Chapter 1: Sea Urchin

A.
B. Gametogenesis and Fertilization

Gametogenesis is the development of eggs and sperm within the gonads of adult
female and male individuals.
oogenesis- gametogenesis in females
spermatogenesis - gametogenesis in males
dioecious - separate male and female individuals
gametes- the egg and sperm; they are produced, respectively, within the ovaries
and testes. develop within the gonads
gonads - the ovaries or testes of the adult females and males respectively; the
organs where gametes develop, suspended on the inner side of the test (shell),
each has 5 gonads
primordial stem cells - stem cells of gonads that are in germinal epithelium
gonoduct- a short duct in each gonad that opens into the aboral surface near the
anus; during spawning, gametes flow through these ducts into the surrounding
water. where gonads flow during spawning from the gonad
gonopore - the opening of the gonoducts where gametes are shed.
madreporite- In sea urchings, a buttonlike structure on the aboral surface of the
gonad where the signal that indicates the presence of gametes in the seawater
enters and passes through the water-vascular system.
homolecithal - classifying egg as containing little yolk and the yolk that is
present is evenly distributed throughout the cytoplasm
Acrosomal process- is constituted by two structures the acrosomal filament that
is covered with acrosomal membrane
Hyaline layer- In sea urchin eggs, one of the expelled substances of the cortical
granules; it forms the hyaline layer. also immediately encloses the surface of the
zygote.
syngamy- when the female and male pronuclei fuse to form the zygote nucleus

C. Cleavage and Blastulation

The pattern of cleavage varies within different species of sea urchins

Animal-vegetal axis - animal pole considered to contain life (nucleus), opposite
pole is vegetal and considered to lack 'life' (nucleus).
Holoblastic - total, entire egg undergoing cleavage, not just the animal pole as in
some organisms
At which number of blastomeres can you still form an entire larva or only
form parts of the larva if you isolated each one of them? eight blastomeres are
NOT equivalent and each in isolation can NOT form an entire larva, ONLY parts
of the larva. SO 4th cleavage and after is irregular.
Fig 1.1
Mesomeres- tier nearest the animal pole, consisting of eight blastomere
Micromeres-a tier nearest the vegetal pole, consisting of four smaller blastomeres
Macromeres - tier in between, consisting of four larger blastomeres
an1 blastomeres - divide to form two tiers of an^1 cells for a total of 16 cells
 large and small micromeres - large micromeres may divide during the sixth
cleavage to form as many as two tiers of cells, for a maximu mtotal of 16 cells.
Large micromeres form the primary mesenchyme
morula- In sea urchin and mouse embryos, a solid ball of blastomeres formed
during late cleavage. the sea urchin embryo between the 32-and 64-cell stage can
be called a morula, that is a ball of blastomeres
an1 upper and lower blastomeres- tier nearest the animal pole is upper, near the
lower tier is lower blastomeres
an2 upper and lower blastomeres-tier nearest animal pole is upper lower is
lower
ectoderm
veg1 and veg2 blastomeres- cells in the upper tier nearrest the animal pole are
called the veg(1) blastomeres and the cells in the lower tier are called the veg(2)
blastomeres
what contributes to the ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm - veg2 cells fomr
the endoderm of the archenteron as well as the secondary mesenchyme cells. thus
veg2 cells contribute to endoderm and mesoderm of embryo
blastocoel - during subsequent cleavages blastomeres become arranged around a
central caviy called the blastocoel
blastula- the developing embryo at the stage of blastocoel is called a blastula
ingressions-cells begin to detach from the vegetal pole of the blastula and to
move into the blastocoel
primary mesenchyme- large micromeres form the primary mesenchyme
ciliary action allows blastula to rotate and hatching enzyme allows blastula to
hatch from the fertilization envelope during late blastula.

D. Gastrulation
Gastrulation - the process of germ layer formation; typically, gastrulation
involves the formation of the primitive gut.
Gastrulation
1) primary invagination: vegetal plate involution, differential cell growth,
adhesion changes
2) secondary invagination: archenteron elongation and extension, formation
of filipodia by secondary mesenchyme cells helps in formation of
stomodeum.
Archenteron (primitive gut)- also known as the primitive gut; in frogs embryos,
it is a narrrow cavity located above the mass of endodermal cells forming its floor
Deuterosomes- the organisms in which the second opening into the embryo forms
the mouth, and the first opening forms the anus; sea urchins are deuterosomes.
Blastopore- In frog embryos, a depression that forms below the gray crescent as
cells initiate involution; it represents the future caudal end; throughout
gastrulation, it is occupied by the yolk plug; in sea urchin and frog embryos, it is
the first opening; it forms the anus

E. Formation of Prism and Pluteus Larvae

Spicule- in sea urchins, a triradiate pair of structures that constitutes the larval
skeleton; formed by the assembly of primary mesenchyme cells into a triradiate
shape, they are crystalline in nature and composed of calcium carbonate and
magnesium carbonate deposited in an organic matrix; they are deposited within
membrane-bound compartments inside the syncytial cables
 Ciliary bands - in sea urchins embryos, groups of cilia that develop on the arms
and along the circumferance of the body proper in the pluteus larva; these bands
beat synchronously to propel plankton toward the mouth opening, and to propel
the larva through the water.
Prism larva stage: specification of ventral and dorsal surface
Pluteus larva stage: formation of oral/anal arms and oral lobe, formation of
digestive system.

F. Scanning Electron Microscopy

A good, overall summary of many of the terms Id like you to know.

G. Comparison of Gastrulation in Vertebrates and Invertebrates

What are the four types of morphogenetic movements that occur in sea urchin
development?

Chapter 2: Zebrafish

A major strength of using zebrafish is that the chemical ENU (N-ethyl-N-nitrosourea) can
be used for mutagenesis, allowing mutant embroyos to be collected and studied
developmentally
A.
B. Gametogenesis
females shed their eggs into surrounding water (spawning), therefore males
release sperm resulting in fertilization leading to zygotes.
Animal and vegetal pole in context of yolk and blastomere
Each zygote has a large mass of yolk that is capped by the cytoplasm constituting
the first blastomere. Side of the zygote containing the cytoplasmic blastomere is
the animal pole. Opposite side containing the yolk is the vegetal pole.

C. Cleavage, Blastulation, and Gastrulation

Deep cells of blastoderm- layer under the enveloping layer of blastoderm
Yolk syncytial layer- in the zebrafish embryo and fry, a syncytial layer that
surrounds the yolk. it consists of a thin layer of cytoplasm containing many nuclei
not separated from one another by cell membranes.
Syncytium - mass of cytoplasm containing multiple nuclei
Prospective fate map - a map at the blastula/glastrula stage indicating the
location of specific groups of cells prior to and during gastrulation
Involution- a morphogenetic process that plays a major role in frog gastrulation;
it occurs when some vells originally located at the surface of the blastula turn
inward over the blastopore lips to move into the interior
Epiboly (radial cell to cell intercalation)- the spreading of a sheet of cells tha
occurs as cells involute, ingress, and invaginate during gastrulation
Embryonic shield- a caudal midline thicken of the primitive embryonic axis. The
zebrafish embryo organizer
Kupffers vesicle- a ciliated vesicular structure that forms in the yolk of the
zebrafish gastrula and then displaces to the area adjacent to the tail bud. It is
involved in forming left-right axis in the gastrulating embryo
Convergent extension ( mediolateral cell to cell intercalation) - the developing
embryo narrows in the mediolateral direction (that is it converges) and it
 simultaneously lengthens cranio-caudally (that is it extends). Convergent
extension is driven at the vellular level by mediolateral cell to cell intercalation.
As a result, a craniocaudally elongated, narrow body axis is established.
Body axis
Fig 2.2 shows epiboly vs. convergent extension. Blastoderm undergoes
involution & epiboly; embryonic shield undergoes convergent extension.
Dorsal mesoderm/ dorsal endoderm head structures/notochord
Mid endo liver
Caudal endo intestines
cranial meso head muscle
Intermediate meso heart
Caudal meso blood
Ectoderm brain, spinal cord, skin, neural crest

C. pg. 29, F. Summary of Germ layer contributions.