE).
e
Includes provitamin A carotenoids that are dietary precursors of retinol. Note: Given as retinol activity equivalents (RAEs). 1 RAE = 1 g retinol, 12 g -carotene, 24 g -carotene, or 24 g -cryptoxanthin. To calculate RAEs from Res of
provitamin A carotenoids in foods, divide the REs by 2. For preformed vitamin A in foods or supplements and for provitamin A carotenoids in supplements, 1 RE = 1RAE.
f
Note: As -tocopherol. -Tocopherol includes RRR--tocopherol, the only form of - tocopherol that occurs naturally in foods, and the 2R-stereoisomeric forms of -tocopherol
(RRR-, RSR-, RRS-, and RSS--tocopherol) that occur in fortified foods and supplements. It does not include the 2S-stereoisomeric forms of -tocopherol (SRR-, SSR-, SRS-, and SSS--tocopherol), also found in fortified foods and supplements.
SOURCES: Dietary Reference Intakes for Calcium, Phosphorous, Magnesium, Vitamin D, and Fluoride (1997); Dietary Reference Intakes for Thiamin, Riboflavin, Niacin, Vitamin B6, Folate, Vitamin B12, Pantothenic Acid, Biotin, and Choline (1998);
Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin C, Vitamin E, Selenium, and Carotenoids (2000); Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin A, Vitamin K, Arsenic, Boron, Chromium, Copper, Iodine, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum, Nickel, Silicon, Vanadium, and Zinc
(2001); and Dietary Reference Intakes for Calcium and Vitamin D (2011). These reports may be accessed via www.nap.edu.
 Dietary Reference Intakes (DRIs): Vitamins
Food and Nutrition Board, Institute of Medicine, National Academies

Selected Adverse Effects of Excessive Special

Nutrient Function Life Stage Group RDA/AI* ULa Food Sources Consumption Considerations
Vitamin Ae Required for normal Infants Liver, dairy products, Teratological effects, liver Individuals with high
vision, gene 06 mo 400 g/d* 600 g/d fish, darkly colored toxicity alcohol intake,
expression, 712 mo 500 g/d* 600 g/d fruits, leafy preexisting liver disease,
reproduction, vegetables. Note: From preformed hyperlipidemia or severe
embryonic Children Vitamin A only. protein malnutrition may
development and 13 y 300 g/d 600 g/d be distinctly susceptible
immune function. 48 y 400 g/d 900 g/d to the adverse effects of
excess preformed vitamin
Males A intake. -carotene
913 y 600 g/d 1,700 g/d supplements are advised
1418 y 900 g/d 2,800 g/d only to serve as a
1930 y 900 g/d 3,000 g/d provitamin A source for
3150 y 900 g/d 3,000 g/d individuals at risk of
5170 y 900 g/d 3,000 g/d vitamin A deficiency.
> 70 y 900 g/d 3,000 g/d

Females
913 y 600 g/d 1,700 g/d
1418 y 700 g/d 2,800 g/d
1930 y 700 g/d 3,000 g/d
3150 y 700 g/d 3,000 g/d
5170 y 700 g/d 3,000 g/d
> 70 y 700 g/d 3,000 g/d

Pregnancy
18 y 750 g/d 2,800 g/d
1930y 770 g/d 3,000 g/d
3150 y 770 g/d 3,000 g/d

Lactation
18 y 1,200 g/d 2,800 g/d
1930y 1,300 g/d 3,000 g/d
3150 y 1,300 g/d 3,000 g/d
NOTE: The table is adapted from the DRI reports, see www.nap.edu. It represents Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) in bold type, Adequate Intakes (AIs) in ordinary type followed by an asterisk (*), and Tolerable Upper Intake Levels (ULs)a..
RDAs and AIs may both be used as goals for individual intake. RDAs are set to meet the needs of almost all (97 to 98 percent) individuals in a group. For healthy breastfed infants, the AI is the mean intake. The AI for other life stage and gender groups is
believed to cover the needs of all individuals in the group, but lack of data prevent being able to specify with confidence the percentage of individuals covered by this intake.
a
UL = The maximum level of daily nutrient intake that is likely to pose no risk of adverse effects. Unless otherwise specified, the UL represents total intake from food, water, and supplements. Due to lack of suitable data, ULs could not be established
for vitamin K, thiamin, riboflavin, vitamin B12, pantothenic acid, biotin, or carotenoids. In the absence of ULs, extra caution may be warranted in consuming levels above recommended intakes.
b
ND = Not determinable due to lack of data of adverse effects in this age group and concern with regard to lack of ability to handle excess amounts. Source of intake should be from food only to prevent high levels of intake.
c
Note: Given as dietary folate equivalents (DFE). 1 DFE = 1 g food folate = 0.6 g of folate from fortified food or as a supplement consumed with food = 0.5 g of a supplement taken on an empty stomach.
d
Includes nicotinic acid amide, nicotinic acid (pyridine-3-carboxylic acid), and derivatives that exhibit the biological activity of nicotinamide. Note: Given as niacin equivalents (NE). 1 mg of niacin = 60 mg of tryptophan; 06 months = preformed
niacin (not NE).
e
Includes provitamin A carotenoids that are dietary precursors of retinol. Note: Given as retinol activity equivalents (RAEs). 1 RAE = 1 g retinol, 12 g -carotene, 24 g -carotene, or 24 g -cryptoxanthin. To calculate RAEs from Res of
provitamin A carotenoids in foods, divide the REs by 2. For preformed vitamin A in foods or supplements and for provitamin A carotenoids in supplements, 1 RE = 1RAE.
f
Note: As -tocopherol. -Tocopherol includes RRR--tocopherol, the only form of - tocopherol that occurs naturally in foods, and the 2R-stereoisomeric forms of -tocopherol
(RRR-, RSR-, RRS-, and RSS--tocopherol) that occur in fortified foods and supplements. It does not include the 2S-stereoisomeric forms of -tocopherol (SRR-, SSR-, SRS-, and SSS--tocopherol), also found in fortified foods and supplements.
SOURCES: Dietary Reference Intakes for Calcium, Phosphorous, Magnesium, Vitamin D, and Fluoride (1997); Dietary Reference Intakes for Thiamin, Riboflavin, Niacin, Vitamin B6, Folate, Vitamin B12, Pantothenic Acid, Biotin, and Choline (1998);
Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin C, Vitamin E, Selenium, and Carotenoids (2000); Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin A, Vitamin K, Arsenic, Boron, Chromium, Copper, Iodine, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum, Nickel, Silicon, Vanadium, and Zinc
(2001); and Dietary Reference Intakes for Calcium and Vitamin D (2011). These reports may be accessed via www.nap.edu.
 Dietary Reference Intakes (DRIs): Vitamins
Food and Nutrition Board, Institute of Medicine, National Academies

Selected Adverse Effects of Excessive Special

Nutrient Function Life Stage Group RDA/AI* ULa Food Sources Consumption Considerations
Vitamin B6 Coenzyme in the Infants Fortified cereals, No adverse effects associated None.
metabolism of 06 mo 0.1 mg/d* NDb organ meats, fortified with Vitamin B6 from food
Vitamin B6 comprises amino acids, 712 mo 0.3 mg/d* ND soy-based meat have been reported. This does
a glycogen and substitutes. not mean that there is no
group of six related sphingoid bases Children potential for adverse effects
compounds: 13 y 0.5 mg/d 30 mg/d resulting from high intakes.
pyridoxal, 48 y 0.6 mg/d 40 mg/d Because data on the adverse
pyridoxine, effects of Vitamin B6 are
pyridoxamine, Males limited, caution may be
and 5-phosphates 913 y 1.0 mg/d 60 mg/d warranted. Sensory neuropathy
(PLP, PNP, PMP). 1418 y 1.3 mg/d 80 mg/d has occurred from high intakes
1930 y 1.3 mg/d 100 mg/d of supplemental forms.
3150 y 1.3 mg/d 100 mg/d
5170 y 1.7 mg/d 100 mg/d
> 70 y 1.7 mg/d 100 mg/d

Females
913 y 1.0 mg/d 60 mg/d
1418 y 1.2 mg/d 80 mg/d
1930 y 1.3 mg/d 100 mg/d
3150 y 1.3 mg/d 100 mg/d
5170 y 1.5 mg/d 100 mg/d
> 70 y 1.5 mg/d 100 mg/d

Pregnancy
18 y 1.9 mg/d 80 mg/d
1930y 1.9 mg/d 100 mg/d
3150 y 1.9 mg/d 100 mg/d

Lactation
18 y 2.0 mg/d 80 mg/d
1930y 2.0 mg/d 100 mg/d
3150 y 2.0 mg/d 100 mg/d
NOTE: The table is adapted from the DRI reports, see www.nap.edu. It represents Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) in bold type, Adequate Intakes (AIs) in ordinary type followed by an asterisk (*), and Tolerable Upper Intake Levels (ULs)a..
RDAs and AIs may both be used as goals for individual intake. RDAs are set to meet the needs of almost all (97 to 98 percent) individuals in a group. For healthy breastfed infants, the AI is the mean intake. The AI for other life stage and gender groups is
believed to cover the needs of all individuals in the group, but lack of data prevent being able to specify with confidence the percentage of individuals covered by this intake.
a
UL = The maximum level of daily nutrient intake that is likely to pose no risk of adverse effects. Unless otherwise specified, the UL represents total intake from food, water, and supplements. Due to lack of suitable data, ULs could not be established
for vitamin K, thiamin, riboflavin, vitamin B12, pantothenic acid, biotin, or carotenoids. In the absence of ULs, extra caution may be warranted in consuming levels above recommended intakes.
b
ND = Not determinable due to lack of data of adverse effects in this age group and concern with regard to lack of ability to handle excess amounts. Source of intake should be from food only to prevent high levels of intake.
c
Note: Given as dietary folate equivalents (DFE). 1 DFE = 1 g food folate = 0.6 g of folate from fortified food or as a supplement consumed with food = 0.5 g of a supplement taken on an empty stomach.
d
Includes nicotinic acid amide, nicotinic acid (pyridine-3-carboxylic acid), and derivatives that exhibit the biological activity of nicotinamide. Note: Given as niacin equivalents (NE). 1 mg of niacin = 60 mg of tryptophan; 06 months = preformed
niacin (not NE).
e
Includes provitamin A carotenoids that are dietary precursors of retinol. Note: Given as retinol activity equivalents (RAEs). 1 RAE = 1 g retinol, 12 g -carotene, 24 g -carotene, or 24 g -cryptoxanthin. To calculate RAEs from Res of
provitamin A carotenoids in foods, divide the REs by 2. For preformed vitamin A in foods or supplements and for provitamin A carotenoids in supplements, 1 RE = 1RAE.
f
Note: As -tocopherol. -Tocopherol includes RRR--tocopherol, the only form of - tocopherol that occurs naturally in foods, and the 2R-stereoisomeric forms of -tocopherol
(RRR-, RSR-, RRS-, and RSS--tocopherol) that occur in fortified foods and supplements. It does not include the 2S-stereoisomeric forms of -tocopherol (SRR-, SSR-, SRS-, and SSS--tocopherol), also found in fortified foods and supplements.
SOURCES: Dietary Reference Intakes for Calcium, Phosphorous, Magnesium, Vitamin D, and Fluoride (1997); Dietary Reference Intakes for Thiamin, Riboflavin, Niacin, Vitamin B6, Folate, Vitamin B12, Pantothenic Acid, Biotin, and Choline (1998);
Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin C, Vitamin E, Selenium, and Carotenoids (2000); Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin A, Vitamin K, Arsenic, Boron, Chromium, Copper, Iodine, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum, Nickel, Silicon, Vanadium, and Zinc
(2001); and Dietary Reference Intakes for Calcium and Vitamin D (2011). These reports may be accessed via www.nap.edu.
 Dietary Reference Intakes (DRIs): Vitamins
Food and Nutrition Board, Institute of Medicine, National Academies

Selected Adverse Effects of Excessive Special

Nutrient Function Life Stage Group RDA/AI* ULa Food Sources Consumption Considerations
Vitamin B12 Coenzyme in nucleic Infants Fortified cereals, No adverse effects have Because 10 to 30
acid metabolism; 06 mo 0.4 g/d* NDb meat, fish, poultry. been associated with the percent of older people
Also known as: prevents 712 mo 0.5 g/d* ND consumption of the amounts of may malabsorb
Cobalamin megaloblastic vitamin B12 normally found in foodbound vitamin B12, it
anemia. Children foods or supplements. This is advisable for those
13 y 0.9 g/d ND does not mean that there is no older than 50 years to
48 y 1.2 g/d ND potential for adverse effects meet their RDA mainly
resulting from high intakes. by consuming foods
Males, Females Because data on the adverse fortified with vitamin B12
913 y 1.8 g/d ND effects of vitamin B12 are or a supplement
1418 y 2.4 g/d ND limited, caution may be containing vitamin B12.
1930 y 2.4 g/d ND warranted.
3150 y 2.4 g/d ND
5070 y 2.4 g/d ND
> 70 y 2.4 g/d ND

Pregnancy
18 y 2.6 g/d ND
1930y 2.6 g/d ND
3150 y 2.6 g/d ND

Lactation
18 y 2.8 g/d ND
1930y 2.8 g/d ND
3150 y 2.8 g/d ND

NOTE: The table is adapted from the DRI reports, see www.nap.edu. It represents Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) in bold type, Adequate Intakes (AIs) in ordinary type followed by an asterisk (*), and Tolerable Upper Intake Levels (ULs)a..
RDAs and AIs may both be used as goals for individual intake. RDAs are set to meet the needs of almost all (97 to 98 percent) individuals in a group. For healthy breastfed infants, the AI is the mean intake. The AI for other life stage and gender groups is
believed to cover the needs of all individuals in the group, but lack of data prevent being able to specify with confidence the percentage of individuals covered by this intake.
a
UL = The maximum level of daily nutrient intake that is likely to pose no risk of adverse effects. Unless otherwise specified, the UL represents total intake from food, water, and supplements. Due to lack of suitable data, ULs could not be established
for vitamin K, thiamin, riboflavin, vitamin B12, pantothenic acid, biotin, or carotenoids. In the absence of ULs, extra caution may be warranted in consuming levels above recommended intakes.
b
ND = Not determinable due to lack of data of adverse effects in this age group and concern with regard to lack of ability to handle excess amounts. Source of intake should be from food only to prevent high levels of intake.
c
Note: Given as dietary folate equivalents (DFE). 1 DFE = 1 g food folate = 0.6 g of folate from fortified food or as a supplement consumed with food = 0.5 g of a supplement taken on an empty stomach.
d
Includes nicotinic acid amide, nicotinic acid (pyridine-3-carboxylic acid), and derivatives that exhibit the biological activity of nicotinamide. Note: Given as niacin equivalents (NE). 1 mg of niacin = 60 mg of tryptophan; 06 months = preformed
niacin (not NE).
e
Includes provitamin A carotenoids that are dietary precursors of retinol. Note: Given as retinol activity equivalents (RAEs). 1 RAE = 1 g retinol, 12 g -carotene, 24 g -carotene, or 24 g -cryptoxanthin. To calculate RAEs from Res of
provitamin A carotenoids in foods, divide the REs by 2. For preformed vitamin A in foods or supplements and for provitamin A carotenoids in supplements, 1 RE = 1RAE.
f
Note: As -tocopherol. -Tocopherol includes RRR--tocopherol, the only form of - tocopherol that occurs naturally in foods, and the 2R-stereoisomeric forms of -tocopherol
(RRR-, RSR-, RRS-, and RSS--tocopherol) that occur in fortified foods and supplements. It does not include the 2S-stereoisomeric forms of -tocopherol (SRR-, SSR-, SRS-, and SSS--tocopherol), also found in fortified foods and supplements.
SOURCES: Dietary Reference Intakes for Calcium, Phosphorous, Magnesium, Vitamin D, and Fluoride (1997); Dietary Reference Intakes for Thiamin, Riboflavin, Niacin, Vitamin B6, Folate, Vitamin B12, Pantothenic Acid, Biotin, and Choline (1998);
Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin C, Vitamin E, Selenium, and Carotenoids (2000); Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin A, Vitamin K, Arsenic, Boron, Chromium, Copper, Iodine, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum, Nickel, Silicon, Vanadium, and Zinc
(2001); and Dietary Reference Intakes for Calcium and Vitamin D (2011). These reports may be accessed via www.nap.edu.
 Dietary Reference Intakes (DRIs): Vitamins
Food and Nutrition Board, Institute of Medicine, National Academies

Selected Adverse Effects of Excessive Special

Nutrient Function Life Stage Group RDA/AI* ULa Food Sources Consumption Considerations
Vitamin C Cofactor for Infants Citrus fruits, Gastrointestinal disturbances, Individuals who smoke
reactions requiring 06 mo 40 mg/d* NDb tomatoes, tomato kidney stones, excess iron require an additional 35
Also known as: reduced copper or 712 mo 50 mg/d* ND juice, potatoes, absorption. mg/d of vitamin C over
Ascorbic acid iron metalloenzyme brussel sprouts, that needed by
Dehydroascorbic acid and as a protective Children cauliflower, broccoli, nonsmokers. Nonsmokers
(DHA) antioxidant 13 y 15 mg/d 400 mg/d strawberries, regularly exposed to
48 y 25 mg/d 650 mg/d cabbage and spinach. tobacco smoke are
encouraged to ensure they
Males meet the
913 y 45 mg/d 1,200 mg/d RDA for vitamin C.
1418 y 75 mg/d 1,800 mg/d
1930 y 90 mg/d 2,000 mg/d
3150 y 90 mg/d 2,000 mg/d
5170 y 90 mg/d 2,000 mg/d
> 70 y 90 mg/d 2,000 mg/d

Females
913 y 45 mg/d 1,200 mg/d
1418 y 65 mg/d 1,800 mg/d
1930 y 75 mg/d 2,000 mg/d
3150 y 75 mg/d 2,000 mg/d
5170 y 75 mg/d 2,000 mg/d
> 70 y 75 mg/d 2,000 mg/d

Pregnancy
18 y 80 mg/d 1,800 mg/d
1930y 85 mg/d 2,000 mg/d
3150 y 85 mg/d 2,000 mg/d

Lactation
18 y 115 mg/d 1,800 mg/d
1930y 120 mg/d 2,000 mg/d
3150 y 120 mg/d 2,000 mg/d
NOTE: The table is adapted from the DRI reports, see www.nap.edu. It represents Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) in bold type, Adequate Intakes (AIs) in ordinary type followed by an asterisk (*), and Tolerable Upper Intake Levels (ULs)a..
RDAs and AIs may both be used as goals for individual intake. RDAs are set to meet the needs of almost all (97 to 98 percent) individuals in a group. For healthy breastfed infants, the AI is the mean intake. The AI for other life stage and gender groups is
believed to cover the needs of all individuals in the group, but lack of data prevent being able to specify with confidence the percentage of individuals covered by this intake.
a
UL = The maximum level of daily nutrient intake that is likely to pose no risk of adverse effects. Unless otherwise specified, the UL represents total intake from food, water, and supplements. Due to lack of suitable data, ULs could not be established
for vitamin K, thiamin, riboflavin, vitamin B12, pantothenic acid, biotin, or carotenoids. In the absence of ULs, extra caution may be warranted in consuming levels above recommended intakes.
b
ND = Not determinable due to lack of data of adverse effects in this age group and concern with regard to lack of ability to handle excess amounts. Source of intake should be from food only to prevent high levels of intake.
c
Note: Given as dietary folate equivalents (DFE). 1 DFE = 1 g food folate = 0.6 g of folate from fortified food or as a supplement consumed with food = 0.5 g of a supplement taken on an empty stomach.
d
Includes nicotinic acid amide, nicotinic acid (pyridine-3-carboxylic acid), and derivatives that exhibit the biological activity of nicotinamide. Note: Given as niacin equivalents (NE). 1 mg of niacin = 60 mg of tryptophan; 06 months = preformed
niacin (not NE).
e
Includes provitamin A carotenoids that are dietary precursors of retinol. Note: Given as retinol activity equivalents (RAEs). 1 RAE = 1 g retinol, 12 g -carotene, 24 g -carotene, or 24 g -cryptoxanthin. To calculate RAEs from Res of
provitamin A carotenoids in foods, divide the REs by 2. For preformed vitamin A in foods or supplements and for provitamin A carotenoids in supplements, 1 RE = 1RAE.
f
Note: As -tocopherol. -Tocopherol includes RRR--tocopherol, the only form of - tocopherol that occurs naturally in foods, and the 2R-stereoisomeric forms of -tocopherol
(RRR-, RSR-, RRS-, and RSS--tocopherol) that occur in fortified foods and supplements. It does not include the 2S-stereoisomeric forms of -tocopherol (SRR-, SSR-, SRS-, and SSS--tocopherol), also found in fortified foods and supplements.
SOURCES: Dietary Reference Intakes for Calcium, Phosphorous, Magnesium, Vitamin D, and Fluoride (1997); Dietary Reference Intakes for Thiamin, Riboflavin, Niacin, Vitamin B6, Folate, Vitamin B12, Pantothenic Acid, Biotin, and Choline (1998);
Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin C, Vitamin E, Selenium, and Carotenoids (2000); Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin A, Vitamin K, Arsenic, Boron, Chromium, Copper, Iodine, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum, Nickel, Silicon, Vanadium, and Zinc
(2001); and Dietary Reference Intakes for Calcium and Vitamin D (2011). These reports may be accessed via www.nap.edu.
 Dietary Reference Intakes (DRIs): Vitamins
Food and Nutrition Board, Institute of Medicine, National Academies

Selected Adverse Effects of Excessive Special

Nutrient Function Life Stage Group RDA/AI* ULa Food Sources Consumption Considerations
Vitamin D Maintain serum Infants Fish liver oils, flesh Hypercalcemia which can lead None.
calcium and 06 mo 400 IU/d* 1,000 IU/d of fatty fish, egg to decreased renal function and
Also known as: phosphorus 712 mo 400 IU/d* 1,500 IU/d yolk, fortified dairy hypercalciuria, kidney failure,
Calciferol concentrations, and products and fortified cardiovascular system failure,
in turn, bone health. Children cereals. and calcification of soft tissues.
Note: 1 g calciferol 13 y 600 IU/d 2,500 IU/d
= 40 IU vitamin D 48 y 600 IU/d 3,000 IU/d

The DRI values are Males, Females

based on minimal sun 913 y 600 IU/d 4,000 IU/d
exposure. 1418 y 600 IU/d 4,000 IU/d
1930 y 600 IU/d 4,000 IU/d
3150 y 600 IU/d 4,000 IU/d
5070 y 600 IU/d 4,000 IU/d
> 70 y 800 IU/d 4,000 IU/d

Pregnant/Lactating
1418 y 600 IU/d 4,000 IU/d
1950 y 600 IU/d 4,000 IU/d

NOTE: The table is adapted from the DRI reports, see www.nap.edu. It represents Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) in bold type, Adequate Intakes (AIs) in ordinary type followed by an asterisk (*), and Tolerable Upper Intake Levels (ULs)a..
RDAs and AIs may both be used as goals for individual intake. RDAs are set to meet the needs of almost all (97 to 98 percent) individuals in a group. For healthy breastfed infants, the AI is the mean intake. The AI for other life stage and gender groups is
believed to cover the needs of all individuals in the group, but lack of data prevent being able to specify with confidence the percentage of individuals covered by this intake.
a
UL = The maximum level of daily nutrient intake that is likely to pose no risk of adverse effects. Unless otherwise specified, the UL represents total intake from food, water, and supplements. Due to lack of suitable data, ULs could not be established
for vitamin K, thiamin, riboflavin, vitamin B12, pantothenic acid, biotin, or carotenoids. In the absence of ULs, extra caution may be warranted in consuming levels above recommended intakes.
b
ND = Not determinable due to lack of data of adverse effects in this age group and concern with regard to lack of ability to handle excess amounts. Source of intake should be from food only to prevent high levels of intake.
c
Note: Given as dietary folate equivalents (DFE). 1 DFE = 1 g food folate = 0.6 g of folate from fortified food or as a supplement consumed with food = 0.5 g of a supplement taken on an empty stomach.
d
Includes nicotinic acid amide, nicotinic acid (pyridine-3-carboxylic acid), and derivatives that exhibit the biological activity of nicotinamide. Note: Given as niacin equivalents (NE). 1 mg of niacin = 60 mg of tryptophan; 06 months = preformed
niacin (not NE).
e
Includes provitamin A carotenoids that are dietary precursors of retinol. Note: Given as retinol activity equivalents (RAEs). 1 RAE = 1 g retinol, 12 g -carotene, 24 g -carotene, or 24 g -cryptoxanthin. To calculate RAEs from Res of
provitamin A carotenoids in foods, divide the REs by 2. For preformed vitamin A in foods or supplements and for provitamin A carotenoids in supplements, 1 RE = 1RAE.
f
Note: As -tocopherol. -Tocopherol includes RRR--tocopherol, the only form of - tocopherol that occurs naturally in foods, and the 2R-stereoisomeric forms of -tocopherol
(RRR-, RSR-, RRS-, and RSS--tocopherol) that occur in fortified foods and supplements. It does not include the 2S-stereoisomeric forms of -tocopherol (SRR-, SSR-, SRS-, and SSS--tocopherol), also found in fortified foods and supplements.
SOURCES: Dietary Reference Intakes for Calcium, Phosphorous, Magnesium, Vitamin D, and Fluoride (1997); Dietary Reference Intakes for Thiamin, Riboflavin, Niacin, Vitamin B6, Folate, Vitamin B12, Pantothenic Acid, Biotin, and Choline (1998);
Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin C, Vitamin E, Selenium, and Carotenoids (2000); Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin A, Vitamin K, Arsenic, Boron, Chromium, Copper, Iodine, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum, Nickel, Silicon, Vanadium, and Zinc
(2001); and Dietary Reference Intakes for Calcium and Vitamin D (2011). These reports may be accessed via www.nap.edu.
 Dietary Reference Intakes (DRIs): Vitamins
Food and Nutrition Board, Institute of Medicine, National Academies

Selected Adverse Effects of Excessive Special

Nutrient Function Life Stage Group RDA/AI* ULa Food Sources Consumption Considerations
Vitamin E A metabolic function Infants Vegetable oils, There is no evidence of Patients on anticoagulant
has not yet been 06 mo 4 mg/d* NDb unprocessed cereal adverse effects from the therapy should be
Also known as: identified. 712 mo 5 mg/d* ND grains, nuts, fruits, consumption of vitamin E monitored when taking
-tocopherol Vitamin Es major vegetables, meats. naturally occurring in foods. vitamin E supplements.
function appears to Children Adverse effects from vitamin E
be as a nonspecific 13 y 6 mg/d 200 mg/d containing supplements may
chain-breaking 48 y 7 mg/d 300 mg/d include hemorrhagic toxicity.
antioxidant. The UL for vitamin E applies
Males, Females to any form of -tocopherol
913 y 11 mg/d 600 mg/d obtained from supplements,
1418 y 15 mg/d 800 mg/d fortified foods, or a
1930 y 15 mg/d 1,000 mg/d combination of the two.
3150 y 15 mg/d 1,000 mg/d
5070 y 15 mg/d 1,000 mg/d
> 70 y 15 mg/d 1,000 mg/d

Pregnancy
18 y 15 mg/d 800 mg/d
1930y 15 mg/d 1,000 mg/d
3150 y 15 mg/d 1,000 mg/d

Lactation
18 y 19 mg/d 800 mg/d
1930y 19 mg/d 1,000 mg/d
3150 y 19 mg/d 1,000 mg/d

NOTE: The table is adapted from the DRI reports, see www.nap.edu. It represents Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) in bold type, Adequate Intakes (AIs) in ordinary type followed by an asterisk (*), and Tolerable Upper Intake Levels (ULs)a..
RDAs and AIs may both be used as goals for individual intake. RDAs are set to meet the needs of almost all (97 to 98 percent) individuals in a group. For healthy breastfed infants, the AI is the mean intake. The AI for other life stage and gender groups is
believed to cover the needs of all individuals in the group, but lack of data prevent being able to specify with confidence the percentage of individuals covered by this intake.
a
UL = The maximum level of daily nutrient intake that is likely to pose no risk of adverse effects. Unless otherwise specified, the UL represents total intake from food, water, and supplements. Due to lack of suitable data, ULs could not be established
for vitamin K, thiamin, riboflavin, vitamin B12, pantothenic acid, biotin, or carotenoids. In the absence of ULs, extra caution may be warranted in consuming levels above recommended intakes.
b
ND = Not determinable due to lack of data of adverse effects in this age group and concern with regard to lack of ability to handle excess amounts. Source of intake should be from food only to prevent high levels of intake.
c
Note: Given as dietary folate equivalents (DFE). 1 DFE = 1 g food folate = 0.6 g of folate from fortified food or as a supplement consumed with food = 0.5 g of a supplement taken on an empty stomach.
d
Includes nicotinic acid amide, nicotinic acid (pyridine-3-carboxylic acid), and derivatives that exhibit the biological activity of nicotinamide. Note: Given as niacin equivalents (NE). 1 mg of niacin = 60 mg of tryptophan; 06 months = preformed
niacin (not NE).
e
Includes provitamin A carotenoids that are dietary precursors of retinol. Note: Given as retinol activity equivalents (RAEs). 1 RAE = 1 g retinol, 12 g -carotene, 24 g -carotene, or 24 g -cryptoxanthin. To calculate RAEs from Res of
provitamin A carotenoids in foods, divide the REs by 2. For preformed vitamin A in foods or supplements and for provitamin A carotenoids in supplements, 1 RE = 1RAE.
f
Note: As -tocopherol. -Tocopherol includes RRR--tocopherol, the only form of - tocopherol that occurs naturally in foods, and the 2R-stereoisomeric forms of -tocopherol
(RRR-, RSR-, RRS-, and RSS--tocopherol) that occur in fortified foods and supplements. It does not include the 2S-stereoisomeric forms of -tocopherol (SRR-, SSR-, SRS-, and SSS--tocopherol), also found in fortified foods and supplements.
SOURCES: Dietary Reference Intakes for Calcium, Phosphorous, Magnesium, Vitamin D, and Fluoride (1997); Dietary Reference Intakes for Thiamin, Riboflavin, Niacin, Vitamin B6, Folate, Vitamin B12, Pantothenic Acid, Biotin, and Choline (1998);
Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin C, Vitamin E, Selenium, and Carotenoids (2000); Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin A, Vitamin K, Arsenic, Boron, Chromium, Copper, Iodine, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum, Nickel, Silicon, Vanadium, and Zinc
(2001); and Dietary Reference Intakes for Calcium and Vitamin D (2011). These reports may be accessed via www.nap.edu.
 Dietary Reference Intakes (DRIs): Vitamins
Food and Nutrition Board, Institute of Medicine, National Academies

Selected Adverse Effects of Excessive Special

Nutrient Function Life Stage Group RDA/AI* ULa Food Sources Consumption Considerations
Vitamin K Coenzyme during the Infants Green vegetables No adverse effects associated Patients on anticoagulant
synthesis of 06 mo 2.0 g/d* NDb (collards, spinach, with vitamin K consumption therapy should monitor
many proteins 712 mo 2.5 g/d* ND salad greens, from food or supplements have vitamin K intake.
involved in blood broccoli), brussel been reported in humans or
clotting and bone Children sprouts, cabbage, animals. This does not mean
metabolism. 13 y 30 g/d* ND plant oils and that there is no potential for
48 y 55 g/d* ND margarine. adverse effects resulting from
high intakes. Because data on
Males the adverse effects of vitamin
913 y 60 g/d* ND K are limited, caution may be
1418 y 75 g/d* ND warranted.
1930 y 120 g/d* ND
3150 y 120 g/d* ND
5170 y 120 g/d* ND
> 70 y 120 g/d* ND

Females
913 y 60 g/d* ND
1418 y 75 g/d* ND
1930 y 90 g/d* ND
3150 y 90 g/d* ND
5170 y 90 g/d* ND
> 70 y 90 g/d* ND

Pregnancy
18 y 75 g/d* ND
1930y 90 g/d* ND
3150 y 90 g/d* ND
Lactation
18 y 75 g/d* ND
1930y 90 g/d* ND
3150 y 90 g/d* ND

NOTE: The table is adapted from the DRI reports, see www.nap.edu. It represents Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) in bold type, Adequate Intakes (AIs) in ordinary type followed by an asterisk (*), and Tolerable Upper Intake Levels (ULs)a..
RDAs and AIs may both be used as goals for individual intake. RDAs are set to meet the needs of almost all (97 to 98 percent) individuals in a group. For healthy breastfed infants, the AI is the mean intake. The AI for other life stage and gender groups is
believed to cover the needs of all individuals in the group, but lack of data prevent being able to specify with confidence the percentage of individuals covered by this intake.
a
UL = The maximum level of daily nutrient intake that is likely to pose no risk of adverse effects. Unless otherwise specified, the UL represents total intake from food, water, and supplements. Due to lack of suitable data, ULs could not be established
for vitamin K, thiamin, riboflavin, vitamin B12, pantothenic acid, biotin, or carotenoids. In the absence of ULs, extra caution may be warranted in consuming levels above recommended intakes.
b
ND = Not determinable due to lack of data of adverse effects in this age group and concern with regard to lack of ability to handle excess amounts. Source of intake should be from food only to prevent high levels of intake.
c
Note: Given as dietary folate equivalents (DFE). 1 DFE = 1 g food folate = 0.6 g of folate from fortified food or as a supplement consumed with food = 0.5 g of a supplement taken on an empty stomach.
d
Includes nicotinic acid amide, nicotinic acid (pyridine-3-carboxylic acid), and derivatives that exhibit the biological activity of nicotinamide. Note: Given as niacin equivalents (NE). 1 mg of niacin = 60 mg of tryptophan; 06 months = preformed
niacin (not NE).
e
Includes provitamin A carotenoids that are dietary precursors of retinol. Note: Given as retinol activity equivalents (RAEs). 1 RAE = 1 g retinol, 12 g -carotene, 24 g -carotene, or 24 g -cryptoxanthin. To calculate RAEs from Res of
provitamin A carotenoids in foods, divide the REs by 2. For preformed vitamin A in foods or supplements and for provitamin A carotenoids in supplements, 1 RE = 1RAE.
f
Note: As -tocopherol. -Tocopherol includes RRR--tocopherol, the only form of - tocopherol that occurs naturally in foods, and the 2R-stereoisomeric forms of -tocopherol
(RRR-, RSR-, RRS-, and RSS--tocopherol) that occur in fortified foods and supplements. It does not include the 2S-stereoisomeric forms of -tocopherol (SRR-, SSR-, SRS-, and SSS--tocopherol), also found in fortified foods and supplements.
SOURCES: Dietary Reference Intakes for Calcium, Phosphorous, Magnesium, Vitamin D, and Fluoride (1997); Dietary Reference Intakes for Thiamin, Riboflavin, Niacin, Vitamin B6, Folate, Vitamin B12, Pantothenic Acid, Biotin, and Choline (1998);
Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin C, Vitamin E, Selenium, and Carotenoids (2000); Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin A, Vitamin K, Arsenic, Boron, Chromium, Copper, Iodine, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum, Nickel, Silicon, Vanadium, and Zinc
(2001); and Dietary Reference Intakes for Calcium and Vitamin D (2011). These reports may be accessed via www.nap.edu.