RL La ML ee : ne Wel R.I. PORTERTo NOV IZ6/ FURTHER MATHEMATICSELEMENTARY ANALYSIS By A. DAKIN, M.A., BSc. and R. I. PORTER, M.B.E., M.A. 3rd, metricated, edition 27th Impression “Very lucid and well arranged... . The numerous examples provide excellent practice for both average and more advanced pupils." THE A.M.A. FURTHER ELEMENTARY ANALYSIS By R. I. PORTER, M.BE., M.A. 4th, metricated, edition 17th Impression “T have been teaching now for 40 years. All that time Lhave been looking for a good Analysis book. At last, I think, I have found it. Please pass on my congratula- tions and thanks to Mr. Porter for giving us such a fine ‘A SENIOR MATHEMATICS MASTER Full details from BELL AND HYMAN LTD ‘Denmark House, 37/39 Queen Elizabeth Street, London SEI 2QBFURTHER MATHEMATICS By R. I. PORTER MBE. MA. Formerly Headmaster, The Queen Elizabeth Granumar School, Penrith BELL AND HYMAN LTD LONDONPublished by BELL & HYMAN LIMITED Denmark House 37-39 Queen Elizabeth Street LONDON SE1 20B First published in 1962 by G. Bell & Sons Limited Reprinted 1963, 1964, 1966, 1967 Revised, metricated edition 1970 Reprinted 1972, 1975, 1978, 1980 ©R.L. Porter, M.B.E., M.A., 1962 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or trans- ‘mitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, Photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of Bell & Hyman Limited METROPOLITAN BOROUGH OF _WIGAI DEPT. OF LEISURE LIBRARIES ISBN 07135 1762 X Printed in Great Britain by Biddles Ltd, Guildford, SurreyPREFACE TO FIRST EDITION Tue books Elementary Analysis and Further Elementary Analysis were designed to provide a complete two-year Vith Form course in Pure Mathematics for all but the outright mathematical specialist. This volume is intended to complete the two-year course for these specialists and also to extend the course to give adequate preparation for the “S” papers of the G.C.E. and similar examinations. In choosing the subject matter, careful attention has been given to the existing or proposed future syllabuses of the different Examining Bodies for the General Certificate of Education. A great deal of thought has been given to the order of presentation of the different topics, but clearly this order is flexible and can be modified to suit different requirements and to fit in with different ideas. As in the previous books, the aim is to introduce pupils as quickly as possible to fresh mathematical fields and to make them acquainted with new mathematical techniques. To achieve this aim and to limit the size of this book it has been necessary in many instances to dispense with formal proofs and rigid lines of approach. Experience has proved the necessity for large numbers of examples of all types, and it will be seen that this requirement is very adequately met. Care has been taken to grade the examples in the text according to degree of difficulty. The needs of revision are catered for by a set of miscellaneous examples at the end of each chapter, together with a comprehensive set of Revision Papers, both A and S levels; a feature which has proved popular in the earlier volumes. My thanks are due to the following examining bodies, who have kindly given permission to use questions set in their past examinations: The Senate of the University of London: () The Cambridge Local Examination Syndicate: © The Oxford and Cambridge Joint Examination Board: (O.C.) ‘The Northern Universities Joint Matriculation Board: (N). 1am indebted to several past pupils, particularly Mr. J. D. Knowles, Mr. K. Burrell and Mr. J. B, Brelsford, for the assistance they have given in reading and checking the manuscript and the answers. R. P. December 1961PREFACE TO REVISED EDITION Tue need for a further reprinting has given the opportunity of revising the text in order to meet the requirements of the changeover to metric and S.I. units. The number of instances where modification was necessary is small and consequently the book is essentially unchanged. I would like to thank the users of the book who have notified me of errors; it is hoped that most of these have now been eliminated. R.P. March 1970CONTENTS CHAPTER I Tre TRIANGLE * . . : . . . . . Medians. Circumcentre and circumeircle. Orthocentre and pedal triangle. Nine-point circle. Euler line. Incentre and ‘excentres. Concurrence and collinearity. The theorems of Ceva and Menelaus. Simson’s line. CHAPTER II ALOMMRMC RNIB ago. s cpap teas aie Ga Basic identities. Important factors, Remainder theorem. Factors of symmetrical expressions. ‘Highest common factor of two polynomials, Ratio and proportion. Equal fractions. Quadratic and rational quadratic functions. Partial fractions— special methods. Miscellaneous equations. CHAPTER III DETERMINANTS. LINEAR EQUATIONS = - . . Notation and definitions. Laws of determinants. Factorisation of determinants. Minors and cofactors. Linear simultaneous equations. Equations in two and three unknowns. Special cases. Homogeneous linear equations in two and three unknowns. CHAPTER IV More ADVANCED ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY OF THE STRAIGHT LINE AND CIRCLE ie home Applications of determinants. The line pair. Line pair through the origin. Angles between two straight lines. Bisectors of the angles between a line pair. Tangents to a circle from an external point. Chord of contact of tangents from an external point to a circle. CHAPTER V ‘Systems OF CIRCLES. . Power of a point with respect to a cirele, Radical axis of two circles, Radical centre of three circles. Simplified form for the equations of two given circles. Coaxal systems of circles. ‘The equation S,+ 2S; =0. Simplified form of the equation of a coaxal system. Types of coaxal systems. Limiting points. Orthogonal circles. Condition that two circles should cut orthogonally. Orthogonal systems. The circle of Apollonius. Apollonius circles as a system of coaxal circles. ‘PAGE 27 32 100viii CONTENTS CHAPTER VI PAGE Comtex NuMBERS . . = < < < . +» 123 Definition, notation and geometrical representation of a complex number. Argand diagram. Modulus and amplitude. Funda- mental processes. Equality, addition, subtraction. Inequalities. Multiplication and division. Geometrical properties of the Argand diagram. Transformations. Exponential form of a complex number. CHAPTER VIL ELEMENTARY THEORY oF EQUATIONS =. «www. AD Polynomials and polynomial equations. Basic theorems. Complex and irrational roots. Zeros of a polynomial. Rolle’s theorem. Conditions for two equations to have a common root. Repeated roots. Solutions of equations with repeated roots. Relations between the roots and coefficients of an equation: cubic equation: quartic equation; equation of the nth degree. Sums of powers of roots of an equation. Transformation of equations. CHAPTER VIII Tue Conics. MISCELLANEOUS PROBLEMS © . . . + 161 Chord of contact of tangents from a point to a conic, Polar and pole. Parallel chords of a conic. Equation of a chord with a given mid-point. Normals to a conic. Concyclic points on a conic. General equation of a conic. Systems of conics, S+ 2S’ =0. System of conics passing through four given points. Special cases of the system S + 45’ = 0. ‘CHAPTER IX De Motvre’s THEOREM AND SIMPLE APPLICATIONS . . + 181 De Moivre’s theorem. Values of (cos 0 + / sin 6)”, where gis a positive integer. Binomial equations. Factors: x" — 1, x" +1, x*" — 2x cos n0 + 1. Expressions for cos" 0, sin" 0 in terms of multiple angles. Expansions of cos n, sin n0, tan 0, where m is a Positive integer. CHAPTER X Finire SERIES. MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION . . . . . 196 Finite series. Series related to the arithmetic series. Trigo- nometrical series. Applications of De Moivre’s theorem. Power series. Binomial series and coefficients. Mathematical induction,CONTENTS CHAPTER XI EXPANSIONS « Infinite series. Expansion of a function. Algebraic and trigo- nometrical methods. Taylor’s theorem. Maclaurin’s theorem. Expansion by differentiation or integration of a known series. Expansion by the formation of a differential equation. Leibnitz’s theorem. CHAPTER XII SYSTEMATIC INTEGRATION. PROPERTIES OF DEFINITE INTEGRALS Basic theorems of integration. Important algebraic integrals, Integrals involving the function V/(ax* + bx + ¢). Trigonometric integrals. Hyperbolic integrals. Reduction formule. General theorems on definite integrals. The logarithmic function [ “dt t Infinite integrals: infinite range; infinite integrand. CHAPTER XIII FURTHER PROPERTIES OF PLANE CURVES : 4 ‘Conves exprued “ti polar bocrdinstee; Pedal @jusiionl. Are length and area of surface of revolution. Polar form of radius of curvature. Radius of curvature—pedal form. Area of a closed curve. Theorems of Pappus. Volume of revolution of a sectorial area. CHAPTER XIV ALGepRAIC GEOMETRY OF THE PLANE AND STRAIGHT LINE Rectangular Cartesian coordinates in three dimensions. Three- dimensional loci. Fundamental results. Direction of a straight line. Direction-cosines. Angle between two straight lines. Direction ratios. The general equation of the first degree. Perpendicular form of the equation of a plane. Perpendicular from a point to a plane. Important results on the plane. The straight line. Symmetrical form of the equations of a straight line. Coplanar lines. Skew lines. Common perpendicular to two skew lines. Simplified form for the equations of two skew lines. ‘Some properties of the tetrahedron. CHAPTER XV ‘Tue SPHERE ‘The equation of a fame Spe passing Suet ‘four nai: ‘Tangent plane to a sphere. Length of tangent lines to a sphere from a given point. Plane section of a sphere. Common points of two spheres. Equations of a circle. Equation of a sphere passing through a given circle. System of spheres passing through the common points of two spheres, ix PAGE 216 230 261 277 304x CONTENTS CHAPTER XVI PAGE PAWTIAG DIFFERENTIATION gg a Functions of more than one variable. Definition of a partial derivative. Geometrical interpretation of partial derivatives in the case of a function of two variables. Higher partial derivatives. Small changes. Differentials. Total differential coefficient. Important special cases. Derivatives of implicit functions. Total partial derivative. Homogeneous functions. Euler’s theorem. VENOM RAMEE oe! sia oe eae eee 337 ANSWERS ; Fe cee ket At ea Invex. . . . : * : . . . . + 413CHAPTER TF THE TRIANGLE Medians of a triangle. Let the medians BB’, CC’ of AABC meet in G (Fig. 1D. Then as B’, C’ are the mid-points of AC, AB respectively, it follows that C'B is parallel to BC and equal tohalfofit. Hence from the similar triangles C'GB’, BCG BG_CG_CB - Le. the medians 2B’, CC’ trisect each other 5 w ca at. Fro. 1. Similarly, it can be shown that the medians AA‘, BB’ trisect each other at Gand therefore the medians AA’, BB’, CC’ are concurrent in G and trisect each other. Gis called the centroid of AABC. Analytically, if A, B, C are the points (x1, 1), (tm Ya)s (Xe Yah by writing down the coordinates of 4’ and expressing the fact that @ divides A4’ internally in the ratio 2:1, it follows that G is the point G@ita2 +) JOT tHE A Ex, 1. Show how to consiruct a triangle ABC given the lengths of its three medians. Draw median 44’ and determine the point of trisection G (Fig. 2). Produce 4d’ to G’ where GA’ =A'G’ and mark arcs with centres G, G’ and radii respectively two-thirds of each of the remaining two medians. These. arcs intersect in a second vertex, B, of the required triangle and is determined by making 4’C =B4’. Sh The proof depends on the fact that BGCG’ is a parallelogram as its diagonals bisect cach other. ‘Apollonius’ theorem. Ad’ is a median of 4 ABC (Fig. 3). Using the Cosine Rule with the notation of the figure, A= m?+(4a)t—2m(fa) cos (180° — 0), Bam? + (ha)*~ 2m(ha) cos 8. Adding and using cos (180°—) — —cos 9, cf B= t+ a ic. ABE |. AC*~2AA'71-2BA'2— Apollonius’ median theorem, 1 Fig. 2.2 THE TRIANGLE Angles between a median and the side of a triangle. Referting to Fig. 3, where 44BC has B 1) eat Bcot C=" =2eat o ° Le. 2 cot 6=cot B—cot C. . é eb If © is assumed to be the acute angle «——la— hi between the median AA’ and side BC, the Fro. 3 more general result to cover the cases B>C and B Bet. 15. Prove that a triangle can be drawn with sides equal and parallel to the medians of a given triangle ABC, Show also that the area of the triangle so formed is 3A ABC. 16. A uniform rod of length 13 cm is suspended freely from a fixed point ‘by strings of lengths 12cm and 5 cm fastened to its ends. Find the inclina- tion of the rod to the vertical, 17. A rod AB rests in equilibrium with its ends in contact with the inside edge of a smooth vertical circular hoop. The centre of gravity of the rod is distant p from A and ¢ from B. If 2a is the angle subtended by the rod at the centre of the hoop and ¢ is its inclination to the horizontal, prove that following i) (- 2x, v), fan oT tan «, assuming ¢>p.4 THE TRYANGLE Cireumcentre and circumcirele, In Fig. 7, 4’, BY, C’ are the mid-points of the sides of AABC. ‘The perpendicular bisectors of CA and AB intersect at O. As @ lies on the perpendicular bisector a of CA, ; CcO=A0~” Similarly, AO=80, *, BO=CQ, hence 0 liss on the perpendicular bisector of BC, and so the perpendicular bisectors x are concurrent in O. Fic. 7. The circle centre O, radius OA, passes through 4, B and C and is called the cirewncirele of the triangle; O is the cireumcentre. Radius of circumeircle, Referring to Fig. 8, £B0C=24. “. £BOA'=A, and as BA'=A'C=ha, it follows by using the right-angled triangle B04’, that Similarly, N.B. OA'=ReosA =} acot 4, with similar results for OB’ and OC". Alternative expression for R. if A=area AARC, then Am 4dbesin A; Ex, 3. In A ABC the altitudes BE, CF intersect at H. Prove that the radius of the circle BHC is equal to the radius of the circle ABC. (Quad. AFHE is cyclic, hence EHF 180° ~ A (Fig. 9). ' BC a Radius circle BHC >" 7 BHC ~ sin (180° - A) —~. “Zsin A . radius of circle ABC. Fi. 9.ORTHOCENTRE 5 Orthocentre. Through the vertices 4, B, C of AABC lines ZY, XZ, YX arc drawn parallel respectively to sides BC, CA, AB (Fig, 10). Fig. 10, It follows that ABCY is a parallelogram, and so AY=BC. Similarly, Z4= BC and hence A is the mid-point of ZY. If AD is an altitude of 4 ARG, it is perpendicular to ZY. AD is the perpendicular bisector of ZY. Similarly, altitudes BE, CF of AABC are the perpendicular bisectors of XZ, YX respectively. 2. AD, BE, CF are concurrent in a point H which is the circumeentre of AXYZ. Hence the altitudes of a triangle are concurrent. The point of concurrence H is called the orthocentre of ABC. Important results associated with the orthocentre. () As AXYZ is similar to AABC with twice its linear dimensions, it follows that A/T is twice the corresponding length 4'O (Fig. 10). le. AH=2A'0=a cot A. Similarly, BH =2B'O=b cot B; CH= 2C’O=c cot C, where with the usual notation, 4’, B’, C’ are the mid-points of the sides and 0 is the circumcentre of AABC, (ii) If the altitude AD is prodaced to meet the cireumeircle at P, then HD=DP (Fig. 11). For 2 DBP= 2.PAC (same segment) and LDBE=90°—C= PAC. 2. £DBP= 2 DBE and hence A’s DEP, DRH are congruent (2 angles and common side). «, HD=DP. There are similar results for the altitudes from B and C.6 THE TRIANGLE iii) OH®?—R1—8 cos A cos B cvs C), Referring to Fig. 12, LAOC'=C 2. ZOAB=9"-C. Ako 4 DAC=90°-C. », LOAX=A-2190°-C} =A+2C-(A+B+C) a8 A+B+C= 180°, -C-—B. (in the case taken C>2.) Using right-angled triangle AOX, OX=Rsin(C—B) and AX=R cos (CB). But AH=24'0=2R cos A, ©. HX= Rlcos (C— B)~-2c0s A]. By Pythagoras, Fig. 12, OH? = OX*+ HX*= Rifsin(C~ B)+{o0s (C— B)—2 cos AP] = R'fsin(C— B)+ cost (C— B)—-4 cos (C— B) cos A+4 cost A} = R'[1—4 cos Afeos (C— B)-+ 00s (B+ CD]. as cos A= —cos (B+C), = R18 cos A cos B cos C]. Pedal triangle. ‘The triangle DEF formed by the feet of the altitudes is called the pedal wiangle of A ABC (Fig. 13). As BCEF is a cyclic quadrilateral, ZAFE-C; LAEF=B. . ’s AFE, ABC are similar, and 80 EF _AE_ABoosA BC AB AB ¥ , EF=acos A. Fig, 13. =cos A. Similarly, triangles BDF and CED are each similar to AABC, and it follows that FD=beos B; DE=c cos C. Also LADF=90°— LBDF=90°— 4 and LADE=W?~ LCDE=W" ~ A. «, ZEDF=180°—2A with similar results for 7 DEF and 2 EFD, when 4 ABC is acute-angled as taken in Fig. 13. It will be noted that H is the incentre of the pedal triangle.NINE-POINT CIRCLE 7 The reader should repeat the previous work for the case when the triangle is obtuse-angled. It will be found that if 4 is obtuse, EF=a cos (180°— A), FD=b cos B, DE=< cos C; LEDF=2A-180°, 2 DEF =28, LEFD=2C. Ex. & If H is the orthocentre of SABC obtuse-angled at A, prove that AH. HD =H .HE-~CH . HF (Fig. 14). As ADBE is a eyctic quadrilateral, HA. HD=HE. HB (intersecting chords). As ADCF is a cyclic quadrilateral, HA. HD=HF. HC Gntersecting chords) and hence the required result. Ex. 5. Giver the circumcentre, the orthocentre and A one vertex of a triangle, show how to determine the N other two vertices. ? \ Suppose vertex A is given together with O and H. Jf \\ Determine 4’, the mid-point of BC, using the fact foal \ that OA’ is parallel to AH and equal to half of it / ye (Fig. 15). SN Draw a line through 4’ perpendicular to OA’ and 8 "~~ RTT mark off points B, Con it, each distant OA from O. Fic. 15, Ex. 6 Prove that the area of the pedal triangle of & ABC is [2A cos A cos B cos C|. Referring to Fig. 13, where A ABC is acute-angled, area A DEF=4DF. DEsin LEDF =46 cos B. c eos C sin (180° - 24) =4bc cos B cos Csin 2A =be sin A(cos A cos B cos C) =2A cos A cos B 00s C. ‘When A is obtuse, asea 4 DEF =~ 2A cos A cos B 00s C. Hence in all cases the area of the pedal triangle is numerically equal to 2A cos. A cos Boos C orto [2A cos A cos Bens Cl. Nine-point circe. The circle which can be drawn through 4’, 3’, C’, the mid-points of the sides of a triangle ABC, Fig. 16, will be shown to pass also through the fect of the altitudes D, E, F and through the mid-points P, Q, R of the lines joining the vertices of the triangle to the orthocentre H.8 THE TRIANGLE As AP=PH and AC’=€'B, C’P is parallel to BH. As BA’=A'C and AC’—C'R, C’A’ is parallel to AC. -. LA'C'P=90°, as BH is perpendicular to AC. Similarly, LA'BP=90°. But also 4 4'DA~90° and therefore the circle on A'P as diameter passes through B’, C’ and D. Le. the circle A’B'C’ passes through D and P. Similarly, it can be proved that this circle passes through E, @ and also through F, R. <, The nine points A’, B',C’; D, E, F; P, Q, Rlie on acirele known as the nine-point circle of the AABC. Centre and radivs of the nine-point circle. It is clear in Fig. 17 that the perpendicular bisectors of A’D and C'F both pass through the mid-point of O#. <. The centre N of the nine-point circle is the mid-point of the line joining the circumcentre &f x @ to the orthocentre H. Fic. 17, Also as 4.A’B'C’ is similar to A ABC and has half its linear dimensions, it follows that the radius of the nine-point circle (the circumcircle of 4 A’B’C’) is $2. a le. Radius of nine-point circle-}R~ =" 45 etc. The Euler line, In Fig. 18, Ad’ meets OW at G, a point which will be shown to be the centroid of A ABC. The triangles AGH, A'OG are easily proved similar, and as AH=24'0, it follows that AG~2GA' and HG=2G0. Hence G is the centroid of the triangle, and ¢ in consequence the four points O, G, N, H are collinear and OG: ON: OH=2:3:6. The line OH is called the Euler line of A ABC. Ex, 7. If the side BC and the circumcentre O of A ABC are fixed whilst A is free to move, find the locus of N, the nine-point centre, The radius, R, of the circumcircle is constant (it equals OB or OC). ~. The radius of the nine-point circle =4.R =constant. Hence as 4’, the mid-point of BC, is fixed the locus of N is the circle centre A’, radius 4R. Ex. 8. [f O is the circumcentre of A, ABC and AO meets BC at U, prove that the cirele on AU as diameter touches the nine-point circle of ABC. ‘The centre of the circle on AU as diameter is X, the mid-point of AU.THE TRIANGLE 9 ‘As ZADU =90”, this circle passes through D, a point on the nine-point circle of A ABC, ‘In order to prove the two circles touch at D itis sufficient to prove that the centre WV of the nine- point circle lies on the radius XD of the circle on AU as diameter. Taking P, the mid-point of AH, then AP is equal and parallel to OA’ (AH=204’), 9 . AP is parallel to UA. / Consequently as DX bisects AU it will also. & ve bisect A’P, and so it will pass through N, the mid- Fa. 9. point of 4’P, and the required result follows. EXAMPLES Ib 2, Triangle ABC is right-angled at A. Locate: i) the circumeentre; Gi) the orthocentre; Gii) the nine-point centre of the triangle. 2. Calculate the radius of the nine-point circle of a triangle in which one side is of length 4 cm and the opposite angle 36°. 3. Draw the pedal triangle of a triangle ABC, obtuse-angled at A, and show that its angles are 24 - 180°, 2B and 2C. 4. If BE, CF are altitudes of A ABC, prove that the arca of QAEF is equal to A cos? A, where A is the area of SABC. 5. If H is the orthocentre of AABC, prove that 4, B, C are the orthocentres of the triangles BCH, CAH, ABH respectively. 6, If the base and circumcircle of a triangle are given, prove that the locus of the orthocentre is a circle equal to the circurncircle. 7. Prove that the circumeentre of A ABC is the orthocentre of A.A’B’C’, where 4’, H’, C’ are the mid-points of the sides of A ABC. 8. Kf His the orthocentre of A ABC and D the foot of the altitude from 4, prove: ()) AH =2R cos A= aot A; ii) HD =2R cos B cos C. 9. H is the orthooentre and © the circumeentre of AABC. If 40 produced and 4H produced meet the circumecircle at X and Y respectively, prove: (i) LBAX=LCAY; (i) BX=CY=KC; Gi) HX bisects BC. 40, If the pedal triangle of a given triangle is isosceles, prove that the original triangle is either isosceles or has two of its angles differing by 90°. 141. Find the radius of the nine-point circle of A POR in which angle P is aright angle, PQ-Scm, PR=12em. Identify the Euler line of this triangle. 42. 1f XY is the diameter of the circle ABC which is perpendicular to BC, prove that 4% and 4Y are the bisectors of angle BAC. 13. If His the orthocentre of A ABC, prove that the triangles ABC, HBC have the same nine-point circle. 14 If any two of the circumcentre, centroid, nine-point centre and corthocentre coincide, prove that all four coincide and the triangle is equilateral. 45, With the usual notation, prove that H ig the circumeentre of the triangle formed by joining the circumcentres of triangles HBC, HCA, HAB.10 THE TRIANGLE 16. O is the eiroumcentre and H the orthoventre of A ABC. If the circle BOC passes through H, prove that 4 =60°. 17. Given two vertices and the nine-point centre of a triangle, show how to construct the triangle, 38, With the usual notation, if AH, BH, CH produced meet the sircumcircle of A ABC at Hy, Hy, H, respectively, prove that A is the citcumcentre of A HH,H, with cortesponding resulis for B and C. 19, The internal bisector of angle A meets the circumcircle of A ABC at P. If M, N are the feet of the perpendiculars from P to AB, AC respectively, brove that triangles BPM, CPN are congruent and deduce that AM =AN=}AB+ AC). Incentre and excentres. As all points on a bisector of an angle are equidistant from the arms of the angle, it follows thai the point of intersection, J, of the internal bisectors of angles B and € of a triangle ABC (Fig. 20), is equidistant from all three sides of the triangle, Hence / lies also on the internal bisector of angle A, i.e. the internal bisectors of the angles of a triangle are concurrent in a point J which is the centre of the circle which touches the sides of the triangle internally. J ts called the incentre und the circle is called the inscribed circle of the triangle, Ina similar way, it follows that the internal bisector of angle A and the external bisectors of angles @ and C are concurrent in a point h. 4; is the centre of the circle which touches BC internally and AB, AC externally, This circle is the escribed elrele opposite A and I, is an excentre, Excentres Iyy 1, are defined similarly. Referring to the diagram of Fig. 20, it will be noted that the excentres 4h, Jp, 1, form a triangle whose sides pass through the vertices of the triangle ABC. Moreover, since the bisectors of an angle are at right angles, it is easily seen that / is the orthocentre of AiIgly. Also as 4, B, Care the fect of the altitudes of AZ,J,f, it follows that the circumcircle of A ABC is the nine-point circle of Ait. Hence the citcumcircle of A ABC bisects cach of the lines tly Eh, hip and also the lines 1/,, If,, Hy.INSCRIBED AND ESCRIBED CIRCLES u Ex. 9 If 1 is the incentre, O the circumcentre and H the orthocentre of (ABC, prove that AL bisects angle OAH. As ZAOB~2C (angle at centre), 2£BAO-90°-C (Fig. 21). Also = DAC=90°-C. * £BAG-£DAC and as LBAI~LCAI, hence 21d0=ZIAH. Inscribed and escribed circles. In Fig. 22, X, ¥, Z are the points of contact of the inscribed circle and the sides of AABC. As tangents from a point to a circle are equal in length, AY= AZ; BX= BZ and CX=CY. wt. AY+ BY +CX=4 (perimeter of 4 ABC) =s. Te. AYta-s. AY=AZ~s—a; similarly, BX s-b, CX-CY=s—c, Fig. 22. ‘Now let the escribed circle opposite A touch BC at X, and AC, AB produced at ¥;, Z; respectively. ‘Using the equal tangents property, AY,- AZ; BZ,-BX, and CY,~ CX, , Perimeter 25 AB+ BX, +X%C+CA =AZ,+ AN. Hence AY,~AZ,—s. and BX,~ AZ;—AB=s—¢3 CX=5—b. ‘There are similar results for the other escribed circles. Radii of the inscribed and escribed circles. If r is the radius of the inscribed circle (Fig. 23), as QABC=ABIC+ ACIA+ ALB, Jar + 4br + 4er—sr. A Alternatively from 4 AIZ, r= AZ tan $4, * ie. r=(s—a) tan $4. Fro. 23. Similarly, r—(s—B)tan3B and (s—c)tan4C. 1=(s—a) tan JA=(s—b) tan }B~(s—¢) tan2 THE TRIANGLE If r, is the radius of the escribed circle opposite 4 (Fig. 24), as SABC= ACHA+ AALB- ABIC, Athy + Her tar =4r(b+ 0-4) =47,(2s— 20) ~r(s—a). similarly, r= sy B= ae 1s: Alternatively from 4 ALZy, r= AZ, tan gA=stan dA. Fig, 24, tan fA; similarly, r,=s tan 4B, r,=s tam $C. se le oo Ex, 10. With the usual notation, prove that r=4R sin 4 sin 4B sin 4c. @ so adasin LB si RHS.=2. 22 sin} sin $B sin $C Ex. 1. Prove that dete hatte mB vais.- (a) +52) (57) (A) a at aah bp ah BR _asbee = Distance between incentre and circumcentre. Referring 10 Fig. 25, where PQ is the diameter through P, LI. IM =AL. IP. 2. (R+ON(R-OD=Al. IP OL=OM-R, RY OP=AL. IP.DISTANCE BETWEEN INCENTRE AND CIRCUMCENTRE = 13 Also ZBIP=}A+48 (exterior angle of AA/B). *. IP=BP-PQ sin ZBQP=2Rsin 34. In AAIY, Al=r cose 4A *. AL. IP=r cosec 4A . 2R sin 4A =2Rr, R?-OP—2Rr, Le. OF=R*— 2Rr. Using similar methods, it can be proved that OL?=R?+2Rr; O12~R?+2Rr,; Ole—R*+2Rre EXAMPLES tc 1, Prove that 4 BIC=90"+44. 2. Show that the radius of the circumeircle of A BIC is 2Rsin $4. 3. With the notation of Fig. 22, prove that Y¥,=27Z =: 4, Show that: (i) Af,=r,cosee $4 =ss0c44; (i) Ih ~asec ha. 5, With the usual notation, prove that the angle 740 is half the difference between the angles B and C. 6. If AABC is right-angled at C, prove: (@)2r—a+b-cr Gi) rs. 7, Prove that the radius of the circumcircle of AAYZ, where ¥, Z are the points of contact of the incircle and the sides C4, AB, is JAP. 8 Prove that r,=4Rsin}Acos4Bcos§C and write down the corresponding results for rs, 75 9. In ABC, 1is the incentre and J, the excentre opposite 4. Prove that the circle B/C passes through f,. What is the contre of this circle ? 10, The internal bisector of 2.4 of A ABC meets the circumeircle again at P, prove that AP =4(b +0) sect. 11. AB is a chord of a circle centre C. Prove that two excentres of AABC lie on the citcle. 12, in AABC if r, -2r, prove that b+-¢—3a, 13, If His the orthocentre of A ABC, prove that AH + BH+ CH -2(R+0). 14, In AABC the circle BIC passes through the circumcentre O. Prove that this circle also passes through the orthocentre of AABC. 15, Show that r,+r_-+ AR. 16. 4’, BY, C’ are the mid-points of the sides BC, CA, AB of AABC and 1, Fase the incentres of triangles ABC, A’B'C’.. Show that Al~24',_If G is the centroid of AABC, prove: () 2, G, Fare collinear; Gi) 316-21. 17. In triangle ABC, ZA is obtuse. Prove that the orthocentre Hf is an excentre of the pedal triangle DEF. 18, In AABC the line AZ, meets the cireumeircle again at P. Prove that PB=PC=Ph, 19, AI, BI, CT are produced to meet the circumeirele of A ABC again in P, Q, R respectively. Prove that / is the orthocentre of APOR. 20, With the usual notation, prove that the radius of the circle Hyp is equal to 2R. 71, Given the points J, /, 4g, show how to construct the triangle ABC.“ THE TRIANGLE. Concurrency and collinearity Definition, Two segments 4B, CD of the same line or of parallel lines are said to have the same or opposite sense or sign according as the directions 4» B, C-» D are the same or opposite, e.g. in Fig. 26, AB, AC, AD, CB, BD alt have the same sense, and in consequence ratios such ZEB AB, AD iti Fis. 26. as Sy pp ate positive. The segments 48, DC have opposite senses and the ratio negative. Ex. 12, IP, Q divide AB internally and externally in the ratio 5:2, find te ratios 2,4, BP —o aS Ba OB AB a Lo. . . AP Fag. 27. ‘The ratio in which P divides 4B is PB APS Hence Pay The ratio in which Q divides AB is Fg The numerical value of this ratio is 4, but as 4Q and QB are of opposite senses, AQ__5 OB 2 io BP 2 ‘The ratio 48 readily seen to be -F N.B, When sign is taken into account it is important to note that there is only one point which divides a given line in a given ratio, In the previous example P divides AB in the ratio 5:2 and Q in the ratio —5: 2. Ceva’s theorem, If points L, M, N are taken on the sides BC, CA, AB of a triangle ABC so that the lines AL, BM, CN are concurrent in some point O, then BL CM AN LC MA’ NB ‘Consider the two possible cases, Fig, 28 (a), where O is inside the tiangle, and Fig. 28 (4), where @ is outside the triangle. First deal with the signs of the separate ratios and their products. In Fig. 28 (0) all the ratios AE, OM. 4% are positive, and their product is positive.CEVA'S THEOREM 18 cM i, In Fig. 28 (5) ratios he ay are each negative and ratio , Ma ® positive, therefore their product is once more positive. se s ) FIG, 28. Now consider only the magnitudes of the ratios and ignore their signs. In both figures, we have BL_area ABLA. ‘LC7 area ACAL' 8° TC" area ACOL’ . BL_ABLA-ABLO_ BOA LC” ACAL= ACOL™ Acoa MMeTeally. CM _ACOB. AN_AAOC MA™ XAOB Wi ABoe HMETCAly. But ABOA ACOR AAOC_, " &COA KAOB’ ABOC Combining the sign and magnitude results, BL, CMAN LC MA’ NB Converse of Ceva’s theorem. If the points L, M, N on the sides BC, CA, AB of a triangle ABC are such that BL CM | AN LC MA NB then the lines AL, BM, CN are concurrent. For let AL, BM intersect in O and suppose CO meets Ad at a point W’ different from N. BL CM AN’ _ By Ceva’s theorem, IC MA NRO +1. ‘Using this result and that given, it follows that AN'_AN NB ONB and in consequence N‘ must coincide with N, as when sign is taken into account, there is only one point dividing a line in a given ratio. This converse theorem has important applications to the solutions of problems requiring the concurrence of three lines. BL _area ABLO Similarly, =4+h1G THE TRIANGLE Ex. 13. The incirele of AABC touches BC, CA, AB at X,Y, Z respectively. Prove that AX, BY, CZ are concurrent. ASAY= AZ, BZ =BX, CX=CY (equal tangents), BX CY AZ =1 numerically. Also all three ratios arte positive, so the product is positive and the required result follows by the * converse of Ceva’s theorem. Fie. 29 Ex, 14, A circle cuts the sides of SABC internally, BC at Py Py: CA ai Qy, Oo? AB at Re, Ry If AP,, BQ, CR, are concurrent, prove that AP., BOs, CR, are also concurrent. We have BP, CQ, AR, CQ, AR PC QA RB. (me QA fea) ‘BP, BP, CQ, CQ, AR, ARs Ryo RB PCOPC OA. OA =1 numerically, as BP, . BP;= RB. RpB, etc. (intersecting chords theorem). BP, CQ. AR But Fe GE Za- +1 Cev's theorem and as each of the ratios he Se Pe {is positive, it follows that their product is +1. Hence by the converse of Ceva's theorem, AP,, 8Q,, CR, are concurrent. Menclaus’s theorem. If a transversal LMN meets the sides BC, CA, AB of a triangle ABC at L, M, N respectively, then The transversal will either cut one side externally. Fig. 3! (a), or all three sides externally, Fig. 31 (6). ®&MENELAUS'S THEOREM v . . on BL . In Fig. 31 (a) the ratios if a are positive and 57 is negative, BL CM AN Jn Fig, 31 (6) ali the ratios Tr Gry Wp +. In both cases the product of the three ratios is negative. Let py Pay Pa be the lengths of the perpendiculars drawn from 4, B, C respectively to the transversal LMN. Then in both cases, by similar triangles, BL_ps, CM _ps, AN =f HA” py NB But Pe Ps Pre Ps Pi Pa Combining the sign and magnitude results, BL CM AN_ LC MA’ NB Converse of Menelaus’s theorem, If points L, M, N an the sides BC, CA, AB of a triangle ABC are such that BL_CM_AN IC’ MA’ NB thea L, M, N are collinear, For suppose the line LM mects AB at 1’. Then we have the two results BL CM AN’ EC MAW’ BL CM AN Ee’ Ma’ Np™ 7} (iver). | AN'_AN "WB NB and hence WN’ and W coincide and L, Mf, N are collinear. ‘This converse theorem has important applications to the solutions of problems involving the proof of the collinearity of three points. Ex. 15, Prove thet the points in which the external bisectors of the angles of @ triangle meet the opposite sides are collinear. Let the external bisectors of the angles A, 8, C of A ABC meet the: opposite sides in X, ¥, 2 (Fig. 32). Then by the bisector of an angle theorem, BX, BA. C¥_ _BC. AZ_ _ AC. XC" "AC YA" BA’ ZB BC BX CY Ad _ Hence yo" 4’ zp 7} and the re- quired result follows. Fic. 32. are negative. {numerically). 1 — 1 (Menelaus’s theorem) and38 THE TRIANGLE Ex. 16. A transversal cuts the sides AB, BC, CD, DA of a quadrilateral ABCD at P, O, RS respectively, Prove that AP BQ CR DS_ PB’ OC RD SA Join AC (Fig. 33). Then in 4 ABC, by Menclaus’s theorem, AP BQ CX PB OC XA Similarly in AACD, CR DS AX RD‘ SA’ X¥C™ CX AX Multiplying these two results and noting that 3 - Zo=1, wwe have AF oO ek OS PB OC RD SA Many examples are solved by the combined use of Ceva’s and Menclaus’s theorems as illustrated below. Ex. 17. Points X, Y are taken on the sides CA, AB of SABC. If BX, CY meet at P and AX: XC-BY: YA=—1: 2, fird the value of the ratio BP: PX. Let AP meet BC at Z (Fig. 34). By Ceva’s theorem, in AABC BL CX AY, 2¢' XA Ye" * - 82.2.2, B21 ¥ “acivin’ ara Li Now applying Menelaus’s theorem to A¥BC # © with transversal ZPA, Fic. 34, Bz CA ZO AX cA But zo-# ax™ Le. BP: PX =3:4. EXAMPLES id 1. Use the converse of Ceva’s theorem to prove: (i) the medians, GD the internal angle bisectors of a triangle are concurrent. 2, If AD is an altitude of A ABC, prove that BD: DC =cot B: cot C and write down similar results for the other altitudes. Deduce that the altitudes of a triangle are concurrent.EXAMPLES 19 3, Points M, N are taken on the sides CA, AB of AABC such that CM: MA=1:3 and AN: NB=1:2. If NM produced meets BC produced in L, find the ratio BL: CL. 4. ABC is a triangle; L divides BC externally in the ratio 5:2 and M divides CA externally in the ratio 4; 3. If AZ, BM intersect at O, find the ratio in which CO divides AB. 5. In AABC, BC=2CA; the internat bisector of angle C meets AB at X and 44’ is a median. If A’X meets Cd produced at Z, prove that A is the mid-point of CZ, If also 44’, CH intersect at O and BO cuts CA at ¥, prove that Y is a point of trisection of C4. 6. Prove that the lines joining the vertices of a triangle to the points of contact of an escribed circle are concurrent. 7, Points £, F on the sides CA, AB of A.ABC are such that FE is parallel to BC; BE, CF intersect at X. Prove that AX is a median of A ABC. 8. The external bisector of angle A of A ABC meets BC produced at L, and the internal bisector of angle B meets CA at M. If LMf meets AB at R, prove that CR bisects angle C. 9. Lines concurrent in the point O are drawn through the vertices A, B, C of a triangle 4BC and meet the opposite sides at D, E, Frespectively. Given that 2BD -3DC, CE -3EA, find the ratios AO: OD and CO: OF. 10. Ina trapezium ABCD, ABis paralleito CD. If AD and BC produced intersect at X and the diagonals intersect at ¥, prove that XY bisects AB. Tl, In AABC, A’ is the mid-point of BC and P is any point on Ad’. If BP meets CA at Sand CP meets AB at 7, prove that TS is parallel to BC. Hence, given a triangle ABC and a line parallel to BC, construct the median AA’ using only a straight-edge and a pencil. 12. If Pisany point inside a tiangle ABC, prove that the external bisectors of angles BPC, CPA, APB meet BC, CA, AB respectively in three collinear points. 13. The altitudes of a triangle ABC are AD, BE, CF. The perpendiculars from A, B, C to EF, FD, DE respectively meet BC, CA, AB at X, Y, Z. Prove that BX: XC=sin 2 BAX: sin 2 YAC=cos C: cos B. ‘Using similar results for C¥: YA and AZ:ZB, deduce that the lines AX, BY, CZ are concurrent. 14. AD is an altitude of a triangle ABC right-angled at A. Prove that BD: DC—AB*: AC* by expressing the ratio of the areas of triangles ABD, ACD in two ways. If AB: AC-~3: 4 and the median BB’ cuts AD at X, find the ratio AX: XD. 15. G is the centroid of A ABC and AG is produced to P such that GP=AG. Parallels through P to BC, CA, AB meet CA, AB, BC at L, M,N respectively. Prove that L, M, N are collinear. 16. The incitcte of triangle ABC touches BC, CA, ABat X, ¥,Z. If YZ is produced to meet BC produced at L, prove that BY: XC=BL: CL. 17. ABCD is a quadrilateral. Prove that the line joining the mid-points of the opposite sides AB, CD divides the other two sides in the same ratio. 38. Points D, E, Fon the sides BC, CA, AB of a triangle ABC are such that AD, BE, CF ace concurrent. If EF meets BC at K. prove that BD: DC=BK: CK,20 THE TRIANGLE, 19, The tangents to the circumecircle of A ABC at A, B, C meet the opposite sides at P, Q, Respectively, Prove: (i) BP: CP=ABt: AC; (ii) P,Q, R are collinear. 20. A transversal meets the sides BC, C4, AA of a triangle ABC at P, Q, R respectively. Points P’, Q’, R’ are taken on BC, CA, AB so that BP=P'C, CQ=Q'A, AR=R'B. Prove that P’, Q’, R’ are collinear. 22. 4, BY, Cave the mid-points of the sides BC, C4, AB of a triangle. AP, BO, CR are concurrent lines through 4, B, C which meet the opposite sides BC, CA, AB at P, Q, R respectively. If C’Q meets BC at X, A’R mects CAat Yand B’P meets AB at Z, prove: (i) BX: CX=AQ: OC; | (ii) XYZ are collinear. 22. ABCD is a quadrilateral and X, Y, Z are any points on BC, AD, AB respectively. ¥Zmeets BD at R; RX mests DC at S; ZX meets AC at Q. Prove that ¥, Q, S are collinear. 23. P is any point in the plane of AABC. Through the mid-points A’, BY, C/ of BC, CA, AB lines are drawn parallel to PA, PB, PC respectively. Prove that these lines are concurrent. 24, P js any point inside a triangle ABC. The lines AP, BP, CP meet BC, CA, AB at L, M, N respectively. MN, NL, LM meet BC, CA, AB at X, ¥,Z respectively. Prove that X, Y, Z are collinear. Simson’s line, If P is any point on the circumcircle of a triangic ABC and if L, M, N are the feet of the perpendiculars from P to BC, CA, AB respectively, then L, M, N are collinear. Referring to Fig. 35, as LPMA=LPNA-90", quad. PMAN is cyclic. 2. 2PNM= ZLPAM = ZPBL, since PACR is cyclic. But quad. PBLN is cyclic, 50. LPBL+ £PNL=180° ZPNM+ LPNL=180°, and hence LM is a straight line. The line LAN is called the Simson fine or pedal line of P with respect to the triangle ABC. Converse theorem. If P is a point In the plane of a triangle ABC such that the feet of the perpendiculars from P to the sides of the triangle are collinear, then P Hes on the circumcircle of triangle ABC. For consider Fig. 35 with the circumcircle assumed omitted and LMN being given as a straight line. As before |= LPNM=2PAM, also ZPNM= / PBL, since quad. PRLN is cyclic. v. £PAM= ZPBL, and so the points P, 4, 8, C are concyclic. Fic, 35.SIMSON’S LINE. 21 Ex, 18. Prove that the circumcircles of the four triangles formed by four intersecting straight lines have « common point. ‘The four triangles formed by the four straight lines ABE, BCF, DCE, ADF are triangles ABF, AED, BEC, CFD (Fig. 36.) Consider the circles ABF, AED which have A as one common point; Jet the second common point be P. As P lies on the circle ABF, the feet of the perpendiculars X, Y, Z from P to the sides of A. ABF ate collinear (Simson line). Also as P lies on the circle AED, the feet of the perpendiculars X, W, Z from P to the sides of A AED arc collinear (Simson linc). Hence the four points X, ¥, Z, W are collinear. By the converse of the Simson fine theorem, as X, W, Y are collinear, P lies on the circle BEC and as Y, Z, W are collinear, P lies also on the circle CFD. Direction of a Simson line. In Fig. 37, LVM is the Simson line of P with respect to a triangle ABC. The perpendicular PE is produced to meet the circumcircle of AABC again at L’. Then LABP= ZAL'P (same segment) and ZABP= ZPLN (same segment as quad. BLP is cyclic). c. LAL'P= ZPLN, and hence L’A is parallel to LNM. Thus the Simson line of P is parallel to the line joining vertex A to the point where the perpendicular from P to side BC meets the Fro. 37. circumcirele again, If M' and N' are defined in a manner similar to L, it follows also that the Simson line of P is parallel to each of the lines AL’, BM’, CN’. Ex.19. If AD, an altitude of SABC, is produced fo meet the circurncircle again at K, prove that the pedal line of K with respect to the triangle is parallel to the tangent at A to the circumcircle. ‘Using the result just proved, the pedal or Simson line of & is parallel to the line joining A to the point where the perpendicular from K to side BC meets the circumcircle again. As KD is this perpendicular, the required point is A itself, So the pedal line of X is parallel to the Tine joining two coincident points at 4 on the circumcircle i.e. the tangent at 4. Fig. 38.2 THE TRIANGLE Ex. 20. P, Q are any two poiris on the eircumctrcte of @ triangle ABC. if, O is the circumcentre, prove that one of the angles between the Simson lines of P and Q is equal to $2 POQ. In Fig. 39, PLL’ and QUU’ are both drawn perpendicular to BC. <. The Simson lines of P and Q are respectively parallel to L’A and U’A, and conseauently 2L'AU’ is one of the angles between the Simson lines, ef But, by symmetry, the arcs cut off by parallel chords of a circle are equal, and as chords PL’, QU’ are parallel, v are PQ~are LU’, Fic. 39. ©. As equal ares subtend equal angles at the circumference, LUAU" =2.PBQ =42 POQ, and hence the required result. The Simson line and the orthocentre To prove that the Simson or pedal line of a point P bisects the fine joining P to the orthocentre H of triangle ABC. In Fig. 40 the altitude 4D produced meets the circumcircle again at H’ and PH’ meets BC at X; HX produced meets PLL’ at £”. As HD=DH', it easily follows that ATTAUT is isosceles. Noting that PL" and HH’ are parallel, it follows further that APXL” is also isosceles, Le. PL=LL". Also 2AH’P=2.AL'P (same arc), and 4. AW’P=/L"PH' = 2 HL". . LAE'P= ZHL'P, Fic. 40, and hence L’"H is parallel to LA and so to the Simson line of P. As L is the mid-point of PL, it follows that the Simson line of P the line through Z parallel to L”H1) bisects PH. EXAMPLES le 1, What are the Simson lines with respect to a triangle ABC of the vertices A,B,C? 2, If triangle ABCis right-angled at 4, identify the pedal lines of B and C with respect to the triangle. 3, Points P, Q on the circle ABC are such that P@ is perpendicular to BC. Prove that an angle between the Simson lines of P and Q with respect to the triangle ABC is equal to LP4Q.EXAMPLES 23 4, Given a triangle ABC, show how to find a point P on its circumcircle such that its pedal line with respect to the triangle is parallel to the diameter of the circumcircle through B. 5. The pedal line of F with respect to A ABC is parallel to the diameter of the circumcircle through A. Prove that PA is parallel to BC. 6. If PQ is a diameter of the cireumcircle of a triangle ABC, prove that the Simson lines of P and Q with respect to the triangle are perpendicular. 7. if AD, an altitude of A.ABC, is produced to meet the circumcircle again at P, prove that the Simson line of P makes an angle with AC equal to angle # of the triangle. 8. If Fis the incentre of A ABC and AL produced meets the circumcircle at, prove that the Simson line of X with respect to the triangle is perpen- dicular to AX. 9. Pisa point in the plane of a given triangle ABC such that the feet of the perpendiculars from P to the sides of the triangle are collinear and such that Plies on the median through 4. Find the position of P. 10, The triangle ABC is right-angled at 4. The pedal linc of a point Pon the ciroumcirole meets AP at Q. Prove that AP is perpendicular to the diameter through Q. 11. ABC is an obtuse angie and lies on the minor are AB of circle ABC such that AP is perpendicular to BC. Sf M, N are the feet of the perpendiculars from P to CA, AB respectively, prove that the triangles AMN, ABC ate similar. 12, Show how to find the position of a point P which has a pedal line with respect to a given triangle parallel to a given line. 13, If PQ is a chord of the cireumcircle of A ABC which is parallel to BC, prove that the Simson line of P with respect to the triangle is perpendicular to AQ. 14, L, M, N are the feet of the perpendiculars from a point P on the circumelrcle of the triangle ABC to the sides BC, CA, AB respectively. Prove that the triangles PLN, PAC ate similar. If P is the mid-point of minor are AC, prove that LM: LN'=AB: AC. 15, The perpendiculars froma point P on the circumcircle of triangle 4BCto the sides BC, CA, AB meet the circumcirele again in L’, M’, N’ respectively. Prove: (i) M/N’=AC; Gi) triangles AMC, L'M'N’ are congruent, 16. The altitude AD of triangle ABC is produced to meet the circumcircle at ¥. The line joining X to any other point on the circumcirele meets BC at U. Prove that the join of U to the orthocentre of the triangle is parallel to the pedal line of P. 47. ABCD is a cyclic quadrilateral with AB perallel to CD. If P is any point on the circumcircle of the quadrilateral, prove that the feet of the perpendiculars from P to AC, AD, BC, BD are concyclic. 18, The pedal line of a point P with respect to A ABC meets BC at L and the altitude AD at K. If His the orthocentre of the triangle, prove that PK is parallel to LH.a THE TRIANGLE 19, The altitudes 40, BE, CF of SABC mect the circumcircle of the triangle again at D’, £', F”. Prove that the pedal line of A with respect 10 AD'EF’ js parallel to BC. 20, Triangle ABC is obtuse-angled at C; P is any point on the minor arc CA of the circumeitcle of the triangle. ‘The perpendiculars from P to the sides meet BC produced, CA, AB at L, M, N respectively. Prove that triangles PLM, PAB and triangles PMN, PBC are similar. If LM=MN, prove that PA: PC = AB: BC. 21. H is the orthocentre of an acute-angled triangle ABC. If P is any point on the circle BCH, prove that the Simson line of P with respect to triangle BCH bisects AP, MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES 1, If in the triangles ABC, DEF the angles A and D are equal and BC is greater than EF, prove that the radius of the circumeircle of triangle ABC is greater than the radius of the cireumeircle of triangle DEF. 2. In triangle ABC the perpendicular bisector of BC meets CA at P and ABatQ. Provethat OP .OQ =0.4%, where O is the circumcentre of AARC. 3. If H is the orthocentre of the triangle ABC, prove that AH?*+ BC* = BH*+ Cat =CH?+ ABP. 4. A point D is taken on the median 44’ of a triangle ASC; BD meets CA at Xand CD meets AB at Y. Prove that XY is parallel to BC. 5. A, B, C, D are four points in order on a straight line such that iC If P is any point on the circle centre A, radius AC, prove . AC. 6. A point £ is taken on the diagonal AC of a parallelogram ABCD. If Fis the second point of intersection of the citcles EAH, ECD and Ry, Ry are the radii of these circles, prove: {i) Flieson BD; (ii) R,: Ry=AF: FC. 7. Points P, Q, R are taken on the sides BC, C4, AB respectively of a triangle ABC such that BP: PC -C@: QA-AR: RB~1:3. IAP, BQ, CR meet in pairs at U, V, W, prove that VW: AP= WI 12 = UV :CR=8 -13, the elements of the ratios being in the same straight lines. . FIs the orthocentre and © the citcumeentre of the triangle ABC. If 4’ is the mid-point of BC and #4’ produced mects the circumeircle at P, Prove that HA’ =A'P and that P# is perpendicular to AB. 9. ABC is a triangle, right-angled at # If the incircle of the triangle touches AC at ¥, prove that 24Y. YC-48. BC, 10. Prove that an external common tangent to two circles divides the line of centres externally in the ratio of the radii. Henee show that the points of intersection of the three pairs of external common tangents to three circles taken two at a time are collinear. 11. ABCDisa quadrilateral. Show howto find a point on the circumcircle of the triangle AKC whose pedal line with respect 10 triangle ABC is Perpendicular to CD,MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES 2 12, Ay, fy, J, are the centres of the escribed circles of triangle ABC opposite to A, B, C respectively. Prove that the perpendiculars from A, Ia. 4 to BC, CA, AB respectively are concurrent. 13, IfJ is the incentre of triangle ABC and £,, fy, fg the excentres opposite A, B, C respectively, prove: @ rsin LAMB=e sin $A singB; (ji) H,=4Rsin dA =asecdd; Gil) 41, =4R cos $4. 14, The internal and external bisectors of the angle A of triangle ABC cut BC at X, ¥ respectively. Prove: (i) be(b+o) =bBX*+ cOX*+ (b+ QAX*, ii) be = AX*4+ BX. CX; Gili) bee — 8) =bBY*— cCY*+ (b- DAY? 1S. If H is the orthocentre of triangle ABC and the circle BCH touches CA and AB, prove that triangle ABC is equilateral. 16. P is a point on the circle ABC. If the perpendicular from A to the Simson line of P with respect to triangle 4BC meets the circumeircle again at Q, prove that PQ is parallel ta 2C. 17. AD, BE, CF are the altitudes of triangle ABC. Prove that the area of triangle DEF equals 2A cos A cos Bcos C, where A is the area of triangle ABC. 18. If X is a point on the diagonal 4C of a parallelogram ABCD, prove that parallels to BX, DX drawn through C, A respectively, intersect on BD produced. 19. If 0 is the ciroumcentre and G the centroid of triangle ABC, prove that 068 = Hat +2), 20, Triangle ABC is right-angled at A; AD is an altitude and P, Q are the incentres of triangles ABD, ACD respectively. Prove that triangles PDO, ABC ate similar. 21, If His the orthocentre of a triangle ABC, prove that the radii of the circumcireles of the triangles ABC, HCA are equal. If O, S are the centres of these circles, prove that OS and AC bisect each other at right angles. 22. The side CB of a square ABCD is produced to P so that BP=2CB; Mis the midepoint of AD. If AC, BM intersect at X and PX meets AB at @, find the ratio AQ: QB. 23. P, Q, R are the mid-points of EF, FD, DE, the sides of the pedal triangle of a triangle ABC. Prove that AP, BQ, CR are concurrent. 24, The inscribed citcle of a triangle ABC touches the sides at ¥, ¥, Z. Prove that, with the usual notation, the area of triangle YYZ —rA/2R. 25, The triangle ABC is equilateral and A’ is the image of Ain BC. If P is any point on the circle centre A‘, radius A’C, prove that P.A* =PBP+ PC? 26. PQ is a chord of the circumcirce of the triangle ABC parallel to AB. Prove that the Simson lines of P and @ with respect to the triangle intersect on the altitude CF. 27. Prove that the only point P in the plane of a triangle ABC such that PAY + BCl~ PB + CA = PCt+ AB", is the orthocentre of the triangle.26 THE TRIANGLE 28. The internal bisector of angle A of a triangle ABC meets BC at P. The circle which passes through A and touches BC at P cuts CA at X and ABat Y. Prove that XY is parallel to BC. 29, Show how to construct a triangle given: (i) the lengths of two sides and of the median which bisects the third side; (Ji) the nine-point centre, the orthocentre and one vertex. 30. ABCD is a cyclic quadrilateral; H, K are the orthocentres of the triangles ABC, ABD. Prove that A, B, H, K ave concyclic. 31, Lis the incentre of a triangle ABC, The incircle touches the sides BC, CA, AB at X, Y, Z respectively. Wf X%, Yi, ZI meet YZ, ZX, XY respectively at L, M,N, prove that AL, BM, CN are concurrent, 32, A circle touches the side BC of a triangle ABC at its mid-point 4’ and cuts CA at P, P’ and AB at Q, 0’. If PQ, PQ’ meet BC at R, R', prove by using the theorem of Menelaus or otherwise, that BR: CR= CR’: BR’, 33. If Bh, Je, Fy ate the incentre and excentres of a triangle ABC, prove that the circumecircles of triangles Hl, Aidala are equal. 34. With the usual notation for a triangle ABC, prove that 1H® =2r2 - 4R® cos A cos B cos C. 35. ABCD is a trapezium with AB parallel to DC; the diagonals AC, BD meet at Zand CB meets DA at X. A line through Z parallel to 4B meets ADat Fand BCatG. Prove that AG, BF, EX are concurrent. 36. The points P, Q are at theends of a diameter of the circle ABC. Prove that the Simson lines of P and Q with respect to the triangle ABC intersect at right angles on the nine-point circle of the triangle. 37, ABCD is a quadrilateral and P, Q, R ate points on BC, AD, AB respectively. RQ meets BD at X; XP mects DC at ¥; RP meets AC at Z, Prove that Q, Z, Yare collinear. 38. A transversal LMN of triangle ABC meets the sides 4B, AC internally at L, M respectively and the side BC produced at N. If BM, CL intersect at X and AX meots BC at Y, prove that ¥, N divide BC internally and externally in the same ratio, 39. Foc the four triangles formed by four intersecting straight fines prove: ( the circumcircles of the four triangles have a common point: (ii) this common point has a common Simson line with respect to each of the four triangles; (ii) the orthocentres of the four triangles are collinear. 40. ABC is a given triangle. Find a point P in its plane for which ABs PBEM PC? has a minimum value. 41, If three equal circles have a common point A, prove that 4 is the orthocentre of the triangle formed by the other three points of intersection, 42, Lis the incentre of a triangle ABC and fy, /, are the excentres opposite B, Crespectively. Perpendiculars FLX, H ¥ are dropped from the orthocentre Ho the lines Ai, fly. Prove that XY bisects BC.CHAPTER 11 ALGEBRAIC METHODS Basic identities. The following results are important: L (ta) +b) =xt+ x(atb)t ab. (ct aK +B)X+ l= x84 x(a -4+b+6)+x(be+ cat ab) “habe, (xta)(Qx+b) ... mfactors=x" +x? Sata? Yabs .. abe... i. (a+bya—b)=a?—b*, (a+by = a?+b?+2ab, (atbte)aat+ b+ e?+ Abe+ cat ab). (atbte+ . . . m terms) = Sa" +25ab. Ex. 4. Expand (a- 2-0. (2-2 of) at +(~ 2b)84(— 9+ 2-25 - + (- ICO) + @M- 20} a+ 467 4 8 + 4b0~ ea 4ab, Ex, 2, Prove that (2 BP 2abXa + BE-+ Zab Yat + 68+ 20858) =a¥ + BY Date AS (a2 + BY 2aby(at + 624 2nd) = (a+ LF Qady* =at+ 2b, LAS. =(a44- Bt 208M al + BE 4 208) + BS - 2a mab + BP 2aAbt, Ex.3. Find the sum of the products, saken two at a time, of the first n noturat raumbers. We have (Sp) —SEnt+ 2 {sum of products taken two at a time}. le. sum of products =4{( 0) Se} =Hdnta t IP got + Qn + D} gyn + I)3nin + 1) 20n+ DP = dyes IM DGn+ 2). +b? + Seth + ba). +b8+ 8-43{a(h+ €) +bYe+ a) +e%(a+ bj} + Gabe. (atb+re+...m terms)’ = Sa*+33a%+ 6S abe. 27 ill.2B ALGEBRAIC METHODS EX. 4, Simplify 8a? + (b- cP4 (¢- 6-2, Write (¢- 8-20? as -a+(b-OF. Expression = 847 + (6 — c}* — [8a + (6 - e+ 12a%(b— ) + ba(b- c)*] 120% ~ 0) - balb- oF balb— cX2a+-b-c). 1V. If nis a positive integer, @+by =a"+ na! oy For the smaller values of n, the coefficients in this expansion can be found simply by using Newion’s Rude, which is illustrated below. Coefficients Each number in thediagram (a+)! 1 2 1 isthe sum of the number above (a+b 1 3 3 1 it and the one immediately (@+5)* 1+4+63451 to the left. vyyy + 5 10 10 b+... +b Ex. 5, Expand (x- 2y)5. The coefficients are t, 5, 10, 10, 5, 1. os Qe= Dy = Let + Sx — 2y) + 102% — ayy? + 102% ~ 2p}? + Saf — 2y)* +1(- 29% = xt 10x4y-+ d0xty? — 80x75 + BOxy4— 3298, Important factors. The following results should be known: L at b?=(a—b)(a+b). U at +b? (a+ b)(a?—ab +b?) a8 — b= (a— b\(a?-ab+b3), UL a9+b? +0? ~3abe~ («b+ e)[a? +b?-+ c2~ (be + cat+ab)] or (at b+e)H(b— 0} + (e— a}? + (a—b). Ya*—3abe~ Fa [Sat Pub]. Vv. at—b'= (a —byat bya? + be), att t= (92 +b?) 20th? a? — +/2al bi)(at + +/2ab+ b4), att wtb? 4 bt (a? +b)? atbt (a? — ab +b#)(a?+ab+b?), Ex, 6 Factorise: (i) (a+ 3y— 22)? — 42x — 3y-+ 2); (it) 8la~ 25} - a+ bP @ Expression [let By ~ 22) 22x — 3y + z)I[Cx + By - 2z) + 22x -3y +2] =[- 3x4 9y—42fSx- 39),FACTORS 2 (i) Expression [2(a - 28) - Qa+ b)Ma~ 26) +2(@ - 2BY2a+ 6) +Qa+ BF] — SbI[I2a" ~ 18ab+ 136"). Ex. 7. If a+b+c=0 and at+b!+2=0, prove that at least one of the numbers a, b, € is zero. The expression a?+d*+c is usually associated with the factorisable expression a+ 6° +e" abe. Wehave a + b*+ 8 3abe= (a+b + eMa+ b+ 8 be- ca ab). Bot @+b+ A =atb+e=0, +s Sabe=0, ‘Hence at least one of the numbers a, 6, ¢ is zero. Ex, 8 Rationalise the denominavors of the fractions () 74-733 es L i @ neve OO ey _ 2y34V5_ 3+ 5, ® wavs VWF vIQVIVD 7 lev34v2 Lev3+v2 Om V2 Te v3 VII 502) a fP-2 leydev? G4+v34+v2- v3 “24 -v3) -4 at+obe zt 3-2 =3t+6he2d, EXAMPLES 2a 3, Expand (x + I} or+ Gr + IK +4). 2. Square a~b+2c. 3. Verify the identity (20+ 36)-+ 2ab + (32+ 26) = 13a BY. 4. Factorise: () Ma-b+0%-9%b-a-o%; Gi) +29)" ~ Qx~ YF Gill) (a+ oF ~ 308"; (iy) Ba? + b* - 22a 5). 5. Write down the expansion of (2- x)f. 6. Simplify (a+b+0)'- (6+ ¢- al’ -(c +a- bY (a+b - of 7. Expand (x-y+22)*, & Simplify: @ (v241"-(/2- DS Gi) wae ie wane 9. Show by division that Rot axtestet eatetesed,30 ALGEBRAIC METHODS 10. Express with rational denominators; > te @ wt. am 9 BT OA ©} wa IL, Substitute x—b+e-a, y-eta-b, s-atb-c in the following expressions and simplify the results @ PaeZ; Gi) ery te yrt ze tay. ¥2, Prove that xt+2x°+9=(x2+3)'~da%, and lence factorise the expression. 13, Factorise 2x24 xy-y® ond 2x24 xy—y®4 9x 6y- 5, inn 1 5 1 sity (Taya) *(yaeva) 15, Find the square roots of: (i) x*- Gx! + 13x%- 12x+45 ii) 4at-4a% — 11028? ~ Gab? + 904, -O+2), prove that 29499 + 2 ~32yz. e+e AT. Simplify aaa 16, If x (i) x*- 27-922 + 27x; Git) os27 so: Gill) x4-+ 2x8 + 4, 19, Prove that (y— 2)°+ (2 x} + - pF =30y— che- xKe-y). Graixtd) Gtratyt+b) Graxerd) 20. Simply ( a ae “ne aXe-9) 1, prove that xetays and evaluate: () x*— 18, Factorise: 24. If.x>Oand x1 ay +3, x 22, Express x 2x3 7x -4 a3 a product of two quadratic factors. 23. If the function ax? +2bx-+ can be expressed in the form AG - xP + Ble ~ 33), where 4, B are constants, prove that ax,xe+ Hx, +x4)+¢-0, 24. If x+y+2 S+ryttqd, x34y5+23-5, find the values of: () yataxtoy; (i) ays, 25, Prove that, if x? -(ay}@—(xy%)" for all values of x and y, then 2prmalp+ 26. The sum sa of m terms of a series is given by sy =dnbe+ 1X +2), write down s,-; and find the nth term of the series. 27, Factorise: (i) a4 +3a%6*+9b% (fi) 2at+ a°6* + ab? + bt 28 Express 2a as the sum of two partial fractions. = 2 aye 29, Ih x? 2)? —xy=0, prove that ="REMAINDER THEOREM aI 30, If nis a positive integer, prove by long division that xh) axehexmte 0. axel xa 4x4), MesisxeT Bt. Factorise at-+a%+c- 2he~ 2oa-2ab by expressing it in terms of (e+b-0}% 32, Ha, b,c are real numbers satisfying a+ b+ c=at+ bic =0, prove that at least one of a, 6, ¢ is zero. 33. Given that x+y+z=4, x2+y+2"=6, 297-3, find the value of EP, 34, Prove that (a? + b+ 2Xx? + y+ 24)— (ax + by + cz)® = (ay — bx}? + (be - cy) + (ex- a2)". Deduce that, ttf 3, then (a2 + Bt + cMx2+ y? + 24) —(ax + by +z), 35, Ih xa cb), p =e a), 2 = ca - 1), prove that Saeed see ay abe Remainder theorem. [f @ polynomial f(x) is divided by (x—a), the remainder is fla). ‘As the degree of the remainder must be less than the degree of the divisor, the remainder in this case must be a constant. So if the quotient is g(x), it follows that fo) = aa) +7, where r is a constant. ‘This is an identity and true for all values of x. Let x=a, f@=04(x) +r. Te. Remainder =1=f(a). ‘As a consequence of this theorem, it follows that if f{a@)=0, then {x—a) is a factor of (x). Ex. 9, Factorise x1, -1=0, x—Lisa factor. in, the other factor is x#4 29422241, 81a Dati tests et D. Bx. 10, Find she values of a and b if (2 — x-2) is a factor of 2x + axt- 4x24 bx 2 Method (). As G2—x-2)—(x- Ix+1}, both (x2) and (+1) are factors of the expression, + £2)=32 4 8a— 16+ 26-2 and fad a-4-b-2=0; Hence ae-l, bo-3, Hence simplify3 ALGEBRAIC METHODS Method (ii). As x? x2 is one factor, it follows ftom the form of the given polynominal that the second factor is quadratic, with 2x* and +1 as two of its terms. Sokt 2x44 ax¥— Arts be -2= (at x 22274 Ars), ‘Compating coefficients of #3, - 4— -3- <, The given expression =(¢—x— 22x4+ x41), and hence a=-1, b=-3, Remainder when a polynomial f{x) is divided by (x—a)% The remainder will be @ linear function of x which can be written in the form A(x—a)+B, where A and B are constants. So if the quotient is g(x), Ax) = (x —a}?q(x) + A(x—aa) + BL Ae Let x=a. Also Letx=a, Hence the remainder when the polynomial f(x) is divided by (x—a)} is L@O«-4)+f@- Ht follows that (x—a) is a repeated factor of f(x) if f'(@)—fla)=0. Ex, Et, Prove tat (2x ~ 1) és a repeated factor of 4x4 ~ 4x8 4 $29 ~ dx st, Let f(a) = 4x4 ~ 4x8 + 5x8 41, 4 FQ) = 1624 - 12x84 10-4. SG)-4-$4$-2+1-0, and F'QD=2-34+5-4-0. Hence (2x - i)" is a factor of the gin Ex, 12, Factorise x4+24~Tx*~ 8x44, given that it has a repeated linear factor. ‘The repeated linear factor must be a factor of f(x), ie. of 4d + 3x9 14x-8, A linear factor of this expression can be found by use of the remainder theorem, (= a)glx) + (= 0)%4"(0) +4. n expression. By trial, F(-2=0. Also fA-)-0. +. G+ 2) is a factor of the given expression f(x). So if Seda (32+ 42+ 40, 9(x) must be a quadratic function containing the terms x* and +1. Lt. SO)=G8+4x +4 at Axe i). ‘Equating coefficients of x4, 1=A+4; A=-3. Hence the factors are (+2)4x? -3x+1).SYMMETRICAL EXPRESSIONS B Factors of symmetrical expressions. A symmetrical expression in 9,2 is one which is unaltered by a cyclic interchange of letters 7 *~y, Eg (zp + z+ (22 ~ zt xP +2 — yx ty) is a symmetrical function of degree five in x, y, z. Similarly, a%(b—c)+5%c~a)+cXa—6) is a symmetrical function of degree four in a, &, ¢. ‘The method of factorising symmetrical expressions is illustrated in the following examples. Ex, 13. Factorise ab —c)+ bY(c- a) + ca~ b}. When 6 =, the expression = I(b— a) + iMa—b) = 0. 2. (6-0) is a factor. ‘As the expression is symmetrical in a, 6, ¢, it follows that (e~ a), (a- 6) are also factors. ee If putting b= c did not make the expression vanish, we would have tie e Continuing, as the expression is of the fifth degree and there are three linear factors, it follows that the fourth factor must be of the secand degree. ‘Also, as the fourth factor must be symmetrical in a, b, ¢, it must be of the form ACG + 8+ c8) + Bbet cat ab), where A and B are independent of a, 5, c. Le. Expression = (6 ~ (ce - a)(a- BAC? + +c) + Bbc + ca + ab). To obtain the values of 4, B, give 4, , ¢ simple numerical values, avoiding those which make any one of the factors (6 - ©), (¢- a), (a— 6) vanish. Eg. kt a=0,6=1,¢=2, then 2-16=(-1X2K- DAN +44 BD 5A+28 = Let a=0, b=1, c~-1, then = 1-12 QX-1X- DIAG 1) + BD; 44-28 = - 2. Hence A=-1, Ba=-1. Expression = - 6 - e(e- ala bYa?+ B+ A+ be+ ca ab). Ex, 4, Factorise (a+ y+2P- (v4 2-2) (244-9 ery 2 The substitutions y = £2, x= £ (7+ 2) do not make the expression vanish. Trying x =0, the expression ~ (y+ z)*- (y+ z¥- @—¥P ~~ 28= 0. <. xis a factor, and similarly so are y and z. As the expression is of degree three, any additional factor must be a constant, say k, So Get yt 8 (pt 2 (ex yr y oP = kaye, Let xe y=z=l, then, Q-A-t-1-k; ka ™s vc. Expression = 24xyz.cy ALGEBRAIC METHODS Highest common factor of two polynomials. EX. 15, Find the H.C.F. of 2x14 3x24 3x41 and P—x8—x-2, Dividing 2x94 3x4 43x11 by x®—x?- x—2, the quotient is 2 and the remainder is 5x74 5x +5. oe B+ Sak Seb Dd a8 x DQ SEL ED. ‘Consequently, any common factor of the two given expressions must also bea factor of the remainder, 5(x#4-x +1), As clearly the given expressions have not 2 common factor 5, it follows that the only possible common factor is x* + x+1. By division it is readily seen that Ds B84 Set = OP + et DRe+ Ds 2-28 x-2= OP +x+ DO- 2). HOR = 84x41. General procedure. Suppose f(x) and g(x) are polynomials with the degree of f(x) > the degree of g(x). Consider the long division of f(x) by g(z). This division can be continued until the remainder term r(x) is of a smaller degree than g(x). If the quotient is g(x) we can write LO) = 960) . 80) +71). It follows that any common factor of f(x) and g(x) is also a factor of r(x). Consequently the H.C.F. of f(x) and g(x) is also the H.C.F. of the lower degree polynomials, g(x) and r(x). This process can be repeated until the remainder function is sufficiently simple for its factors, and consequently the possible common factor of f(x) and g(x), to be readily discernible. Ex. 16. Find the WCF of 2xt4.xt+atex-1 and x4= P+ 2st x4 1. Dividing the first polynomial by the second, the quotient is 2 and the remainder, 32° — 3x8 3x - 3. ‘The factot 3 in the remainder can be ignored, and the problem reduces to that of finding the HGF, of x*-2°+2x?-x+1 and x*-at+2-1. Dividing, the quotient is x and the remainder, x2 + 1. Hence the only possible common factor of the original polynomials is a1+1, and by division this is verified to be the H.CF. EXAMPLES 2b LL Find the remainder when 4x54 2x4+ L1x?4 x — 6 is divided by x+3. 2, Prove that (x~ 2} is a factor of 2x3—5x*+5x-6 and find the other factor. 3. Prove that (x*- 4) is a factor of x#~ 3x°— 6x? + 12x +8 and completely factorise the expression. 4. If (2x ~ 1) is a factor of 4x4~ ax? + 5x- 2, find the value of a. 5. Show that (@~ b) is a factor of a — 5 and write down the other factor.EXAMPLES 35 6 The remainder when 2x9 - ax3+2 is divided by x+1 is 4. Find the value of a. 7, Find the H.C.F. of x4-2x¢+x-2 and x*-x-2. 8 Pactorise: @ 2x°~Sx*-x+6; Gi} aXb-0)+ B{e- a) 4+ Alaa). 9, If 2-x-6 is a factor of x*+ax*- 9x" +4 bx-6, find the values of and b and complete the factorisation. 10. Find the H.CF-s of: (i) 2 4ay-y? and 23 -Txly+ Sxy?- 7, Gi) BA-S8~ 4x43 and x4-4xt+dx- 3. AI. Prove that (y- z+ (@- xP +(8- yP —3- 2HE- WE ¥). 12, For what values of ¢ is (x- 0) a factor of 3x8+(c+3)xt- Gct+ o- Nx 4? 43, By first determining a factor by trial, facterise the following expressions: 4) 284118 102-8; Gi) t= 4x43; Gil) Zat+ Sa%b-+ Jab + DA 44, Show that (x +1) is a repeated factor of x44 x94 2x%+ Sc 3 and find the other factor. 15, Find the HCP. of 8-8-2x%+ x41 and x8— 324242. 16, Factotise: (i) be(b— + ca(e- a) +abla— Gi) ab? - 2) + He a) + ofa? — 63 (i) a6 — oF + Be 0)? + ca - BF. 17. When xt+axt+bxte is divided by (+1), (+3), (-2) the remainders are 5, —31, 44 respectively. Find the values of a, 6 and c. 18, If (x — a} ig a factor of x8 + px+g, prove that 4p4+ 274? = 0. 19, By writing x? ~X, show that, when 2 is odd, x?-1 is a factor of x?P—1, Hence factorise x*- 1. 20. Factorise: (i) (x? y2)(y+ 2)+(*- axe ta) + Faye 9) Gi) afb - c}? + He ~ a+ cla ~ BY + Sabo; Gil) @- oP +(C- a +a 21, Find the HGF. of 44.284-2x-1 and 2xt+att dex. 22, tf polynomial f(x) i divided by (x «X(x— B) show that he remainder can be expressed in the form <> [tex ~ 8) - Ox a). 23. Given that x%+2x~t is a factor of x*+ x64 ax! + 5x4 bat 4x42, find the values of @ and and completely factorise the expression. 24, Factorise: (i) (be-+ ea + ab) — b8c?— Ba - a8, GW) (a+b + 08-6 +e~a-(c+a-BS-a4b- oF 25, Factorise 4x4 + 9.1? - 11x+ 3, given that there is a repeated linear factor. 26, Find the factors of (23+ 7x -9) +240 - 2+ + PE-9.36 ALGEBRAIC METHODS Ratlo and proportion, Equal fractions Definition. The paits of numbers aby, dybs aby, . - - aba, are BR -%. said to be in proportion if 5! Ba Be Tbe Basic result, If Gin t= ai nee - then each of the fractions cn . ha, + than is equal 0 eT FRpr where hy ty». dn are constants such that byt Iybyt bby +... +inba XO. This result is readily proved by putting each of the original fractions equal to k, and substituting a= by, a—kb,, . . . dy=kby into the numerator of the compound fraction, This substitution method is useful in dealing with problems on equal fractions. Ex 1%, PEPE ACUTE ESE, prove that each factions zero. sac ration = OLEPEA) (= 9 920-047 -2) g xa Le, = Ex. 18. Uf po =57 5-72 p prove that xt+y+2—0. Bisting each fraction =k; x ok(>~ 0) 9 Kem a), x =k{a bp Ex. 19. Solve the equations q “P- 2. ay te yt tet ytd = 6= 0, 4Y_LXOWbE ee Then xek; x+y=3k yay x-y+2=2k, 2-36. Substituting into the quadratic equation, I84 AAS ORE Ke dle Ld 6 = 0, 14k 17k -6= 0, (k-DQK+3)=0; kad - xed yah a or rio oh} Let EXAMPLES 2c ae a-c_ate 1. t= 5; prove that 2-6 = 56. abe Sad~ de. 2 Given that |— =» prove that ¢= "5 tet Bt, 3. If simplify aeQUADRATIC FUNCTIONS ” 5, show that p- 0. 5, Solve the equations 77 2, tetyered, ~jt 6.1F 5, evaluate —*% 27 r a Free ALY t aceby tert? 7. Solve the equations be” eared 3% and y-1.£2 0, express z in terms of 2, 9 9. Show that, if 2% +2? -”—%, then $x- 5y+42—0. 3 z x_Y GevyteP _xtyte i ? PNM tat” xopee 4 To gh Merce + tw *- Yow _wetyte. 41, Solve the equations: @ ~ teste 4 AE sate aytestat. tyne De-yte -xby ide atta 12, Given that 7 9>2 ROPES. M22, evaluate Fay Joo ch et Praicpt =log u, prove that xy/at 2ua*#-%, 18, Solve the equations 777-274 _ 276 axtbyserma+ bid, mn 16, WIZE PRES ME, prove thal = 2 =F. ar re pa aq-f r-p pg Quadratic and rational quadratic functions. Ex. 20, Discuss the signs of the functions @ 48—Tx-25 GH) 13-4 10K 2x4 for real values of x. ) This fanetion factorises, 4x8 Tx~2= (ax + IMR 2. ‘When x <— 4, both factors are negative and the function is positive. When - }<.x-<2, the factors are of opposite signs and the function is negative. ‘When x > 2, both factors are positive and the function is positive.3B ALGEBRAIC METHODS Gi) This function does not factorise. Write - 13+ 10x ~ 2x? = - fx" - 5x+4h) 2 FF - dee TAL= — 21-4 A As the term within the bracket is positive for all real values of x, the func tion is always negative. 1¢ will be noted that the maximum value of the function occurs when x =§ and is equal to - }- General case. axttbx-te= al st+be+ ‘, wa[(otiay dere} ( ze) Me] As the least value of (2+. }" is zero, the term within the bracket will be of a constant sign if 4ae—b* 20, ic. if b*<4ac. When this condition is satisfied the function takes the sign of a. -. The necessary and sufficient conditions for ax*+bx+c w be positive for all real values of x are: (i) b*<4ac, (i)a>0. Functions of more than one variable. The methods of dealing with quadratic functions of more than one variable are illustrated in the following examples. Ex. 21. Prove that the function 2x2 - &xy +9y%+ 4x —10y +4 is positive for all real values of x and y'and determine {ts minimum value. First obtain a perfect square which includes all the terms containing one variable, say =. Function =2{[x*- 4xy+ 2x] + $y? - Sy +2} =A [Gx - 2v+ IP - dy? dy — 14 B97 - Sy 2} 24G- 2y + IP + ALA- 2p + 2 A(x - 2y + 1) +F{Qr- 1F + 1)}, completing the square for the y terms, M21r- 2 RG DPD. Hence the funetion is positive for all real values of x and y, it has a minimum value of 1 when x~-2y-+1=y-1=0, ic. when x=y=1. Ex, 22. If x and y are real and x*~2xy - 2y*+6x—y+11=0, find the possible ranges of values of x and y. To determine the possible values of y, treat the equation as a quadratic in x. #-2x-D- 28-4 =O, As xis real, B>dac, o, 4O- wea 2P—y+ ll), 3y°~ Sy- 230, y+ DO- 220. 1. y can take all real values apart from those between - } and 2.RATIONAL QUADRATIC FUNCTIONS » Now treat the equation as a quadratic in y. = 298 xt 1x84 r+ IL = 0. As » is real, (2x4 1F 24(- D+ 6x +11), 12s%+ 52x4 8920. But as 4ae> 6* and a>, this function is positive for all values of x. Hence x can take all real values. Ex, 23. Discuss the sign of the function 4yz+ 2xy ~ 3x*- y*- 723. Proceeding as in Ex. 21 and noting that it will be simpler to deal with the y terms first, function = ~ {[b"~ Day —4yz1-+ 388+ 724} {0-2-2284 2a~ zx 4 329} {@- x- 22) + 2-2 A}. So the function is negative for all real values of x, 75 2 Rational quadratic functions. A rational quadratic function is of the apt + byxt Cy x2 + Bex t Cy discussed by equating it to y and then treating the result as a quadratic equation in x. form The possible values of such a function can be 42x43 Ex. 24. Find the possible range of values of My sorg W» is real. 242043 Let Posed? 2 aXy= 14 ay 2)+ 29-3 0, ‘As x is real, (By- 2 4- 1)029-3), ie. Pe By- B20. Hence (y+ PD b+ale2Vv6. So 4-262 y? -44+2V6, i.e. the given function can take all values with the exception of these between wn 4-2/6 and —d+2V6. Ex. 25. Find the maximum and minimum values re and sketch the ‘graph of the function. ~eo Yo" pextl 2 Pe Dat Dty- 1-0. As xis real, +2240 -DO- Dy 0%3)"- I2y ie. > 3917-4 J. y must be 30 or <4, Hence the maximum and minimum values of the function are 4, 0 respectively.0 ALGEBRAIC METHODS Substituting these values for y, we find x consequently the turning-points on the graph are maximum (-1, 4); minimum G, 0). Further information to assist in sketching the graph: (@) The graph only exists for O 0, Gi) 480-2 Gy. Condition (i) reduces to’ - 9414045) 30, from which aE -} Condition (i) is satisfied when aed Both conditions are satisfied, and the original function can take all values, when a< -$EXAMPLES, a EXAMPLES 24 1. Show that the function 6x ~ 10-- x* is negative for real values of x. 2 For what ranges of values of x are the following functions negative: @ 28+ 5x-12; Gi) + Mxe- 387 3, Prove that the function 4x*— 12xy + 10y* is positive if x and y are real. 4. Find the value of 2, other than zero, for which . (Gx ~ 2p + Ae — yx 2p) is a perfect square. §, Find the maximum value of the function 6+3x- x7 and sketch its graph. 6 Obtain the minimum value of x4 + 2xy + 2y*4 2x 6y +5. 71. Mf x is real, show that the function all values. Sketch its graph. xo fs a it IXe-D is capable of taking an ra and illustrate with a rough graph. 9. Determine the sign of the function 2s3— 2xy + 2y34+2x—4y +7 for real values of the variables. 10. If x, y are real, and 23+ 4xy + 2y?- 8x ~ 12y-+15=9, find the ranges of possible values of: Gi) x; Gi) y- $8. Prove that the function can only take values between —4 and 4 A, Find the maximum and minimum values of the function aon and sketch the graph of the function. 12, Prove that the roots of the equation x7+2(\+ 2)x+ 8A = O are real for alll values of 2. 43. Show that the function 6xy + 6x-+6y~ 3x3 6y*— 16 is negative. For what values of x and y is It a maximum? 2 be = 14, Prove that the function “= 9457" has 2 maximum value of $ and a 7 minimam value of 9. Explain the apparent paradox by drawing a rough Graph. s , son Ste 2x41 15, Find the possible range of values of the function Fy—5- 5 for real values of x. 16. Find the range of values of & for which the function =>" is capable of taking ail values between - <0 and +20. 47, Prove that the function 24+ Tyt4-2024+ yz -2ex-t4xy is never negative for real values of x7, 2 yt 18, Show that, if and 2 ate rea, then => of zero and a maximum value of 307+ 22 +5). ; has a minimum value2 ALGEBRAIC METHODS 19, If x, y are real, prove that 2x*+4xy+3)*- 8x - 10y + 1021. @- 2 20. Prove that, as x varies from — co to +00, the function assumes twice over all values execpt those in a particular interval. Find this iter and draw the graph of the function. 2. I t= Py show that y can only take values between -(1, assuming xis real. Show also that if »?= an yy can take all values. Iilystrate graphically. 22, For what values of 9 is the function 22+2y%-+2xy-2x- 64221 for real values of x and y? Gta? 23. If x and a are real, prove that OST i 2. xKtA 25. Prove that, for all real values of x and 4, the function +bxte ties between fixed limits if b*< de. Partial fractions. Specist methods, ‘The basic methods of express- ing an algebraic fraction as a sum of partial fractions have been dealt with in the previous volume. ‘Two useful methods of simplification will be illustrated bere. Case 1, Linear factor in denominator, Consider the algebraic fraction), where the degree of fx) is less than that of g(x), and suppose g(x) has a non-repeated factor (x—a). ‘We can write g(x) =¢(). (x—-a) fay,, 4, 2) and a) *x—a tats) where p(x) is a polynomial of degree one fess than q(x} and 4 is a constant, ve fo) = Aga) t x a)p), fa) 4" ga) Hence the partial fraction corresponding to the factor (x—a) in the denominator is Putting x=a, Sla)~ Agta); Ke). Tax ~a)PARTIAL FRACTIONS 43 This useful resuit can be expressed as follows: The partial fraction corresponding ta a factor (x— a) in the denominator is Af&—a), where A is the result of putting x=a in every part of the original fraction except (x—a) itself. i gy eA. xe Ex. 21, Express in partial fractions: ) ny “3y3 aw Gaa- o 2x. C4 G2) 4 2 t x= DE-DE MKD ae O-D z-1 OB x-3 ‘Ex. 28. Express in partial fractions. at D tn) The partial fraction corresponding to the factor x 1 1 tt x 1.2. a xn! ‘The partial fraction corresponding to the factor x+1 1 1 1 1 “331 Cp? et x+T GDA The partial fraction corresponding to the factor x+2 i 1 1 1 242 (-1X- D2... 0-2 xed GDP Similarly, the partial fraction corresponding to the factor x+r ty _ ot “arr @=prt Hence, ut 1 1 1 1 xx+1) “x mt xed @ =n +542 Ge at Go Gr coxtr Gn! “Sra al Case Hl. Repeated linear factor in denominaior. An elementary treatment of this case has already been given, but it is laborious when the linear factor is repeated more than two or three times. A simpler method is illustrated in the following examples.“4 ALGEBRAIC METHODS Ex. 29, Express in partial fractions: (i) ey Cres @ Divide 1+2x by 14x, giving the quotient as a set of terms in ascending powers 1+ of x up to the term in x4, Then 44 tex ata teats xl xt 2x41 Et aiid 1 Hence sari tt ete et eH (i) Writing x - 1 = y, the fraction becomes YOrH By dividing 3+ 3y + y* by 3 + y in ascending powers of y and taking the quotient as far as the term in J, it follows that atte es 2 Dividing by y* and replacing y by x- 1, xtext) 1 2 GT +2) G1" 3-1" GT Fe = * Fee EXAMBLES 2e (Miscellaneous partial fractions) Express the following functions in partial fractions: 1 * Cet Net SD Be enn ee 4 : eT iyaFa a) OF Tet DET IK) 5s, tex. « at, ” (e+ 2A 1) oA 1) 7 He. ars wt4x-1 9 ate w 2 1 Ge 2 sia 12 xe Ba 4 GigE 1 xo? 0 are 16 agtciy’EQUATIONS. 4s x(e2~ x43) 17, Express “Tay AxtB gee. evap Od 18. Prove that, if mis a positive integer, as the sum of two partial fractions of the forms 1 5 eae ra FG 19. Express #4 as the sum of four partial fractions. 20. Iff(x) is of lower degree than F(x) and Fix) = (x ~ ay) — oy) fd fie) 1, fla) 1 Prove at Rey)” F(a) ¥= a," FUG) ¥- 07 G-an) : ie Pe) Miscellaneous equations 1. Irrational equations of the form [(ax+by+ Vex +d)=V(px+q)- The solution of this type of equation usually involves a repeated squaring process, and care must be taken to ensure that the resulting roots are checked in the original equation as additional roots are introduced by squaring. Ex. 30. Solve the equation o/(2x+3}- Vx+ Dave Squaring both sides, 2x+3+x-+1- 2y (2x 3)+ ter wend Isolating the irrational term, 2x46 -2V/ {2x4 I+ D). Dividing by 2 and squaring, 4+ 6-49 ~(2x+ Dat) ‘On substitution, x —3 is seen to be a root of the original equation. Substituting x— ~ 2 leads to square-roots of negative numbers, and hence x= ~2 is not a solution. Ex, 31. Solve the equation {Hx — 2x - 9} —-VUCx- 2Nx- Dp x2, The factor (x ~ 2) can be removed after noting the solution x -2. ‘Then ¥B@-DR-VeE-DeVO-B - . @ Proceeding as before, Yx-3)+e~-D)-Wx-a-Hp-x-2, 3x- 12 = 23x 3-H} Gx~ 12) = 4x4 24x+ 45) Bod Dae 3 x-2,6 ‘On substitution it is found that x2 is not a solution of equation (i), but it has already been seen to be a solution of the original equation, The value x= 6 is also a solution. *, Solutions are x =2, 6.46 ALGEBRAIC METHODS 1. Reciprocal equations. There are two classes of reciprocal equations, in which (i) the coefficients of terms equidistant from the ends are equal, e.g. xt— 28432 -2x+1=0; Gii) the coefficients of terms equidistant from the ends are equal in magnitude but opposite in sign, eg. x84 3x4 208 4 2x? 3x—-1=0, Method of solution. If the degree of the equation is odd, x= —1 is a root in case (i) and x1 is a root in case (ii). ‘The corresponding factors should be divided out and in the resulting equation of even degree, say 2m, divide throughout by x" and group the terms in pairs ame A ete otc, Then let x41 ¥ and solve for X, The m method for equations of even degree i is included in that above, Even degree equations which are partly class (i) and partly class (ii) can sometimes be solved in a similar manner (see Ex. 33). Ex, 32, Solve the equation x8— x4 — 8x? —8x2-x+1=0, This is a reciprocal equation of type (3) and of odd degree. By substitution it is seen that one root is x Dividing out the factor x41, the equation becomes 2-2 6-2 b= 0. Dividing by x* and rearranging, (2+) -2(x+2)-6=0. Ae2=x8 or xt Let a X#-24-8-0 XK =4, ~-2. oxtheds 2 at 4x41-0 te2iv3 The roots of the equation are -1, ~1, -1,24¥3. Ex, 33. Solve the equation 24-38 ~ 728+ x+2=0. This is not strictly a reciprocal equation, bat it can be solved by a si method. Dividing by «2 and rearranging, a(st+2)-(x-j)-7-0.EQUATIONS a 4s thea t+ Qaate2, 1 XA X-790 2Xx#- X-3-0 Xoh -b Replacing X by at and solving the resulting quadratic equations, we have x=2, -pH-1tV9. HL. Miscellaneous polynomial equations, 1 willl be sufficient here to consider only those equations where one of more roots can readily be obtained by trial or where there is a given relationship between some of the roots. Ex. 34. Solve the equation x2 - 62" + 5x+6=0. If there is a simple root it will be a factor of 6. By trial, x ~2 is a root. But a8 6x84 Sie 6 = (x ~ OP 4x3), As the roots of x*~4x~3=0 are x =2+ v7, the solutions of the given equation are x=2, 2-4/7. Ex. 35, Solve the equation 2x4+8x-9x4-19x-6=0, given that the product of two of its roots is 2. As the product of two roots is 2, the quadratic factor which yields these two roots when equated to zero must be of the form x24 ax+2. Let 2h 8x9 9x8 — 19x - 6 (3? + ax + 2)(2nd quadkatic factor). Clearly in the second quadratic factor, two terms are 2x* and ~ 3. 2. Expression =(a4+ ax +2)(2x? + bx - 3). Equating coefficients of x*, 8 =2a+b. Equating coefficients of x, -19—-3a+2b, a5, b= 2 The equation is (3-4. 5x4+2K2at~ 2x-])=0, hence x=i(-5iv17, 1G tv. EXAMPLES 2F Solve the following equations: 1, Vet V@—3)= VETS). 2 We-N-x-4, 3 2408 92-9=0. 4, 28 —4at— 1x 4 6=0. 5. W/Gxt1)-4V¥x-DaviGxt 1). & xt- 28-48-24 1-0. Te AT3P- Dad 3241-0. & VQ-x+y(-1-9=3. 9. ff2x(x—D}-Y(xlx- Bx, 10, 2+ xh T3- Fate xt 2-0, UL G@~ 1) 87-0, 12, (x+2)4- 16(¢- 1) = 0.48 ALGEBRAIC METHODS. 13. Solve the equation 24+ x - 16x2~ 4v-+ 48-= 0, given that the product of two roots is 6. 14, Solve the equation 28+3x+3—=V(2x7+6x+5), by using the substitution y=x9+ 3x43. 18, Solve the equation 2x*~ 3.7 1527+ 10x+24— 0, given that the sum of two roots is unity. 16. Solve: (i) (x ~ 2c)(x- 26) =(a + b~ ca - b+ 0), Gi) 849 =26, xp y= 6, Th, Solve: @) V(Qx-5)+-V(6r-9)=x-1} i) VU xt Ad, 18. Find real solutions of the equation x44 (x— 1)*=1. 19. Solve the equation x4-2x4-16x*-8x+16—=0, by using the substitution x-2r. 20. Find the values of a and b if a x-2 is a factor of Sos a+ Ax — a8 — 13x? b= 12 and solve the equation f(x) =0. 2A, Solve the simultaneous equations, yz~2Ay+2)+6, 2x=2%s+2)+2, xyaAxty)4H, MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES. 1. Simplify (a+5- 0? + (b+e-a}t4 (ate- 8), 2, Factorise: (i) (a~ 1)°- 8+ (a+ I+ (a*- 0); (i) x8-y®- 228 bax t dye. x si (+t Ze 3, 8 =% simplity FA22. 4. Prove that the expression 2x*- 6xy-+ 5y?4+2x - By-+ 14 is positive for all real values of x and y. 5. Find for real vatues of x: (i) the sign of the function 2x2 13x+ 15: 1 o . fon 487= Bet Gi) the possible values of the function as axth Gena’ Prove that x= fly), 7. Express in partial fractions: (i) ae es “a x © ErDeTD & Factorise: Gi) x€y~ 2 + r(z~ xP + 2x— 9 GD FU - 2+ Pe AP a9, 9, xpress xt Jy 28+ ty a+ 4 each im terms of X, where Yor 6. If y= f(a), where fx) = 1MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES ao 10, Solve the equations: (i) 9xt - 24x° - 2x*- 24x+9 = 0; Gil) 5y8- 222 =17, Sxy- 63? = 6. 18, @ Find the sign of the expression 2x ~5~ 4x? for real values of x. 3B 2xtex+2 5 Gi) IF x is real, prove that 3< y= <3. 12, Prove (hat the roots of the equation (8% dac)x*+ da+ dx-4—0 are real if a, 5, care real and find the condition that they are equal, 13, Solve the equation x# - dxt+7x*-2 = 6, given that the product of two roots is 2. 14, Express with rational denominators: @) pat w wa Gi) was ay Where x,» ate positive integers. 15, If x, p are real, prove that x?- 4xy+ 52+ 2x—-8y+520. For what values of x, y is the function a minimum? 16 (i) Factorise 4cA-+ 3086+ bt Gi) If x4 — 48x4.28 = G8 + ax+ 2x" + 4x + 6), find the values of aand 6. Fy wo fracti 17 Exoress Gite ay #82 sum of four partial Fractions and find the coeficient of x" in the expansion of the function in a series of ascending powers of x. 18. If fln) 30? + 7m, prove that fiat 1) — f(r) is a rmultiple of 5. 19. Solve: (i) 29-22 - 5x+ 2-0; VGx- D4 Ver I~ VO-5x)=0. 20. A rational integral function of x, 4(3), is divided by a¢-a%. Prove that the remainder is MOM -9,, HO+H—@, 2a 2 24, Find the range of values of 4 for which the expression aide 2+ x - 4) is positive for all real values of x. ~~ ate 2 Bidet coe interme oy a = 23. If x>0, prove that: (i) reh>2 (i) e+ 2 Bde, 24. Resolve 5—-- @- Be 25, Find the values of A for which the function x°+8xy - $?— (x+y) can be expressed as a perfect square. If x*+j*=1, prove that - 768 4 xy -5P<3. 26, Solve the equations: @ vie-9+ V&- N= VGx-5): Gi) V6-x)+ VU-2=V(5- 3x). into partial fractions,50 ALGEBRAIC METHODS 27. Factorise (6% + c- c)+ (2+ aXe~ a)? + (at + PY(a— bY 28, Prove that, if x is a real variable and a, 6, ¢ are real constants, the Function ej) g@ lies betwoen two fixed values if a+ @>-ab and bt 3 and 2y~x<5, then Fcxc$s Baye. a+bx 42, Find all functions f(x) of the form f(x) = 5——-> for which fQ) = 2f(8) and f(0)+3f(-2)=0. 43. Find a polynomial f(x) of degree five, such that (x) - 1 is divisible by Ge 1)° and fiz) itself is divisible by x! 44, Find the H.C.F. of x5 ~ x4 44x39 - 2x84 2x41 and x44 33+27+ 4. 45. If x, y, z are not all equal and me eh ett sty a1 and AP=1, =k, prove that x(CHAPTER 1 DETERMINANTS. LINEAR EQUATIONS Notation and definitions. The expression a,5,— a,b, derived from the four terms, or elements, a B,; ay b,is denoted by the symbol la, 5). la This symbol f: 4 is called a determinant. Having two rows a; by, lay b, a, b, and two columns 4, a2, by by, it is a determinant of the second order, Extending this definition, the expression y(bxe5~ Bye) ~ bilazes— ase) + Oy arb — asbs) derived from the nine elements a, by c45. da be ca; cy by Cy is denoted by the symbol ja, 5, cj). This is a determinant of the third order, having a las By ¢; three rows and three columns. From the definition, it follows that a: By exlmaby cel iit ca] re far Da y Dy Cy, bs ¢s! Jay ¢| ag by a By ce the elements of the top row being taken in order from left to right with alternate plus and minus signs and multiplied by the second-order determinants which remain when the row and column through the element are deleted, The determinants |by co), |4p Cal, de Bal are called the minars of lbs tal [as cal lay Ost - ay, b,, c, respectively and will be denoted by 4,, B,, &. Clearly the definition can be extended to determinants of any order. A determinant of order 1 will consist of n? elements arranged in n rows and n columns, and will be expressible in terms of » determinants of order n~1. For convenience, the symbol A is often used to denote a determinant, Ex. L Evaluate (i) R 4p (i) [2 0-1 12 4-32 Oo 23 @ A-G52-@x a2 a ana-3 4 aro 3 =2(-9-4)-0-@-0) = - 34, 52EVALUATION OF DETERMINANTS 53 Ex. 2. Prove that ta kh g| =abe+ 2fgh ~ af*— bg* - ch? Ab f| efi A= albe-f1)~ Mho— fa) + a(fh- 68), = abe + 2fgh - af? bg*— cht, Ex. 3, Expand she determinant |x 11 1). 1x00 10x0 100x A=x[x 0 0/-111 0 O]+1/1 x O|- i]t xO 0 x 0 1x9 100 10x OOx 10x 10x 100 e!l- b+ 0-2. x]-[1.0-x(- 9] at 3 EXAMPLES 3a Evaluate the following determinants: 1, /3 2). 22 3). BR) 7-3. 14 loi -2 6 4) 02 $. (11 Af 6/20 af -30) 222 fo3 -1 333 42 0 w/ 0 O35) & 12001. a{ ttt 111 020 y-t 4+ ~2-14 002 “lobed -1-101 10/20 00} Wy] 1 0 O 1p wmy_ r-t 1 61-10) -1 201 -2o 1-1 42 02 o-3 1 1 2 0-2 40 31 9 9-1-2 0-3 2 Expand the following determinants: me t Myx oy I 15. lat6 Bb), 16, |x-2y e+ 2p]. 6 -a 2x -3y' a-bal xty x-7 17. jO ba). 18%) 2 -y zl a it) My) 1 ot ot a 6 0} x 1-7 adi ab e¢ 60a -x y t lad 14a 14d Lee ma yjl bd a. 22.4405 0), 23/111 1h 1x1 0a05 abaa Lisl 5049 aaba 11x eb 0a jaaab A, Verify that [14x I+y 1ez/={11 1) +]x y 2} 1 2 3 123) [123 3 2 1] fs2al 32154 DETERMINANTS 25, Verify that ja 26. Prove that [a -. a x 21. Prove that |a jb je 1 28, Verify that |a+x b ¢/=|a b cl+x|1 be}. b+xeal |beal |ical etxaél lead lad Laws of determinants, The following Jaws which will be proved true for third order determinants are in fact true for determinants of any order. Law 1. If any two parallel sets of elements, rows or columns, are interchanged, the sign of & is changed. For take An}ay By Oy] —a1(bots— Buea) — bi(Auca— A502) + cx(aabs — aba). ay be 6, 5 By Ca Interchanging the first two rows, Aq By Cy]—= Mplby cs — B50.) — by(aye5— 20,) + 04,0; — 3b ) a by Jy bs Cs = —a,(baca— bata) + bi(ases— dats) — C(Uebs— abs) A similar result will be obtained if two columns are interchanged, Law H. i&fany two paraltet sets of elements are identical, then A—0. This important result follows immediately from Law 1, for if the identical sets are interchanged, the sign of A must also be changed. ‘As however the new determinant is identical with A, it follows that Ano. Eg. bteaa’ eta bb atbec =0.LAWS Of DETERMINANTS 35 Law ITI The value of A is unchanged if all the rows are written as colums in the same order, or vice versa. Take A asin Law 1. Writing the rows as columns, a= 1 (Pres bees) — eyes bye) + albyee— bao) ay a ay Jb, 3 ba: 1 & Cal Teatbats bac) — biases anes) estaba abs) Law IV. If every element of one row or column is multiplied, or divided, by the same factor k, then & is multiplied, or divided, by that factor k. Taking 4 as before, consider the first column multiplied by k. ‘Then Keay by cy 2 2 Kas bs ts = kay (Baes— Bsta)— by Kanes Kast) + ((kaaby — kayby) = K{a{bace— Dye) — by(aeg— 2909) + cx(Gabs— ab 3)} Alternatively, this law can be stated in the form, if each element of a row or colwnn of A has a common factor k, then k is a factor of A. Bg. fx xt atlaxl xt 8pm Lx aX x at) xt x x8] [x x oF jx Ext xix atxtx] [xtxtxl ixtaxl [stad Law V._ If every element in a row or column can be resolved into the sum, or difference, of two others, then & can be expressed as the sum, or difference, of two determinants. For let A= lata bboy ates a, 4 7 = (a+ a} 4] Oat a os s&s! ay Cy Hebe its i “ail ps os C4] ~ bila ale b,| tay) ‘Ps ef by aa 3| Fey'lay by lag cal (a Os a al laa al Le d= fa by gitar By ay’) a by Col |ap by Ce lag By coi lay by Cy36 DETERMINANTS. This result can be extended to the case where the elements of a row or column are expressible as a sum or difference of three or more terms. Eg. As[Loxtaxt x xtl=y) x xt|—[x x x8] tpt x 29] I-yty y YL | el bye A) [oy 9 Inz+2? 2] [1 zz | |2e 2 2 =(|1 x at], the last two determinants ly 9 tz zt vanishing as they each have two identical columns. Law Vi. A is unchanged in value when to the elements of any row (column) are added, or subtracted, any constant multiples of the elemenis of one or more other rows (columns), For taking A=|a, 6, ¢,|, consider the determinant A’ obtained by a, by Cy Jaa Ds ey adding to the first row a constant multiple 2, of the second row and a constant muitiple 4, of the third row, Aim | ay t dada t yay By + Dgbe+ Deby cyt hate Dats % by os dy bs & Atay by cy|+ {a5 by cyl, using Law V, 1 ‘a by Cy Jay dy 4 Jay by ce =A, as the other determinants are zero by Law I. jay by &4| Eg. A=(l a al={1-1 a—-6 a'—F|/=(a—y0 L atal. toe]. 6 16 teel }1 ¢ @ Le ¢ =(2-B0 1 ath |=(a~-4)b—c)0 1 a+d). Ob-c Be O1 b+. le a lec Further simplification is achieved by subtracting elements of the second row from those of the first and the ensuing determinant is readily evaluated giving A=(@—5)G-c)le—a). N.B. Care must be taken not to apply two or more of these operations Siraultaneously to the same rows or columns. E.gj1 aa] [1-1 a—B o—5*), simultaneously subtracting elements | b Ble|1~1 b—a bt at feel| ioe @ of the second row from those of the first, and vice-versa.LAWS OF DETERMINANTS 7 Ex, 4. Evaluate: (i) [ios int Gi) (30 4 504 HH) J 2 3 4). 108 152| 40 50 30] 2345 50 40 301 3456] 4567] (i) Multiply elements of the second row by 2 and subtract from the first Tow. Then A=| 3 1 [=456- 108 = 348, |1de 15a Gi) Remove a factor 10 fom each row (or column). Then A -i043 4 5}; now subtract clements of the last row from those 453] $43 of the first and remove the resulting factor, 2, somes 2000 ~ 3 - 9} = ~ 24,000. 543] Gil) Subtract elements of the second tow from those of the first and the elements of the thicd row from those of the second. A 1-1 -1 -1/=0, by Law 1, 1-1 -1-1 34 5 6 4567 Bx, 5. Prove that |bte a—b a|—3abe- 2-8-2. eta b~e B| ath e-ae| An(b+e aa/+/b+e —6 al, using Law V, ctabb| letra -cb atbee| |ats -ae = 0 +[b -bal+jc —6 a}, using Law H, c -e5| la-cb a-ael |b -ae =-le bal, as |b rPa)~-|b 8g) ~O.by Lawl, acbl |e -c8 «5 Bacl la-~ae| laac| —3abc— a — 8 8, Ex. 6, Prove that |l1+a 5 ¢ d [=l+atbtctd. a ithe a ob ite a a@ hb ¢ 1+d| Add the elements of the second, third and fourth colunms to those of the first and remove the factor li a+d+e+d.58 DETERMINANTS As(ltatb+etd) 1 b co d 1l+b c¢ a 1 6 ite a tb oe tdi ‘Now subtract elements of the second row from those of the first and similarly for the third and second rows and the fourth and third rows. Then Am(I+atb+et+d)|0 -1 0 90 9 1-10 Oo Oo 1-1 1 6 cltd| =(ltatbecrda ~1 0 md tar bres ale = ooi- ied 1 ott wliatb+etd EXAMBLES 3b Evaluate the following determinants: 17 20). 2, [57 55}. 3, [$02 102], 4, 201 1321. 15 19 38 44] 16 78 100 67 5.]1020 30). & | 40 5). 7% 12938 401 8/13 3 23). 350-1 82 6 19 26 28 307 53; ow 4 -129 -11 24 32 34 39 9 70) 9/234 5) 1/2 4 6 8. js 42-1) 34 5 6 03 6 9 652 1 45 6 7 9 6 3 0 17 6 2-1 S10 15 20 -8 -6 -4 -2, g72 1 Expand the following determinants: a) ath +R |. 13 fe 2y xt2y}. 14 Jat BF (a BY, 2fa +b) 2a*+ by +y RY lafa+ 6) b(a- 6) 18, |at—48? at ab- 264), 16. at a 1 |. 17, [2x x2 x41, BB 2b +P al ay yy tae 2z ‘28 '25| w) 1 1 7 W, |2-x 2 3 |. 2 la0aal. abe 2 5-x 6 aada lea +b 1 +e] 34 «10- aaad Oaaa| ale aa ll Wlxti x-1x 1. aal a 2x42 x-2 x8 2] aida 3x43 x3 83 le@da axed x4 x4 4 23, Prove that atta at ah + BB) | (a+ Bat + PB + BS), BP ad Hat ab +29)FACTORISATION OF DETERMINANTS 9 24, Show that Jatb+eatb-ca-b+cl=|a be). -€ a lb -c al e a -b | |e a-d 25, Solve the equation} x 2 3 -4 -2x2 2x1 6. Prove: ())|a a a al=Sabed; Gi) [1 11 1p =G@e- 0. jb b bb dati le oc ~e -e| Pixt ld -d -d - 111 27. Evaluate: fi) |b+e @ ak Gi) a@ a+b a+2b), b eta 6b a+b a+2b at30| c ¢ atél Ja+2b at 36 at 4b 2a. Expand A=| x x46 x43 x+$ x x42] m+3x+h x 29. Prove that | x x41 x4+2 x+3[=0. xd xt? x43 x44 x42 x43 x44 x45) e+ 3 x44 x45 x46 30. Express |a,x,+ 51 aes be as a sum of four determinants and Jigs + bays aaxy+ Bevel prove that it is equal to fe: by] x laa by and solve the equation A= 0. a ¥3)- x2 Jal Factorisation of determinants. The two principal methods of factorising a determinant are: 4 by picking out common factors from any row or column; (i) by use of the remainder theorem. These methods are illustrated in the following examples, Ex. 7. Factorise: Ole : Gx y 2{; @hjx+2 3 3 fa dal ly x 3 xt4 5 le zy 3.5 x+a (@ Adding the elements of the second row to those of the first, An[etieye avid -@eR+) 1d | e ere | Bact baat (a+ BB+ Mat 0) = (a+ B+ Ma bXa+ 6). Gi) Adding the elements of the second and third rows to those of the first and removing the factor (x +y-+2), Aa(e+y+A[l 1 aetyez}1 OO px x ly xmy 2x. f2y 2 0 y-o DETERMINANTS subtracting the elements of the first column successively from those of the second and the third columns. AnGt yt six ~yr-2). Gil) Subtracting the elements of the second row from those of the third row, Aam|x+2 3 3 [a(x-)xe2 33 3 oxtd 5 xed 5} 0 -G@-1) x-1 Oo -11 = (x= I) + x+44 5}- 33)+ HX - 9] = @ Dis? + Lx] =x - Net 1). Ex. & Factorise: ()(1 1 If; G)]L 111 abc abhed ibe ca ab| Be dt ea @ When b=, A vanishes as the last two columns are identical, . (b- } is a factor. Similarly, (¢- a) and (a - 6) are also factors. But each term of A is of degree three in a, 6, c, and therefore any remaining factor must be a constant, So let A=Kb- Ke-aXa- 8), The value of & can be obtained by giving numerical values to a, 6, c, avoiding those which make one of the factors (6 - ¢), (¢~ a), (a— 6) vanish. So take @=0, b=1, ¢=2. ‘Then Aeq|i1 lot 20 and kb- eXe- aa - d) — DOK ~ 1 =2k. koi and A~(- eXe- aa 5). Gi) When a=, A vanishes as two columns are identical. -. @- 6) is 2 factor. Similarly, (a—c), (a~d), (b— ©), (b- d) and (c - d) are factors. As each term of A is of the sixth degree in a, 6, c, ¢, the remaining factor must be a constant, say k. Giving a, 6, ¢, d the values 0, 1, — 1, 2, A=11 1 test -12/=12, OI -1 2] | 14 or 14] |t -18 joi ~1 3] and Ma- bXa~cMa- dXb— Xb - dXe- d)= 12k. and A=(a~ bXa-cXa- dX - ob dye-d).MINORS AND COFACTORS 61 ‘Minors and cofactors. The «tinor of any particular element in a determinant has already been defined as the determinant obtained ‘when the row and column through the clement are suppressed. E,g. the minor C, of cy in |a b, ¢,| is [a dy}. ay By ce} Naty a) as by ¢s| The value of any determinant can be expressed in terms of the elements of any row or column and their respective minors. For taking A=la by oy ay by Cy as By cg by definition A=a,4,~ B+ 0,0. Interchanging the first and second rows and using Law I, Am — |g ba Ca] = —40gda—boBy+ ex}. a, by G| iy bs Cal Making a second interchange, As =0,4,— byBatels. 2 by cy a, by ey lay Oy er Since rows and columns can be interchanged, it follows that A= ayA\— ody tQydy = ~(0,B,— 6B. +.B, = 4 y-egPytegls. It is convenient to take up the sign changes in the coefficients of the elements and write Am Ay Ba-Bs G= ¢, — Ay By C= As; Bs= C= The terms A, By . . « are called the cofactors of a, by, . .. Their momerica! values are obtained by evaluating the determinants remaining when the rows and columns through their respective elements are deleted; their signs are determined by the following rule: Rule of sign. Start at the top left-hand corner and pass by rows and columns, never diagonally, to the particular element counting +, — alternately at each element until the particular element is reached.eo DETERMINANTS ‘Using cofactors the fundamental results for a third-order determinant are 4 made Bit OCs A=a,A4,+ 244+ 945; In general, the value of a determinant is the sum of the products of the elements of any row, or column, and their corresponding cofactors. Ex. 9, For the determinant |x y z| par Iy zx find: (j) the minor of r; Gi) the cofactor of g. @ Minor of r, R = |x afr 2 @ Cofactor of 9, Q = +|x [ote y | Ex. 10, Find the cofactor of f in the determinant |a h g|. hos efe There are two clements f, but A is symmetrical inf, g, &, and the same result will be obtained using either of the elements. F=-|a h)=gh~af. ie General theorems on cofactors, 1. The sum of the products of the elements of any row, ar column, and theie corresponding cofaciors equals A, A result already proved for a third-order determinant which can similarly be proved true of any determinant. Hl. The sum of the products of the elements of any row (column) and the cofactors of the corresponding elements of another row (cohimu) is zero. For consider A=a, by cy). Jay by C2 Jy by Cs ails cy “ola e{-4 bs es as €| |b: &4|-0, by Law I, ay By | jas by cs] Similarly, for products @,4,+6,B,+¢,Cy, 4,4, +.B, + 0C,, ete. This theorem can also be cxtended to determinants of any order. Then ayfy+b:Byt+ oC; ae Ja 5s]GENERAL THEOREMS 3 Ex. 11. fA=|ab cl, evaluate: (i) GA+pP+xX; Wi) pAtqB+rC; par ez Gi) Gat b+ OB+ Bp +2q4+ + Gx+ I+z)Y. @ Using theorem [, ad + pP+-2X— A. Gi) Using theorem Il, pA +qB+rC = 0. Gii) Expression = mSoB=nQ+ 27+ HOB aQ+yY¥)+ (cB+rO+zY) 2A +0=24 EXAMPLES 3c Express the following determinants as products of factors: La bp 2, [3x x |. 3 eo atb J BY ay By wandh Maes jot BF 2a +h)']. x 3y 22], 6. |0 65 de (a-bY ath I ax y 32] 4a 0 Bx dy = 6a 4b 7) 0 xtxt-yt @ [ETT |x x pay y se abe yy Ly ° Jat Bt zz - tot 1.)0 y 323) He] 21-1 9 x 0 52 2f be & 6 3x2y 0 t cb ect Sx dy 2 0 -1-1 1 ¢ : G)the minor, (ii) the cofactor of x in the determinant {D1 i 1 xf 2-11 t xed 2 1 ent xt 1 Ge- 1) x-1 13, Expand the determinant ja b bea ead 14, Show that a+b+¢ is a factor of the determinant and find the second factor. 15, Find the cofactors of 2, b, c, f, #, # in the determinant ja h g|- nbs lg f c| 16. Prove that |1 1 1 /=(6~eXe-aya-bxatb+e). c abe at BFa DETERMINANTS. 17. Find one root of each of the following equations by inspection and complete their solutions: @fl-x L 1 =O; (ip [x-2 1 3 <1 x-4xt1 19. Factorise the determinants: @)a ate ey GL 4 G4) a 6 atd| x y \e oy ote bo oe 1 1f1.1 aa (a3) i 1flig ay (3-5) 20, If 4, B,... ate the cofactors of a, &,... in the determinant A =[a 6 cf, find the vatues of: pan ( (a+ 2p + 38)A+ 6429+ Iy)B+ (04 2+ 32)C; xy | i) (Qa~ b+ 3e)C+(2p-9+3/)R+ Qx—-y+3z2)Z. 21, Show that x+-y+2 is a factor of the determinant Jy+z -y 2e =x zix “2 2x ly xty and find the other factors. ‘a8 a product of linear factors. Bf A= 1 1 1 bte eta a+b Btbere Stcata® attab+ BF unequal, prove by multiplying the columns by b-¢, ¢— a, a—b, respectively |, where a, b, ¢ are tA=0, 24. Prove that 1 1 i = (d-aXa~chb-d). arb bte etd A+ b+ ots beet Pt cde atLINEAR EQUATIONS 6 25, If Ay B, . « . are the cofactors of a,b, ... inA={a by af Ja, by cy Jas Dy Ce prove that B,C, - B,C, —a,A and write down similar expressions for Cety~ Cae, AaBy- AgBe- Deduce that |, By Cy Ay By Ce 4s By Cs! Linear simultaneous equations. Determinants can be used to facilitate the solution of simultaneous linear equations. The method will be illustrated for the cases of equations in two and three unknowns. quations in two unknowns. Consider the simultaneous equations axthyt+g-% 6... @ axthyta=0. . . . . . WH ‘Multiplying () by by and (ii) by 6, and subtracting, A aybe— ayb,)— bycs— Bet Similarly, ~Hayby~agb,) = aye, 20 = A(a,Ay + 5,8, + GC) =A 1 ey wt "Byte Bet, yea AC, by Oa * -y 1, te areal ae By Ce ax bs where the signs in the numerators are alternately plus and minus and the determinants are obtained from the set of elements |e by ey a be Ca omitting in turn the first, second and third columns. ‘The general solution (A), which is readily memorized, is particularly useful in analytical geometry. Ex. 12. Find the point of intersection of the straight lines with equations 3x-y- 220, x+y +6 =0. We have 5-795 Fae pat x Le () ‘The point of intersection is (6 LINEAR EQUATIONS Special cases. Referring to the gencral solution (A), it is clear that exceptional cases arise if |4, | oF a4b5—a,b,~0. aq bg ‘When this condition is satisfied there are two possibilities, either by Cy) and Jeg ¢,| do not vanish, in which case the equations have no b,c, finite solution and are said to be inconsistent, of [el {and [2 oy 4, & also vanish, and then the values of x and y are “a and the equations are not independent. It should be noted that when |a, bal 0, if either of the deter- minants |p oh dz Be 4c, vanishes so does the other, as in fact LA ay © a ar ‘There is a simple geometrical explanation of these special cases, for the original equations can be represented as two straight lines and the condition 4, b,)= ab, a,b, =0, Jy Bs am _ by, °r ay By is satisfied when the lines are parallet and in consequence have no finite point of intersection unless they are coincident. This latter case arises when ic. when in addition one of the determinants |, cy|, also bs es ay 1] ae Ce! vanishes. Ex, 13. Solve the equations (1-))xt+2y-1~0, xty+4-A=0, Discuss the case k= —1. We have Te. When =~ 1, the solutions are infinite, and in consequence the equations are inconsistent. In fact, the equations become x+ y-4=0, x+y+5=0.EQUATIONS IN THREE UNKNOWNS cH ‘Equations in three unknowns, Consider the simultaneous equations axthytezt+d=0, 2 2... @ axtbhytoz+d,=0, . . . . Gi) axtbhytoztdg=0. 2... Mii) Let Ay B,, . . - be the cofactors of mq, &, . . . im the determinant A=la, & ol, lay By Col lay Bs Cs where the clements are the coeflicients of x, y, zin the given equations. Now multiply the equations (i), (li), (iif) by Ay. 4g, 4a respectively and add. Then x(ayA,t agdq+ agA_)+p(b,A, + byAyt bods) ¥2(C,Ay+ CoAyt Cos) + GA, + dyAy + dydy =O. But GA, + apd taydg~ A and byAytbedat body =cydyt egg t Cydy=0. (dA, +dyAy+ dys) dy by ey) bad d, by ey by cg dy dy bs Cy: By Cy dy Similarly, by multiplying the equations by By, By, By respectively, yaatlay cy 4 o xA= a, Cy dy Jas cs dy a, by 4) Also zA=— ay by dy as by as! Combining these results ~~. 51, . @ Ta, By || By ey ® Bs ca de] Jas cz da] [az By de} Jay be ce jbs 3 ds] [as Cs ds| [as Bs dsl les Bs es where the signs in the numerators are alternately plus and minus and the determinants are obtained from the set of elements ja, Dy cy dy Jay by Cy dal Jas dy es ds omitting in turn the first, second, third and fourth columns. x _ =y Bx ey ch) [ar cr8 LINEAR EQUATIONS Ex. 14. Solve the equations Sx-yt4et2=0, xtdy-zt+3=-0, -2xt3ytz-5=0. We have x - oy ei, “Tf 3) 7s 4 3 [3-7 23-1 4 [2-43 1-1 i B23 1 2-1 3 4-s -2 1-5 -2 -s “2 3°21 = z -1 OT Ta aE ie. 2-2 yaO, zal, In dealing with linear equations in three unknowns it is often more convenient to reduce them to two equations in two unknowns and complete the solution from that stage. Ex, 18, Solve the equations x-+y+z—0, 2x—y=32—4, 3x+3y—7, Eliminating z between the first two equations gives Sx+dy= 4, Solving the equations Sx+2y-4-0 Jet 3y-7-0, x =? 14518 =35+12 “15-6 je. “geo yn from the first equation, geod Special cases, Referring to the general solution (B), it is evident that special cases arise if Amjad, ¢,)=0. ay ye }a, bs 5] In this event either x, y, z are all infinite and the equations are inconsistent, or x, y, zare indeterminate of the form 2 and the equations are not all independent, being equivalent to two independent equations or just one. 1, The equations are inconsistent if A=0 and none of the determinants inl e hl, anlar ey yl, Ag=lay dy dif, vanish. A la, ¢, a] lay by a, by cy dy) lay cy dl ja; b, ds! I. The equations are not independent if 4=0 and also two of 4;, A, 490, In this event it can readily be shown that all the latter determinants vanish, Geometrically, as will be proved in a later chapter, a linear equation in three variables represents a plane in three-dimensional space. Consequently the system of three equations represents three planes with the following possible configurations and results.SPECIAL CASES oa (i) The planes meet ina point; the equations have a unique finite solution. (i) At least two planes are paratiel; the equations arc inconsistent with no finite solution and A=0; A,, A,, Ay#0. (iii) The planes intersect in three parallel lines; as (ii). (iv) The planes intersect in a common line; the equations are not independent, being equivalent to two independent equations with a line of solutions and A=Ay=A,-A,=0. (v) The planes coincide; the equations are not independent, being equivalent to a single equation with a plane of solutions and A=4,-. (4) Two planes coincide and the third plane intersects them in a fine; as (iv), (vii) Two plancs coincide and the third plane is parallel to them; the equations are not independent and also inconsistent. There are no finite solutions and A=A,~A,=A,= Tn dealing with sets of linear equations it is important to remember that the elementary method of solution is often the more convenient, especially when investigating special cases. Both this method and the determinant method will be illustrated in the following examples. Ex. 16, Show that the equations 2x+Sy+3z-0, x-yt4e~2, Ty-524+4-0 are not independent. Method (i). As|2 5 3|~0, on expansion, 1-4 jo 7-5 and Mr] 53 0 3 0-0. -1 4 -2' 1 4 = 7-5 4 34 Hence the equations are not independent. ‘Method (ii), The result of eliminating x between the first two equations is the equation 7y—52-+4= 0, which is identical with the third equation. Hence the equations are equivalent to the two equations 2x+5y+3z—0, Jy-Sz+4—0. They are satisfied by all paints lying on the line determined by the two planes with these equations. Ex. 17. Show that the equations x+y+z—-1-0, 2x-3y-22+4—0, 3x-2y-2+2—0 have no finite solution. Method (i). 4-1 bo Yy=0, 2-3 -2| 8-2-1 and A=] 1 1 -1/#0. -3-2 4 2-1 2 ', The equations are inconsistent and have no finite solution,