Mayer, R. E. (2014) Introduction to multimedia learning. In R. E. Mayer (Ed.

), The
Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning. (pp. 1-26). New York: Cambridge.
(e.g. Chapter 1)

The multiple options for multimedia tools are infinite because multimedia learning occurs
within any combinations of words and pictures. Yet, learner centered multimedia is more
beneficial to meaningful learning rather than rote learning (pg. 15). Therefore, any form of
technology that presents words and pictures using two or more media is multimedia.
Sensory modalities view is when the multimedia being used requires auditory and visual
senses, which includes narration and animation or simply lecture and powerpoint slides (pg.
16). Words are presented as printed text or spoken text, meanwhile the images are
processed visually (pg. 16). Multimedia learning involves learners building mental
representations from words and pictures (pg. 16). While multimedia instruction involves the
designing of multimedia learning environments in order to help the learners develop those
mental representations (pg. 17). With the infinite multimedia tools available for instruction,
graphics have the advantage to supplement verbal modes of instruction (pg. 19). Graphics
support pictorial instruction which is supplemental to verbal instruction which gives the
learner twice the exposure to the academic content presented.
The two types of instruction for teaching with multimedia are technology-centered and
learner-centered. With the implementation of technology into education, schools adapted to
the technology, instead of adapting the technology to the needs of human learners (pg. 25).
The technology was supposed to promote human cognition, instead it gave learners access
to the technology rather than it aiding in their learning (pg. 25). The learner-centered
approach focuses on how the human mind works rather than just giving them access to
technology. The advantage to the learner-centered approach is that multimedia designs are
consistent with the way humans process information which is more effective and engaging.
Multimedia learning is a sense-making activity which takes place when the learner seeks to
build a coherent mental representation from presented material (pg. 27). Also, the learners
experience should include making sense of the presented material, which can be affected
by the teacher. The teachers instruction should provide guidance that is supportive of the
learners cognitive processing (pg. 27).

Mayer, R. E. (2014) Cognitive theory of multimedia learning. In R. E. Mayer (Ed.), The

Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning. (pp. 43-71). New York: Cambridge.
(e.g. Chapter 3)

Multimedia instructional messages designed with the sole purpose of how the human mind
works are highly likely to lead to meaningful learning than the others that arent aligned with
human information processes (pg. 44). When designing and planning the multimedia
instructional messages the objective is to guide appropriate cognitive processing throughout
learning without causing cognitive overload (pg. 44). Strategies for design and planning
have an advantage when the multimedia principle is at the base of their design or plan. The
multimedia principle emphasizes that people learn more deeply from words and pictures
than from words alone (pg. 44). There are three assumptions pertaining to how humans
interpret messages found in multimedia presentations, they are: dual channel, limited
capacity, and active processing. First, dual-channel assumption is that humans possess
separate channels for processing pictorial and auditory information (pg. 47). Each channel
processes using two different modes: representation mode and sensory mode. Within the
representation mode approach the objective is to identify the presented information as
verbal or nonverbal (pg. 47). The use of this mode approach explains that one channel
processes verbal information and the other channel processes nonverbal information,
similar to Paivios dual-coding theory (pg. 47). The second approach for multimedia
learning is sensory-modality approach. This approach focuses on whether the learner first
processes the material or message through their eyes or their ears (pg. 47). All in all, the
difference in multimedia learning relies on the processing of printed words and background
sounds or narration (pg. 47).

Schnotz, W. (2014) Integrated model of text and picture comprehension. In R. E. Mayer

(Ed.), The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning. (pp. 72-103). New York:
Cambridge.
(e.g. Chapter 4)
The integrated model of text and picture comprehension applies the fact that learners can
use multiple sensory modalities combined with different forms of representation (pg. 64).
The model includes several levels of comprehension and they are: listening, reading, visual
picture, and auditory picture (pg. 64). The main distinctions between comprehension of text
are printed text comprehension and on-screen text comprehension because that same text
can be presented differently (pg. 64). The proper multimedia environment is necessary
according to the selection of external representations of the learning content (pg. 67).
Therefore, multimedia learning occurs when the student understands what is presented in
order to create mental representations of the content in working memory and follows with
storage in long-term memory (pg. 67).

The two forms of representation are descriptive and depictive. Descriptive representations
can be in the form of a mathematical formula which is composed of text and symbols.
When using descriptive representations the advantage would be if the multimedia was
portraying abstract knowledge (pg. 68). Depictive representations are pictures that maybe
of photographs, drawings, and even maps (pg. 68). Not only 2 dimensional images are
depictive representations, but also 3 dimensional models are as well. If the multimedia
uses depictive representations, then the advantage would be if the learning objective is to
draw inferences (pg. 68). Therefore, the integrated model uses the idea of multiple forms of
mental representations in text and picture comprehension (pg. 71). All in all, the
combination of text and pictures improves and increases learning more deeply from words
and pictures than from just words alone (pg. 74). For example, if the reading level of the
student is low, then the picture comprehension representation becomes more important
during the learning process. This provides the student redundancy and over multiple
practice sessions will increase their prior knowledge.

Mayer, R.E., & Anderson, B. (1991). Animations Need Narrations: An Experimental Test of a
Dual-coding Hypothesis. Journal of Educational Psychology, 3, 484-490.

There are two types of animations used during instruction, they are words-with-pictures and
words-before-pictures. The animation that used words-with-pictures seemed to outperform the
students who were presented the animation using the words-before-pictures (pg. 484). Not only
did the words-with-pictures animation benefit the students on problem-solving tests, but the
animations that were presented using only words, only pictures, and no words or pictures (pg.
484). These two results support the dual-coding hypothesis which includes two connections:
representational and referential (pg. 484).
Using a consistent presentation that includes words and pictures will provide the support that
students need in order to build an effective mental representation of how a system works (pg.
490). In turn, animations have greater instructional value than static illustrations. With the push
for computer graphics use in instruction there is increasing demand for animations throughout
the information processing phase of learning. All in all, effective instruction insures that learners
build representational connections for creating verbal and visual representations (pg. 490).

Kannan, R, & Bento, A.M. (1996). A learning centered approach to education using hypermedia
and the internet. Coppin State College-University of Baltimore Collaborative Program.

Learning is shifting from teacher centered instruction to a transformational process where

students acquire facts, principles, and theories as conceptual tools of reasoning and problem
solving (pg. 1). Technologically supported classrooms are more learner-oriented because most
multimedia tools are driven by the user. The teacher then becomes more of a mentor, coach,
and monitor of students progress instead of the presenter and facilitator. This opens the door
for multiple multimedia tools that engage, encourage, and explore at the touch of a screen or
key. With the students behind the wheel or in front of the screen they can control their pace of
learning. Hypertext rich documents and presentations allow the instructor and learner to
connect to multiple resources with one base location. Due to internet access, there are
increasing resources that can enrich the learning experiences of students (pg. 1). For example,
with Google Classroom teachers and students can use hyperlinks, documents, presentation
slide decks, and additional apps to locate and build creative projects, simple discussion boards,
and even a communication tool. Google documents, slides, and sheets are available to be
linked and modified at any time by the creator, which means that the instructor and student can
work on the same project simultaneously. Assignments may include links or documents that
can be modified and resubmitted, which are all connected to a google user name. This helps
the teacher from making so many paper copies and makes documents and assignments
accessible at the click of a mouse or touch of the screen.