etn ene: ENGINEERING GEOLOGY second edition Tony WalthamFoundations of Engineering Geology TONY WALTHAM BSc, DIC, PhD Civil Engineering Department Nottingham Trent University Second Edition London and New York.Preface Civil engineering is an exciting combination of science, art, professional skill and engineering achievement which always has to rely on the ground on which its structures stand, Geology is therefore vital to success in civil engineering, and this book brings to the reader those many aspects of the ‘geological sciences specifically relevant tothe profession This book is structured primarly for the student of civil engineering who starts with no knowledge of geology but is Fequired to understand the ground conditions and geological processes which, both literally and metaphonecally. are the foundations of his future professional activites. It'also Provides an accessible source of information forthe practising ‘civil engineer. Al the material is presentod in indwvidual doubie-page ‘spreads. Each subject is covered by notes, diagrams, tables and case histories, all in bite-sized sections instead of being lost in a long continuous text. This style makes the infor: mation very accessible; the reader can dip in and find what hhe needs, andis also visually quded into relevant associated topics. There is even some intended repetition of small sections of material which are pertinent to more than one aspect within the interrelated framework of a geological understanding The contents of the book follow a basic university course in engineering geology. The free-standing sections and sub- ‘sections permit infinite flexibility, so that any lecturer can use the book as his course text while tailoring his programme to his own personal styl. The single section summarizing soi strength has been included for the benef of geology students wo do not take a comprehensive course in soll mechanics within a normal civil engineering syllabus. Preface to the Second Edition The second edition of this book has been carefully updated and improved with additional paragraphs while keeping to the format and structure that has proved s0 accessible and so popular. ‘The one new section is #37, Understanding Ground Conditions, which has been included in an attempt at Persuading the engineer to stand back and take a broader View ofthe overall g2ology at a site. Though this may seem to lack relevance in assessing the smaller details of a single urban building site, it does have real benefits in ‘assessing ground conditions and evaluating potential \geohazards on larger construction projects, The concept of the big picture is always useful, and this is very much the ‘modern approach to engineering geology. Keeping to the ‘same theme of contemporary geology, a Dax on browntield sites has been included in the new section. This book was never intended to be a handbook with all the answers and all the procedures. It is aimed to introduce the critical aspects of geology to the student of ‘engineering, though it does appear to act as a convenient ‘The sectionalized layout makes the information very ac- Cessible, so that the practicing engineer wil find the book to be a useful source when he requires a rapid insight or re~ minder as he encounters geological problems with dificult ‘ground. Reterence material has therefore been added to ‘many sections, mainly in tabulated form, to provide a more ‘complete data bank. The book has been produced only in the inexpensive sof-bound format inthe hope that it will each as large a market as possible, ‘The mass of data condensed into these pages has been drawn from an enormous variety of sources, The Book is unashamedly a derived text. relying heavily on the world: wide records of engineering geology. Material has been accumulated over many years in a lecturing role. A few ‘concepts and case histories do derive from the author's personal research; but forthe dominant pan, there is a debt of gratitude acknowledged 10 the innumerable geologists and Civil engineers who have described and communicated their ‘own experiences and research, All the figures have been newly drawn, and many are derived from a combination of ‘disparate sources. All he photographs are by the author, except for the Meridian air photograph on page 39, Due thanks are atforded to the Department of Civil and Structural Engineering at the Nottingham Trent University where the engineering and teaching experience was gained, to Neil Dixon for his assistance with the gentle art of soi mechanics, to the staff of Blackia in Glasgow who made the innovative style of the book possible, and to the many colleagues and friends without whom nothing is possible. ™. reminder to the practising engineer. To enhance its role as source book, a long list of further reading nas been ‘added to this edition. It cites the useful key texts in each ‘subject area, and also the primary papers on case studies used within the text, in both cases without any need to include conventional references that can disrupt a text ‘As in the first edition, there are no cross references to ‘other pages in order to oxpiain terms being used. The index is intentionally comprehensive, so that itcan be used as a glossary. Each technical term in the text does appear im the index, so that the reader can check for a definition, usually atthe first citation of aterm, Sincere thanks are recorded to Peter Fookes, lan Jefferson, Mike Rosenbaum, Jerry Giles and various ‘others who have contributed to the revisions within this ‘second edition, and aiso to the students of Nottingham Trent University who have road-tested the book and made the author appreciate the minor omissions and irtations that could be smoothed out. Tw.Contents Geology and Chil Engineering Igneous Rocks Surface Processes Sedimentary Rocks Metamorphic Rocks Goological Structures Geological Maps and Sections Geological Map Intorpretation Pate Tectonics Boundary Hazards Rocks of Britain Rocks ofthe United States ‘Weathering and Soils Floodplain and Aluvium Glacial Deposits Ciimatic Variants Coastal Processes Groundwater Ground Investigation Desk Study Ground Investigation Boreholes Geophysical Surveys “Assessment of Dificult Ground Fock Strength Fock Mase Strength Soll Strength Ground Susidence ‘Subsidence on Clays ‘Subsidence on Limestone Subsidence over Old Mines Mining Subsidence Stope Failure and Landslides Water Landstias Soil Falluros and Flowslides Landside Hazards Slope Stabilization Understanding Ground Conditions Rock Excavation “Tunnels in Rock ‘Stone and Aggragate ‘Appendices lock Mass Quality Q System ‘Abbreviations and Notation Further Reading SSSLSHLBRASBENSORSRVVSEISTESS AS 0evoTaune Index 701 Geology and Civi ‘THE GEOLOGICAL ENVIRONMENT Earth is an active planet in a constant state of change. Geologles! processes continually modily the Earth's surface, destroy old rocks, create new rocks and add 10 the complexity of round conditions. {Cycle of geology encompasses al the maior processes, ‘which must be cycle, or they would grind to an inevitable halt Land: mainly erosion and rock destruction ‘Sea: mainly deposition, forming now sodimonts Underground: new rocks created and deformed, Earth movements are vital 16 the cycle; without them the land would be eroded down to just blow sea level. Plata toctonics provide the mechanism for nearly all cart ‘movernens (section 0). The hotinterior ofthe Earths the Ultimate energy source which drives all geological processes. | Engineering Geological time is an important concept. Earth s 4000M years old and has evolved continuously towards Its present form, Most rocks oncountored by ongincors aro 10-500M yoars old. They have been displaced and deformed over time, and some are then exposed at the surtace, by ‘rosional removal of rocks that once lay above ther Underground structures and the ground surface have ‘volved staal trough geological timo. Most surface landforms visible today have been ‘carved out By erosion within the last few millon years, While olor landtorms have been destroyed. ‘This time diference is important: the origin ofthe rocks. al the surface may beat no relationship to the present ‘environment. The classic example is Mi Everest, whose ‘Summits imestono,formod in soa 300M years ago. ‘Geological time Is dificult to comprehend but it must be accepted as the lime gaps account for many of the Contrasts in ground conditions. “Goncepie of soale aro inportantin geology: senor | Beds of rook extending hundreds of kilometres across country. Focke upited thousands of motes by eath movements Fock structures reaching 1000 m below the ground surface Strong Imestone erumpled ko plastiche by plato tectonics. = “| [ie a thon — NN seang <— Loses] ‘SIGNIFICANCE IN ENGINEERING Civil engineering works are all carted out on or in the ‘ground. Iis properties and processes are therefore Significant ~ both the strengths of rocks and sols, and the erosional and geological processes which subject them to.continual change. Unstable ground does exist, Some ground is not terra fra’ and may lead to unstable foundations. Site Investigation Is where most civil engineers encounter geology. This involves the interprotation of ‘round conaibons fotten from minimal evidence), some 3D thinking, and the recognition of areas of aficut ‘round or potential geohazarct: Untoreseen ground conditions can still occur, as ground geology can be almost infinitely variabio, but they are often unforescen due to inadequate’ site invostigation, Civil engineering design can accommodate almost ‘any ground condlions which are correct assessed and Understood. ‘SOME ENGINEERING RESPONSES TO GEOLOGICAL CONDITIONS Landslides wih over 100M tons of fang rock. Earthquakes a millon times more powerul than an atom bomb, the milions of years of goological tim. ‘Components of Engineering Geology ‘The main flelds of study ‘Sections in this book Ground materials and stuctures 02-06 Regional characteristics ooi2 Surface processes and materials 18-18 ‘Ground investigations 07,08,19-29,37' Material properties be-26,40 Difficult ground conditions 27-36,98,99 Other aspects — fossils and historical goology, mineral 100 MPa UGS < 10 MPa Lite fracturing Fractured and bedded Miieal weathering Deep weathering ‘Stable foundations: ‘Settlement problems Stand in stoop faces. Aggregate resource Fall on ow slopes Flequire engineering care uary, STRENGTH OF THE GROUND Naturat ground materials, rocks and soll, cover a great range of strengths: granite Is 4000 times stronger than peat soi. Some variations in rock strength are summarized by Contrasting strong and weak rocks inthe tabla ‘Assessment of ground conditions must distinguish: + Intact rock strength of an unfactured, small block; raler fo UCS. + Rock mass ~ properties ofa large mass of fractured Tock in the ground: refer to rock mass ‘lasses (section 25), Note ~ a strong rock may contain so many fractures in a hillside that the rack mass is weak ang unstable {Ground conditions also vary greatly due to purely local features such as underground cavities, incined shear surfaces and arificial disturbance, fe vcs rok SaP ues: ye] Uncontined (or aan uniaxial) compressive Ze wy ty ‘strength load to cause failure ofa cube ofthe material crushed batween two flat plates with fo lateral restraint, (Strong and weak limits ‘aro simpliieg: see section 24 for BS criteria.) ‘sap: Sale (or acceptable) bearing pressure: load ‘hat may safely be imposed Upon rock in the | icaeng ‘ground: the estimated (or measured) ultimate 1. | bearing pressure to tall the rock (allowing for fractures and local zones of weakness) lived by a Safty factor between 3 and 5. ROCKS AND MINERALS. Focks: mixtures of minerals: variable properties. Minerals: compounds of elements: xed properties. Rock properties broadly depond on: * strength and stably of constituent minerals; * interocking or weaknosses of minoral structure; * fractures, Bedaing and larger rock structures. ‘Ail rocks fall into one of three familes, teach with broadly deinable origins and properties. Most rockforming minerals are siicates — compounds of cxygen,silcon and other elements. Fock propartes can show extreme variations. Its useful to generalize, a in the table below, in order to bulé an Understanding of geology, butt must be accepted that rocks are not engineered materials and ther properties do vary rom ste to sie For example: most sedimentary rocks are quite weak, land limestone is a secimentary rock, but some of the limestones are very stong. Rock family | Igneous [ Sedimentary Metamorphic Maloral origin | Crystalized rom maton magma | Eroioal debris on Ee wrfaco | Aller by heal andi pressure EEnvronment | Underground: and as va fowe | Depostonbasine: main Mosty dap nse mountain chains Mosaic of neiocking estas | Most granuat and coment Modal of narocking estas Nassive(eructuriess) nor igh strenath Granite, basal Layered bedded bedeng planes Variable low planar weaknesses ‘Sandstone, mestone, ey Crystal erentaton duet pressure ‘arabe high; pana’ weaknesses Seis lle ( Majoctpes 802 Igneous Rocks ‘Magma is generated by local heating and meting of rocks within the Earth's crust, mosty at depths betwoen 10 and around 100 km. Mosi compositions of rock melt at temperatures of 860~1200°C. When the magma ool, it solicifies by crystallizing into a mosale of minerals, to form an igneous rock VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS. Eruptions may be violent and explosive if a viscous magma has a high gas pressure, or may be quiet and ‘eftusive f the magma is very fluid. There is a continuous fange of eruptive styles between the two extremes, and 4 single volcano may show some variation in the Vilonee of ts individual eruptions, Pyroctastle rocks (meaning fire fragmenta) are formed ‘of material, collectively known as tophra thrown into the air from an explosive volcano. Most tephra is cooled in fight, and lands to form various types of ash, tf and ‘agglomerate, all wth the properties of sedimentary cocks. Some tephra, erupted in turbulent, high-temperature, pyroclastic flows, lancs hot and welds Into ignimbrite, ot Welded tlt EXTRUSIVE IGNEOUS ROCKS ‘These form where magma is extruded onto the Earth's ‘surface to create a voleano, {Lava is the name for both molten rock on the surlace, nd also the solid rock formed wen i coos, Fluid basaltc lavas flow easily to form low-profile shlels \voleandes, or near-horizontal sheets of flood basal More viscous lavas, mainly andesite, ould up conical ‘composite, strato-volcances, where lava is interbedded ‘with ash and debris, that are thickest close tothe vent. INTRUSIVE IGNEOUS ROCKS These are formed when magma solidifies below the surface of the Earth. They may later be oxpocod at the surface when the cover rocks are eroded avy, Batholiths are largo bloo-shaped intrusions, roughly equidimensional and commonly 5-50 km in dlameter Most are of granite. Dykes aro emaor shoot intrusions formed where magma has flowed into a fissure. Mostly 1~50 m wide; may ‘extend for many kilometres; ganeraly of dolar. ils are sheet intrusions parallel to the bedding of the county Tocks into which the magma was intruded. Forms of Igneous Rocks shield volcano prastic cone composite volcano explosion crater | ‘Molten lava ejected from the summit vont of Strombol volcan. GRANITE TPE. MINERALOGY ‘OCCURRENCE EXAMPLES ‘STRUCTURES WEATHERING STRENGTH FOUNDATIONS HYDROLOGY VALUE VARIETIES ‘Microscope view, 5 mm across: clear quartz, cloudy feldspar, cleaved mica, ‘Acid igneous; coarse grained, large scale intrusive (plutonic) Coarse interlocking crystal mosaic with no textural orientation, ‘Quartz 25%, felaspar 50%, micas 15%, matics 10%, Large bathoths, exposed at surface by subsequent erosion ‘Cooled a large bodies 3-15 km benoath surface. Ban: Land's End, USA: Yosemite ‘Commonly massive and very uniform. Widely spaced sheet jointing, ‘Guved due to large extolition (caused by cooling and sress rele) ‘Siow decay o feldspar to clay leaving quartz to form sandy sols ‘Spheroidal weathering leaves rounded corestonas in soll matrix. High strength wih all physical properties good UGS: 200 MPa, "SBP: 10 MPa. Very strong rock, except where partially decayed to clay near the surfaco or along some deep join zones, Groundwater only in fractures. Excellent dimension, decorative and armour stone and aggregate. Syenite and dont: have less quartz and are sighty darker. Gaboro: basic, and is much darker LLanvite: a dark coarse syenite with distinctive internal reflections. Many strong rocks ae referred to as granite witin the construction trade, 4MAIN MINERALS OF IGNEOUS ROCKS mineral__| composition ‘colour | _H D__| common morphology and features ‘Quartz | SiO, clear | 7 ‘mosaic; no cleavage: glassy lustre Feispar | nNa.caya1si,0, | wnte | 6 | 26. | mosaicor las: pes onhodase and plagioclase rancor] aainsieion, lace | 2% | 28 feterownaenn an peretcntay Bictte | Kia.Fe)A'S,0,(0r9, | lack | 2%e | 29 | {members ofthe mee gro o minerals Mates _|Fe-Mgsicats" —‘[biack | 5-6 | 80" | lnglsnon proms: hemblence,aupte, olvne ‘Matic minerals is a convenient torm for a group of black silicates whose individual properties are of little significance inthe context of most engineering Cleavage is the natural splitting of a mineral along Parallel planes dictated by weaknesses In the atomic Structure Mineral strength is a function of hardness and lack of cleavage, slong with effects of dacay or orientation, lized, and exceptions do occur; eplayed on museum specimens of ‘most minerals, but aro rarely seen in normal rocks. H = hardness, on a scale of 1=10, from talc the sottest mineral of hardness 1, to diamond the hardest of hardness 10. Stee! and giass have hardnesses botwoon 6 and7. = density, measured in gramsiem? or tonnasim®= CLASSIFICATION OF IGNEOUS ROCKS This simple classification covers the great majorty of igneous rocks. tis based on two parameters which are Doth signifeant and recognizable. The main types of Igneous rocks can theretore be idenified by just colour and grain size. The form of occurence determines the stucture ofthe Chemical composition is determined by what rocks had ‘melted to form the original magma; siicavich magmas are referred to as acidic (unrelated to pH) ana are ‘generally low in iron, so have few black fron mine {and are tharefre lighter in colour than basle rocks, Porphyritc rocks have scattered larger, older crystals rock in the groun says whi 4 batholith may take also, lavas may coo! in hours or million years to | crystalize, and the cooling rato determines tho grain (called phenocrysts) n a finer grounémats. In fine grained rocks, grains cannot be seen with the ‘haked eye; the limit of 0-1 mms effectively the same as | crscope ve 5 mm across cea fedspar as, dark mats, ine groundinass of same minerals sizo of the rock. the imi of 0.08 mm used n sols and sediments. cccurrence form __cooing grain sue | [Fiyotto[AndosRe [Basalt [—extusions lavas fast__ fine <0. mmm Porphyry Dolerte | —smallintusions dykes medium _medum _ 01-2 mm Granite [Diorte | Gabbro | large intrusions —batholths slow coarse _<2 mm 50% ‘SiO, content basic astifeation Granite and basall_are most abundant fd ‘magma viscosity because magma viscosity determines the eftsive | voleano type ‘0350 of migration, Acid magma ls viscous, 30 12% Fe content ‘most stays in Datholts fo form granite, while 50% matic minorals Basie’ magma is so fluid that most of i {dare colour escapes tothe surface to form basalt lava. BASALT TPE Basic igneous; fine-grained, extrusive (vleanic), MINERALOGY — Fine interlocking crystal mosale with no textural orientation May have open vesicles or minerallled amygdales (old gas bubbles) Felespar 50%, matics 50%. | OCCURRENCE Lava lows in bedded sequences. Cooled ate flowing from voleano. | EXAMPLES Britain: Skye and Mul. USA: Columbia Pateau and Hawai | STRUCTURES Sheets orlonses, maybe interbedded with ash ort. Comment with weathered or vesicular scoria tops on each flow. ‘Yung lavas have smoath pahoehoe of enkery aa surfaces. Compact basat may have columnar jinting (Kom coating contraction) WEATHERING — Rusts and decays to clay sols; maybe spheroidal weathering, STRENGTH Compact basalts are very strong. UCS: 250 MPa.” SBP: 10 MPa (less on young lava). FOUNDATIONS Variable stengin, especialy in younger lavas, due 10 ash beds, coriaceous of clinkery layers, lava caves and other voids HYDROLOGY Young avas are general good aquifers. VALUE Good aggregate and valuable roadstone. VARIETIES Andes: intermediate lava, dark or light grey, olten weathered re. Dolente: medium grained inrusive dyke rock; looks similar to basalt Fhyolt: palo grey acd lava, commonly associated with frothy pumice ‘and dense black absidian glass, 503 Surface Processes Sediments largely material derived trom the weathering (of rocks on the Earth's surface (the remainder is mostly ‘organic material). ‘Alrocks weather on exposure to alr and water, and siowly ‘break down to form in situ sols. Jn most land environments, the soil material is ‘subsequently transported away from its source, and may thon be regarded as sediment; this includes the sold ‘debris particles and also material in solution in water. Natural ranapor prosesses are dominated by wator, which can sor and selectively depos ts sediment oad, Untimatey all sediment is posted, mostly inthe sea, and mostly as stratified layers or beds of sorted material Burial ofthis loose and unconsolidated sedimant, by more layers of material subsequentiy deposited on top of i, ‘eventually turns It into a sedimentary oc, By the Various processes of tification. The land is essentially the erosional environment, it is the source of sadiment, which forms the temporary sols before being transported away. ‘The sea is essentially the depostional environment, sediment is buried beneath subeaquent layers, and ‘eventually forms most ofthe sedimentary rocks Subsequent earth movements may raise the beds of sedimentary rock above sea level; erosion and removal Of the overiying rocks (to form the source material for another generation of sediments and sedimentary rocks) then exposes the old sedimentary rocks in outcrops in a landscape far removed fram contemporary eoas and In an environment very different trom that of the sedimentation. ‘SEDIMENTARY MATERIALS Most codimentary rocks are variat Mineral grains: mostly quart, also muscovite (the physically and chemical stable minerals) ] Rock fragments and voleanie debris (nol yet broken down to their constituent minerals) t Breakdown products: clay minerals (formed by reaction of wator wit feldspar or matic minerals) — CLAYS ‘Organic debris: plant material to form peat and coal (animal soft parts form ol) (Organic debris: dominated by calcite from marine shell debris ‘Solutes: dominantly calcite precipiaed ftom soa water largely due to biological activity SSolutes: including gypsum and salt, and othor less abundant soluble compounds ‘of sandstone, clay or limestone ~ SANDSTONES = minor rocks | }-LimesToNes = minor rocks. [Grading Curves particle size alerbutlons Tor pial sediments # il 7 4 eA ‘SEDIMENT TRANSPORT ‘The most abundant sedimontis clastic or dotital material Consisting of partces of cay, sand and rock debris. Water Is far the most important agent of sediment Iransport, Rivers move the majorty of sediment on lard (Coarser debris is rolled along the river beds; ner particles fare carried in suspension, Water's ability to anspor. ‘sediment depends on ts velocity larger particles can only ‘be moved by faster Hows. Sediment is therefore sorted (G0 one size) during water ransport. ‘Sediment is algo moved in the sea, mainly I coastal ‘waters where wave action reaches the shallow sea bed. (Other transport processes have only limited scope: ‘+ Gravity alone works mainly onthe steeper slopes, producing landslides and colluvium. + Wind moves only fine dy partici. + Ice transpor is powertl, but restricted by climate. ‘+ Volcanoes may blast debris over ited distances. ‘Some minerals are transported by solution in water (Organic sediments rarely caried far from its source. ee (@iuciow ana tit are well graded: une sand and scree are well sorted) that bulls a steep alluvial fan ‘SEDIMENT DEPOSITION Water on land Sorted and strattied, mostly sand and clay, Aluvium in river valleys is mostly temporary Iter ‘eroded away, except in eubsidng deltas. Lake eodimont includes salts precipitated due to desert evaporation ‘The sea Final destination of most clastic sediment Sorted and stratified in beds, mostly in shallow shelf seas. ‘Turbidity currents carry Sediment nto deeper basins. Shel debris in shallow seas, wih no land detitus, forms the main limestones, ‘Slopes Localized poorly sorted scree and side debris ‘Wind. Very well sorted sand and sit, mosty in or nea dry source areas, so only signicant in desert regions. Ice Unsorted debris dumpedin the melt zones of glaciers. Localized today but extensive in past Ice Ages. Voleanoes Fine, sorted aia ash, wind-blown over large areas; also coarse unsorted flow and surge deposits, ‘mostly on volcano slopes. Collectively known as DByrociastc sediments (= fire fragmenta)MAIN MINERALS OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS Units and trms as for igneous minerals in section 02 [mineral _|composition [colour | H | D | common morphology and features ae fan —fo6 cat 7 [| gouies oeeree ghoyiate Immcorteleatuayoor, ora [zt 2a| sirenecw andamee eperttcowaga ica Kaointe |1,6,0,(0%), | white) te clay minerals) [stable type; Includes china clay lime feanetngise, [ara {ramen yest oe Fs Onset PEE rl | Breelieneg termed oateretetreeee ra caste [caco, Velac | 3127) somle ad deat tno comes on pen ete [ecto vtae | | 28] moracanc one ee cecal See |sleee ea leer eee e taocme [read Ben) 2 | sa) oneness fae” [rs rotor] | 83] nacho uses fete gacs comet bes Siructures in Sedimentary Rocks = | eee SS = = LSS |_ = SS ee a === tenses sanssore jaan, rs —— oseag | ame urunexnon ‘The prososses by which a weak loose sociment fs tumed into a stronger sedimentary rock. induced by burial pressure and slighty Inceased temperature beneath & Flomete or more of overying sediment. The processes of ithification ‘are also known as diag Geologists, relrring to the changes whlch Stter depositon. The resus of ification, notably the inceaaa i stent ae rls o as caretaaton by enginoors ‘Tree main processes of itieation: Camentation Te fing ofa intrgranuar pore spaces by dopostion ofa mineral cement breughtin by culating roundwator. Rock strength Is largaly dependant on the {ype of coment, which may be silica (Strongest), on fie, cal o cay weakest, The dormant pacesin sandstones. Recrystallization Smal ecale solution and redepostion of mineral, s0 that some grains become smalier and Some become larger. Result may be simi to cemonta: ton, but may produce stronger mosaic texture, Can also include change of sate and growth of new more stable minerals. The dominant process in Imestones Compaction Resinuctuing and change a rain packing, with Gecrease in volume, due fo tural pressure, wth onsequent reduction of porsiy as wator Is squeezed ‘ut. nrease in strength is cue to more grain to grain oniact. The dominant process in cays CONSOLIDATION general refors to the inereaso in ‘Strength in clays, due fo their restructuring, improved packing, loss of water and reduced porosity caused by Sompaction under load: it aiso includes. some ‘omentation and new mineral grown. Normaly consolidated clays have never been under a higher load tan thelr exsing overburden; these clude most clay sai, ‘rer-coneadated clays have been under a higher fad in the past. imposed by cover rocks since removes By frosion; these Include nearly all clays within rock ‘Sequonces. They have lower porosity and higher strength 08 fo thei history of but and exposure. Clay sols and clay rocks related to their metamorphic ‘and igneous derwvatives. The eight rocks (and sediment Sols) n the core of tis cyiic diagram are related by processes (ehown inthe outer ring) which actin the Clockwise direction. Bulk composition is roughly Constant, except forthe water content which decreases from mud to granite. Only weathering increases the Water content, and weathering of any rock may short- Circuit the processes by producing mud. Only the main Iminerals are shown; quartz is present in all the rocks and sols, (Consolidation also rofers tothe effect of soil compaction Under structural loading, and may be applied specifically to changes taking place when clays are compacted} 704 Sedimentary Rocks CLASSIFICATION OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS [A CLasTiC ROCKS B_NON-GLASTIC ROCKS | 1, Pudaceous: coarse grained, 41. Carbonates, consisting mainly of calcite ‘Conglomerate = rounded fragments. <2 mm Limestone and aled rocks Breccia ~ angular fragments 2, Nen-carbonates 2. Arenaceous: medium grained, 0.06-2 mm Flint and chert ~ nodular or banded siica ‘Sandstone and allied rocks Coal and ignite — Iihifed peat and plant material Ironstone — any onion sedimentary rock: 3. Argllacoous: fine grained, <0.08mm ‘and, clay or ool texture Siltstone ~ quartz particles ‘Salt ané gypaum ~ monominerakc rocks doposited Clay and allied rocks by evaporation of wator ovary ‘comPosiTion OF THE MAIN sondsone, SEDIMENTARY ROCKS Electron microscope view of sandstone with quartz ‘grains and weak flaky clay mineral cement. An original arial calcite coment has been removed by weathering. LIMESTONE TYPE Sedimentary, organic or chemical carbonate. MINERALOGY —Vatlable sized calcite moselc, usually with shel fragments Caleit 95%, dolomite 3%, clay minerals 2%, OCCURRENCE Marina shell debris and chemical peciptate, hited by recrystaization. Upited and expased by erosion, in folded or unfolded bods, EXAMPLES: Bhan: Pennine dales. "USA: Mammoth Cave Piateau, STRUCTURES Massive or thin bedded: commonly with thin shale partings. May include large lenticular foe's of massive strong limestone. ‘May contain nodules and ienses of silica: int in chalk, chert in imestones. Soluble in rainwater, leaving minimal or no sol, and alloing formation of open fissures, sinkholes and caves. Forms distinctive karst landscapes with underground drainage dy valleys and commonly many bare rock outcrops. Karstic collapse into caves may occur, bul as rare events; limestone gorges are common, but most are not collapsed caves. STRENGTH Oidr Imestones are more completely ecrystalized and stronger. UCS: 20-100 MPa. SBP:0.5~4 MPa, FOUNDATIONS Extreme varabilty etvong rock with open fissures and cavities. May shear along thin shale beds. HYDROLOGY — Efficient aquifer wih difuse and conduit fw. VALUE Valuable dimension and aggregate stone. Burn with clay to make cement, VARIETIES Colt: consists of sand-sized spnoical calcite concretions. Chalk: woak,tiable, pure, white mestone. Travertine, tua: so, porous, banded caldte precipitated in flowing water Dolomite: recrytalized with magnesium content (in dolomite mineral). Clete: compact, strong, fine grained limestone Microscope view, § mm across: calcite forming shell ragments, in coarse and fie cement matrix.ef TYPE : MienaLooy ce) 2) occurrence OG ex.s 2 Bes "Zo wesnsenne | TSP ese Srenerh FOUNDATIONS. HYDROLOGY VALUE VARIETIES ‘Microscope view, 5 mm across: mesly quartz grains, wo coment types. 8 fe SANDSTONE ‘Sedimentary, clastic, arenaceous Medium grained, with sand grains mostly of quartz, set in coment of quartz, calcte, cay or other mineral ‘Quartz 80%, clay minerals 10%, hers 10%, ‘Sand of marina rer or dese origi, Ithiied by cementation. Uplited and exposed by erosion, in folded or unfolded beds, Balin: Penning moors and edges. USA: Canyonlands. Massive or thin bedded: commonly interbedded with shale May have cross bedding inherited from deltaic or dune origin. ‘Grumble to sand, forming sandy well-drained sols. CGider sandstones tend to be better comonted and sironger. Clay cements are notably weak; quartz coments are generally song UCS: 10-90 MPa SBP! 11 MPa, Generally srong material, unless poorly cemented or with weak cement Productive aquler with dite fon. ‘Most sandstones abrade too easy for use as aggregate: some may yield good dimension stone. Flagstone: thinly bedded due to partings rich in mica fakes, Gai imprecise colloquial trm for strong sandstone. Groywacke: od, parly metamorphosed, strong; interbedded with slate Flysch: young and weak; interbedded with shale or clay Tuff voleanie ash ol sand grain sie: lied or unithie, —————SSS}j Eroded remnants In Monument Vail, northern ‘Anzona, USA ‘Amassively forms te vertical sided buttes, and vers a thinly ‘mith many shale layers. bedded sandstone ‘of once continuous eas of sandstone bedded sandstone TRE MINERALOGY occuRRENCE EXAMPLES: STRUCTURES WEATHERING ‘STRENGTH FOUNDATIONS HYDROLOGY VALUE VARIETIES. Sedimentary, laste, argilaceous. Fina grained structuretess mass of clay mineral, commonly with a proportion of smal sit grains of quart Ite 60%, kaotinke 20%, smectite 10%, others 10%. ‘Mus, mainly of marine origi, ithiied by compaction and water expulsion. Upifted and exposed by erosion, in folded or unfolded beds. Britain: London Clay. USA: Dakota Badlands. Commonly featureless and unbedded, but may be bedded wth variable sit and organic content ‘May have nodules (hard rounded lumps) with stronger mineral comment Revers to mud, arming heavy clay sos. Older, more lithfied ang unweathared clays have higher strength. Younger clays have properties transitional to those of low strength sols UGS: 1-20 MPa, SBP: 0.1-1 MPa, Weak material with low, variable strength related largely to water content; prone to slow creep and plastic deformation; high potantial compaction may causa high and diferental sottoment Under structural laa. ‘Aguiclude ‘Watertight fit bricks, cement Mudstono: more ltiied, massive and stronger. Shale: more lihifed, laminated and fissile. Mart clay or mudstone wih significant calcite content Silstone: mainly quartz grains, essentially a fine grained sandstone. | mcroscope wow. 5 mm across cay acundas, sty ayers °05 Metamorphic Rocks Metamorphic rocks ate created by changes Induced at high temperature (up to about 600°C) and/or high preseures (around 500 MPa at 20 km depth). These Changes (metamorphism) take place in the sold state, The type of metamorphic rock produced depends on the orginal rock material that was metamorphosed and the temperature and pressure conditions which were imposed. METAMORPHIC CHANGES IN ROCK Recrystalization forms a strong mineral mosaic, notably inmarbie, [New minerals grow atthe expense of ess stable minerals in the new condtions of high temperature and pressure ‘Most important changes are clay minerals —> micas ~> feldspars and matics. Micas are the most significant minerals in motamorphic rocks and only chango to feldspars atthe highost grade of metamorphism, green colours typical of low grade metamorphic rocks that contain significant chiorte and epidot. Directional pressure within the solid stat croatos mineral otentation within the regionally metamorphosed rocks. New minerals grow in the line of least resistance — perpendicular to the maximum pressure ~ to cause fotation, or banding, within these rocks, Planar weaknesses in the foliated metamorphic rocks are created by the paralel micas spitting. along thot ‘mineral cleavage - causing rock cleavage (also known 8s slaty cloavage)-and schistosiy ~ both of which are Independent of ary original bedsing, Non-foliated metamorphic rocks have stronger isolropic structure, These include hornels, formed by thermal ‘metamorphism of lay without high pressure; alse marble, land gne'ss with Rte or no mica. METAMORPHISM OF DIFFERENT ROCKS Limestone —+ marble: by recrystalization of calcite, forming TYPES OF METAMORPHISM Regional metamorphism invoives high temperature and pressure. Occurs in mountain chains cue to Centipetalcoison on pate boundaries. Exonds over | large areas. ‘Thermal or contact metamorphism involves high temperature only. Occurs in metamorphic aureoles, each 0.001-2 km wide, around igneous intrusions ‘where rock has been Daked. Dynamic metamarphism at high pcessure only is rae, “Temperatures and Pressures of Metamorphism rans enna Grade of metamorphism is the overal extent of change, notably in the sequonco (within regional metamorphism) from slate to schist fo gneiss. Sequence of changes ean | be seen in the rock cycle diagram in section 03. strong mosaics. Sandstone —> quartzite: by recrystallzation of quar, forming very strong mosaics. Basalt. greenstone: by mite grown of new green minerals Granite shows ite change: stable in metamorphic conditions Clay (and rock mixtures) > homfels, slate, schist or gneiss: ‘depending on type and grade of metamorphism. [MAIN METAMORPHIC ROCKS Derived rom cay or iRtures of rocks Alteration includes various processes which affect rocks, usually involving water at ower temperatures and pressures than metamorphism Weathering involves rainfall water coming from above; a near-surface feature (see section 13) Hydrothermal alteration involves hot water esing from below, commonly rom voleanie source. Metasomatism involves chemical replacement by elements carted in solution Aeration is commonly localized win a few metres of ‘major fauits or fractures; it may occur throughout zones, a klometro or more across. [name man niverie ___[ orvae Torengn Pues vray | | Horns mica, quartz, lay minerals | uniform | very strong 200 Siate mica, quarz, clay minerals | cleavago | low shear, high flexural | 20-120 Scnist mica, quartz schistosty | very low shear 20-70 Gnoiss quartz, feldspar, mates, mica | folaton | strong 100 ROCK ALTERATION I New nate, weak minerals athe main poset of Aeration procosset normaly the cered Tock hove scanty wear fants ona heron ey be ilcted 6) tea or changes, no geen yon Chocton vary ow grade meanonie grown ot | | Wea grosn cht, Kaclrizaton: Sori leper 6 kale (day mmocra Sareitzaion: tera of elisa to sect takes {Mintaro ces masse) von aeration: sing andaecay ran neato | | enon obo iseMAIN MINERALS OF METAMORPHIC ROCKS tinal eompostion calor | HB conmnan nerphotogy and Tears uanz | SiO, clearhnito | 7 | 27 | moc, no cleavage assy sre | Fottepar | (nlacaya.si,o, — | white 8 | 26 | mosaic or shor proms Muscowte| KALAIS,OW(0%,- | clear | ave | 28 [finn ance and takes; prec eavage Bitte | KIMGFS,AS,0-(0H), | back | 2% | 29 ||momborso th mica group of minerals Chorio | M5,A,5,0,(0%),." | biuo-groon | 2° | 27 | small fake; perect eave Enidote | Calairagio,'0% | green 8 | 53 | smaliahe Calcio | Cabo, wnt 3 | 27 | mosaic; mombohecral cleavage on 3 planes Kaointe | A.S,0,(0H), vite 2 | 26 | tne powcery cay mineral Limonte_| Foor trom | 5 | 38 | nastystaning (Other metamorphic minerals, such as homblonde, garnet and andalus, may be present, but have Iie influence on rock properties. Uns and terms as explaines for igneous minerals in section 02, SCHIST rye Regn metamorp, madum grade laa, THINERALOGY Couve grnedmoeae wit band ano onepicuus paral vento, Mics 8% corte 2°, quarts 25% ohare She OCCURRENCE Regenal metamorphism a cae and mxed rote aig temperate \ {nt pram acura complex cores of moun uts gr coneror ate bounces 2 pampces __ Sitain Seaton ighans: USA: ier gg of Grand Cann, STRUCTURES Promnerachitosty due to paalon ot abundant mic, Conmony wit oiaton banding and compl feng nd mpg a? WesrHEANG Sow ateaton to cays ~~" STRENGTH Anoop compressa suengh varies by lator of | trees oebiquosonsony ‘ary ow seat song weakost with higher clot or mic conten Ueki Socronea Saeco ura FOUNDATIONS Comneniy wes, easiy shared, FYDAOLOGY Aqvetute, vata O°” fn | VARIETIES Sate ter grained ith excotent rock ceavage | Pra eomecisi Btweon sw and scat ot: oa mc, mare gate ardighr sooth ‘Microscope view, 5 mm across: subparalel mica fakes, patches of quartz mosaic. & HORNFELS. | Vee a conic ie | "4 MINERALOGY Fine gralned mows, thro miner entation orf, | Wicas coe, quate SO, tere 40% aN OCCURRENCE Thermal (contact) metamorphism of clay at high temperature, es in metamorphic aureoles up to 1 km wide around major igneous ot intrusions, ~) EXAMPLES Britain: Dartmoor margins. USA: Sierra Nevada margins STRUCTURES Commonly closely jointed wth sharp tractus and local kregularti. oo ‘May have Inherited structures trom original rock. fone ~7 WEATHERING Vor slow aeration o cays, STRENGTH Fine grained matotals aro generally very strong. UCS!250 MPa. SBP: 4 MPa, FOUNDATIONS Strong rock HYDROLOGY Aquiciude. VALUE Good aggregate stone of high strength and low abrasion. VARIETIES Marble: motamorphosed imestone, consists of recystallzed calcite. (Quartzte: metamorphosed sandstone, consists of recrystallized quartz, Greenstone: metamorphosed basalt, with some new green minerals. Microscope view, 5 mm across: fine groundmass of quartz and mica; large andaluste and mica fakes. "06 Geological Structures FRACTURES Faults ae fractures which have had displacement of the ‘rocks along ther, Throw is the vertical component of faut displacements. Faults are described by reference to thelr downthrow si this is relative movement and may be due othe other side having moved up. enomente Normal fault Reverse faut + Revers FEATURES OF FAULTS. Faults commonly ereate zon9s o broken ground — weaker and less stable than the adjacent rock — with implications for foundation bearing capacity, slope siabiity and tunnel ‘oof integty. Sudden movements along faults (when tectonic stresses accumulate to overcome frictional resistance) cause earthquakes ~ vibrations transmitted through the surrounding ground (section 10). (Old faults (including all those in Britain) cannat sisplace ground surface which has evolved subsequent to any fault avement. Fault ine soarps and valeys may appear ina landscape duo to diferontal oresionagross the fault zone and adjacent contrasting rocks. 2 Fault types are recognized ty relationship of downthrow to dip o the faut plane “+ Normal faults form under tension; downttrow is on downalp side. faults form under compression; dowthrow aide is oppoate to dip. + Vertical faults are not easly distinguished as nocmal or reverse. + Thrust faults or trusts, fear faults have horizontal csplace __Tear faut + Grabens are downfauited blocks between two norm fault Earth movements involve plastic folging and brite ‘racture of rocks, as well as uplift and subsidence. These tectonic featuros, caused by large scale movements ‘of crustal plates (section 08). Under the high confining pressures at klomotres of depth, and over the long time Scales of tectonic processes, most rocks may show plastic deformation, an fractures oocur when and where the plastic imits are exceeded ‘uterop is an exposure of rock atthe surface {orthe area of arock ying diectly beneath a soll cover) Dip is the angle in degroes below the horizontal Direction of dip is down the dip. ‘Sikes erection of horizontal ine ona dipping surtace, ‘These reler to bedding or any geological structures, Fock dip is used to avoid contusion with ground slope Joints are rock fractures with no movement along ther, ‘They are formed by tectonic stressing and are developed inant al rocks, Joint densities and individual joint lengths are infinitely varable, Groups of sub parallel jints form oint systems. The dominant fractures within sedimentary rc usualy the bedding planes. Many bedding pla very thin bands or partings of shale or clay between units ‘of stronger rocks. Others are clean breaks, or jolts, {aveloped tectonicly along te sightest of contrasts within the depostion sequence. Say deavag and schists ar also efetvty Woes tots. Alloints are structural weaknesses, whose density, extent ‘and orientation are major invences on rock mass srength (Gecton 25), Massive rocks have less fractures, joints or structural waaknesses, 0 roverse faults with low angles of dip. i (with apparent throw in dipping rocks), Fault breccia: coarse angular broken rock debris in Zone (0-1 ~100 m wide) along fault; commonly @ zone ot {groundwater ow, finely ground rock paste in thin zone sturbance and folding of rock near fault Slickensides: scraiches. and polishing on taut planes, ‘and on bedding plane faults within tight olds Veins: sheets of mineral infill deposited by hydrothermal water in fractures oF fissures in rock. They octurin joints OF fauits. Most voins are of quartz or calete ~ white ‘streaks in rock faces. Larger veins (most on faults) can ‘contain valuable minerals ~ may have been mined out“strong folding weak folding antitine ara planes of stings > Thereasing compression ——e— recumbent fold. nappe Major Fold Types FoLDs Folds are upward anticines (“Yor downward syncines Sz “They may be gentle ==, maderate or strong AY Folds may be rounded /\\ o angular AY ‘Overolds and recumbent folds have dips past vertical Isoctines have parallel dips on both sides. 'Nappes are recumbent olds sheared along the central line with the development of a thrust faut, usually with large displacement Escarpments, or cuesias, are asymmettical hill of dipping beds of strong rock, exposed by citferential ferosion of weaker rocks above and below, Succession of rocks Older rocks generally lio Delow younger rocks, and are only exposed by erosion Reference to old and young rocks avoids confusion with igh and low outerops refering o topographical postion. Inlier is an outcrop of old rocks surrounded by the outcrops of younger rocks: its presence on a’ map Indicates ether an eroded antcine ora vay. mS Cutler is an outcrop of young rocks surrounded by old, due to ether an erodd syncine ora hil Uncontormity is the plane or break between two sequences of racks with diferent dips. I indicates a period of earth movements and tectonic deformation Between the times of sediment deposition. It forms a major structural break ~ the older rocks must be more lined and folded, and perhaps mare metamorphosed, ‘tan the younger rocks above the unconformity. NON-TECTONIC STRUCTURES: Localized structures formed in shallow rocks and sols, by erosion procosses and shallow ground detormation, Unrelated to regional tectonic structures. Camber folds develop in level or ow-dip rocks where a clay (or soft shale) underlies a strong sandstone or limestone. The clay is plastcly squeezed out from beneath the hil ue othe efferent loads uponit Valley bulge isthe floor it (eroded away) and the structural disturbance left beneath i. Mast clay is squeezed out ‘rom close tothe valley side (or scarp edge), co that overlying stonger rocks sag and camber towards the valley. Gulls ae open or soiled fissures in the strong rocks ol cambered valey sides, opened camberrolation and Perhaps also by slicing Postglacial cambered ground, or foundered strata, is ‘common inthe sedimentary rocks of England; it causes fissured rock masses and potential landslides along many valley sides and scarp faces. Glaclal drag: shallow local disturbance, with fold ‘overfolds and faults in solls ané weak rocks overriaden by Pleistocene glaciers Unloading joints: stross-roit fractures close to and parallel to ground surtace due to erosional removal of ‘Sverburden cover racks. Landslip fissures: open fissure and normal faults davelepad in head zones of slopes prior to alu, Contraction joints: cooling joints in igneous rocks, Including columnar basalt a | Camber ong around an English vay07 Geological Maps and Sections Goological maps show outcrops (where the rocks meet the surface). Shapes of outcrops depend on the shape at the surace and the shape ofthe rock structure. Suriace shape is known (Irom tepagraphie contours}: therefore rock structure can be interpreted. ‘An important rule: ware more than one interpretation is possible, the simplest is usually correct. ‘Map interpretation is therefore logical and straightforward iNapproached systematcaly. Maps remain the best way of epleting 3-D rock structure ona piece of paper. Oe — Relationships between a geological map, geological crose-sectione and the three-dimensional structure. ‘The north-south section is drawn along the strike, and therefore does not demonstrate the dipping geological structure STAGES OF MAP INTERPRETATION 4. Identity faults and uncontormites (structural breaks) 2 Inentiycips by Vin Valley Fle. 3. Determine succession (unless already given). 44 entity fold axes (rom alps and outcrop bends), 5, Draw stratum contours (ideal 's needed} 6. Draw cross-section to show sub-surface structure GEOLOGICAL MAP SYMBOLS 34 dip, direction, and amount in degreas $ borzontal beds 4} varical beds 7 fault, tick on downthrow side =e aniciine ‘eynctine fg sandstone. shale or day EEE limestone ary. Igneous rock alia “ol “ OUTCROP PATTERNS ‘Sx basio concepts cover all outcrop pattems, and enable ‘mast geological maps tobe intorpreted successful, Horizontal beds have outcrops which folow the contours because they are at constant alttude (limestone on the Sear Hil map). Vertical beds have straight outerops which ignore the contour (the dyke onthe Tan Vale map) Dipping beds have curved outcrops which cut across ‘and respond to the contours because outcrops shift ‘ownalp as erosion lowers the surface (sandstone on both maps) Dip direction ie rocognized by the V in Valley Rule: an ‘utero of a ipping rock bends round a V shape where i crosses a valley, and tho V of the outcrop points (Ike fan arrowhead) in the direction of dip, regardiass of tho irocton o valley slope and drainage. ‘Tris works because the outcrop is shited furthest downdip at Ks lowest point where it crosses the valley floor (see tho Tan Vale map and diagram). (The rule doos not apply in areas of iow dip, were buterops nearly follow contours, so point upstream) (On love! ground, sipping beds have siaight outcrops along the direction of stk. Suecession is recogrized by younger rocks coming to Cuterop In direction of dip. Corwersely, if succession is Known, the dip is in the crection of younger outerops = the easiest way to racognize aia on most maps. koa ‘Width of outerop is greater on thicker beds and at lower cps. RECOGNITION OF STRUCTURES Unconformity is recognized where one outerop (of & younger bed) cuts across the ends of outcrops of older beds, as does the mestone on the Scar Hill map. Faults are usually marked and keyed on maps. They ay cut out, offset or repeat outcrops of beds. Fault dip Is recognized by V in Valley Rule. Downthrow side of a fault isthe side wth youngor outerop because the oldar rocks have bean downttvown to beneath surface level. nom ke Sh — = po SS fy carmodiged Folds are recognized by changes in aip direction, and also by outers and inlers not Sue to topography. Most important, folds are cacagnized by bends in outcrop: any ‘outerop bend must be due (0 either @ fold or a topographic ridge or valley. Each outerop bend should be interpreted, as on the Sear Hill map.Fpl aS Interpretation of the Scar Hill map, using bends In outcrop to identity elther topographical features, direction of dip where crossing a valley, or fold axes it not explained by any topographical feature, ‘STRATUM CONTOURS. These are tines drawn on a map joining points of equal height on a bed (or stratum). They are Ike topographic contours, except that they show the shape of buried {geological structures. Each contour is leboliod with lis allude and the bed boundary to which kt refers, ‘They are drawn by jlning pointe of known equal height (on one geological boundary ~ where its outcrop crosses {2 topographie contour. Tho surtace information of the map is therefore used to construct the stratum contours, which provide data onthe underground gaology With uniform dip, stratum contours are straight, paralll and equidistant ‘Stratum contours have been drawn on part of the Tan Vale map, lower down this column: * they elend right across the map: * some apply to two boundaries and are double labelled; * every boundaryicontour intersection has a stratum ‘contour drawn through it + Tabols refer to the babe of a bed, ‘Stratum contours on part ofthe Tan Vale map | Information can be read from the stratum contours: * Dip direction is east, 080 (90° rom contours}; | + Dip amountis1 in (10 m contours are 50 m apa); + Sandstone has vertical thickness of 10 m (Gandstone base 20s sama contour as clay base 40}; «True thickness = vertical thickness x cosine dp: * Depths to any rock can be read of at any point. ‘The stratum contours indicate that a borehole at point ‘A would pass through 20 m of clay, then reach the sandstone which would continue to @ depth of 30 m, Below which ies the mudstone, DRAWING A CROSS-SECTION ‘A cross-section is drawn by projacting the data trom a ‘single line on the map onto a profie of the same scale (or with vertical exaggeration it required). ‘The topography and each geological boundary are constructed individually from the relevant contours, whose intersections on the section Ine are projected to their correct height onthe profile, Three stages in drening a profile across the Scar Hill map are shown bolow. The projection linos and ringed points are only included to demonstrate stages 1 and 2. Atos ater Tonpiies Section [Note two features of stratum contours only shown on the Scar Hill map: they do-not cross the fault: they do ‘ot rete to the imestone above the unconformity, 1808 Geological Map Interpretation Most published maps have scales between 1:10 000 ‘and 1:100 000. Low relict cannot be shown accurately at these scales, ‘and therefore stratum contours cannot be drawn to ‘show the geology Principles of outcrop shape, bed relationships and structure recognition (rom section 07) sill apply, but Interpretation and section drawing cannot rely on stratum contours. Geological Map of Oakunder SOME BASIC CONCEPTS Most outcrops are laterally uniform sedimentary rocks. ‘These ae in paralel beds of roughly constant thickness. ‘They are fold and crumpled into parale curves. Bed thinning and spiting is rarely seen in small ‘Beds do not form pattorniess wedges and blocks. ily fauted areas can provide local complexity Intrusions and volcanic cocks have more varied shapes. Dit sediments form thin, but variable, surface layers. ‘This is @ fypical example ofa geological map: it shows allrock outcrops, and has some dip arrows; ‘statigraphic column shows succession and bed thicknesses; topography is only shown by ver valeys, INITIAL INTERPRETATION Follow stages 1-4 (in section 07). ‘Add interpretation data to map, Dips from Vin Valley rua Dips from succession rule. ‘Outerop wiaths indicate dp. Widinthickness = dip gradient ‘Three shale beds distinguished: ‘numbered in stratigraphic column, [5 ‘and labelled on map. Faultand dyke straight, so vertical. Fault is minor ~ dies out to nort, has small outerop dsplacements Folds miror auterop sequences. ‘THREE-POINT INTERPRETATION ‘Subsurface structure canbe interpreted trom a minimum of tree isolated point (usualy In boreholes) on a single horizon ‘Assume locally uniform dip to draw stratum coat ‘Along linos drawn Botween any pair of boreholes, stribute uniform altitudes ofthe selected boundary oF bed. Lines joining these interpreted points of equal altitude ae therfore stratum contours. With three boreholes, can only interpret and draw straight stratum contours. \With more than three boreholes, can draw curved and converging stratum contours to show folding and ner. uniform dips. Reliabity depends on borehole spacing Inrelation to structural compiexty. Useful fr ital interpretation of site investigation data ‘Applicable to any rock or drift ayer, rockhead or fault Drawn sanctus ar baeale ie 16DRAWING THE SECTION ‘Sequence of stages forthe Oakunder map is as folows: {1 Ground prot is given (or is drawn from topographic map) 2 Outerops are projected onto ground sure (as in section 07), 3 Dips are obtained by using the given bed thicknesses (as on right) 4 Fault can be ignored at rst because tis interpreted as minor. 5 Oakunder Grt is drawn across bath folds, inking the tree outcrops, 8 Faultis added so base of Belvoir Git docs not outorop. 7 Cakunder Grit is adjusted across the fault within the syncino, 8 Other beds are added parallel, with constant thckneseas. 8 Parallel curves ae fitted to changing dips east of anticine 410 Slate marked below limostone thicknoss given in stratigraphic column, 11. Anlicine core is unknown beneath given slate thicknss. 12 Doleriteis added as vertical dyke cutting through beds 13 Aluvium is glven sonsibo thickness in valley floor. 14 Optional broken lines in the sky cay structure, ips tte righ, so base of the ‘Goological Gross Section af the Oskunder Area INTERPRETATION OF A STRATIGRAPHIC COLUMN Data is symbolize to cover variations across the area on the map. nit deposits aro at the top; their thicknoseas are not chown, Main rock sequence is drawn to scale to show moan thicknesses, ‘Sandstone E les unconformably on the Carboniferous rocks, Middle Coal Measures include sandstones and coals marked individually. Undiferentiated MCM is a mixture of shales, mudstones and thin sandstones (this Iithological data is only obtained from an accompanying handbook), Sandstone D Is locally absent where itis cutout by the unconformity Sandstone C varies fom 6 to 16 m thick but is aWways present. Sandstone B locally spits into two, and the upper unt may thin out, ‘Sandstone A varies from 0 to 12 m thick, and Is missing in par of the map area. Coal 2 locally spits, but the upper leaf may be cutout by sandstone, Coat has to leafs, with 5 m of shale between, over most of ihe map area. ‘Base of CM is not seen on the map, an unknown thickness continues down, Igneous rocks ae atthe bottom, even though they intrude into higher rocks. ate ces ro ky thease a blow oop a2 crew neue sive gtoronh ae. EW [7] sour cay 00 sme |o/8| bond fe ey Se one ew: Poses [stanoano Gz0LOaIcAL waPs | on pry corn cho cons Sear et ea see Se ioe eet as Stcoaar emia Season eb Rasa Sas Sa a tee thine tect (ee inte ay ate tga aca Gases ee ENGINEERING GEOLOGY MAPS. xtra data is availabe for some locations, with mutiple map sheets covering the same area and individually showing selectes features; these may include major rock proporiee, slope stably, subsidence potent, mine workings, dit thickness, cit bearing capacity, tock resources and groundwater conditions. Generalized engineering geology maps may be summary compilations; mese show secondary. Interpreted, data o give usetulbroad pictures ot ground conditions, but servo only as guidelines towards spect engineering site investigations, v709 Plate Tectonics Planet Earth consists of three concentric layers: utor crust, < 100 km thick, various sold silicate rocks; ‘Mantle, 2800 km thick, hot plastic iron silcates; Inner core, 3500 km radius, largely of molten ion, CONTINENTS AND OCEANS ‘veanie crust is mainly basalt and dolerite, 5-10 km hick, ‘orming allthe ocean floor; itis created and dostoyed at plate boundries. Continental erustis mainly granite and gneiss, 20-20 km thick; of lower density than oceanic crust, floats higher ‘on the mantle and forms all the continents, submerged ‘continental shelves and adjacent istands. Is too light to be subducted, sols almost indestructible; it may be eroded ‘or added o by acretion of sediment and rock scraped off ‘subducting oceanic plates. Individual plates may be either or both crustal types. ‘Continent coasts may or may not be plate boundaries. ‘THE MOHO ‘The boundary between the crust and the mantle is known as the Mohoroviele Discontinuity (or the Moho) recognized by retraction of seismic waves. No one hha yet seen the rock beneath it. The American dling project, the Moho, was abandoned before reaching it, and the Russian borehole, 128 km deep by 1993, had et yet reached the Moho. PLATES AND PLATE MOVEMENT Lithosphere is the relatively brittle outer rock layer, Consisting ofthe crust and upper mant; tis broken Into large slabs known as plates. Convection currents circulate within the mantle ~ because it ls heated from below ~ and the convection cals have horizontal movements over their ops. Plate tectonics are tho relative movements ofthe plates as they are shifted by the underlying marie flows. Each plate Is relatively stable, but disturbances along the plate boundaries cause most geological processes. ‘The formation of igneous, secimeniary and metamorphic rocks, and their subsequent deformation oF erosion, can be identiied on the cross-section diagram through two plato boundaries. So Antarctic PLATE BOUNDARY TYPES Conservative boundary has sideways movement only, ‘8g. San Andreas Fauit. Major tear fauts are formed, and intermittent movements create major earthquakes, Divergent boundary is constructive, as new oceanic plato is formed, o.9. Mid Atlantic Ridge, Basaltic magma is produced as a silcate liquid separated from iron rich mineral solids in parvally melted mantle; this produces: humerous dykes. and submarine volcanoes, Excess magia creates istands, ¢.g Icoland, wih ofusive basal, voleanoes and high geothermal head; small earthquakes. ‘occur as rocks part under tension, Convergent boundary is destructive, as oceanic plate is subducted and melted, e.9. beneath the Andes along western edge of South America. The over-riding Continental plate 1s crumpled and thickened to form a ‘mountain chain, Involving a great range of geological processes, collectively known as orogenesis (from the Greek for mountain bulking), “Type of convergence determines the style of orogenesis: Continent-ceean: normal orogenic belt, ocean destroyed, eg. Andes. ‘Ocean-ocoan: one plate destroyed, magma creates island arc voleances, 0.9. Java, Continent-continent. colision, orogenic maximum, ‘elds pates together, e.g. Himalayas MOUNTAIN CHAINS. Upiit of mountain chains occurs because the lightweight ‘raniticcrust, thickened within the orogenic bef, ows to 2 higher level on the mantle in order to maintain the Isostate balance of equal loading all around the rolaing sphere of Earth, ‘The highest mountain chains are the youngest. Th Himalayas are < 10M years ol, formed largely of folded sedimentary rocks; top of Mount Everest is lmestone. ‘Ola mountain chains are eroded down, The Scotish Highlands nave been eroded for 400M years: they Consist of granites and gneisses, rather similar to the rocks on the floors ofthe deepest Himalayan valleys. The works major crustal pat, with arows o show relative movement (mosty afew cryear)GEOLOGICAL ENVIRONMENTS ‘The overall geological character ofa region — whether or not It has metamorphic rocks, active volcanoes or earth movements, whether the eedimentary rocks are thick or thin, folded or unfolded ~ relates to the plate tectonic processes, ‘These are the background to the ground conditions of concern to the engineer ‘Stable environments are onthe patos; the sedimentary ‘ecks,siow erosion, gentle folding, only rare earthquakes ‘and probably no volcanoes. The oldest continenial plates are the shields of strong, basement, metamorphic rocks forming Scotland's Outer Hebrides and most of eastern Canada. Britain and the eastern USA are on younger stable plates, Unstable environments are on or near plate boundaries, ‘and the geology relates to the boundary movement: Sideways, divergent or convergent ‘OROGENESIS Involves all the main geological processes except ‘basale volcanoes. ‘Strong folding, overtolds and nappes; weaker folds ‘away trom boundary. Faulis. and thrusts under compression, and major ‘earthquakes. Regional metamorphism by heat and pressure atdepth Panial meting of continental crust creates granite ‘pathlths in core of metamorphic belts Moltod ocoanie basalt mixes with continental mater {to form viscous andesite and rhyolite magmas ‘and explosive volcanoes. Minaralzation by migrating uid in hot active zones. Uplit of mountain chain; consequent rapid erosion and sediment production. ‘Thick sedimentation In adjacent subsidence zones; turbiats into oceans. | Convergent Destructive Boundary soit an erostan cf meuntin ea expects orogenic woken Stable Plate gante “SBT nance 77 continental crust__ samen At tisra 7 ara etrogt ppar arte magma generation 74 : sneargeaton eters, sonal metamerpism Divergent Constructive Boundary vole tans thus ear basse ‘oceanic crust Sheen ft ‘mara geerton epee mantle Pato boundary processes GEOLOGICAL TIME ‘THE STRATIGRAPHIC COLUMN Processes evolve and plate patterns change over [pencayatem a {geological time. New ooeans open up: continents cole | aeyote 7 fase My Sra wold Io one, Ary one place can terete be ina | Holocene = Recent (usternry Seres of pologta envronmants tough fs stony. | Petocene . ‘Time s an extra cimension which must be appreciated 10 [piccene > : {uly understand te geology of any area: tre geotogical | Plocene | Neogene history of sfe accounts Yor the stuctuos. and rock featonsips wricn are reevatto ground engrearng. | OWDHEr@ teria ‘ihe sgntesnoe of rock age tan engineerin any one | EOCAM®, }Peegene area, e.g. Britain, older rocks are generally stronger, better = 6s ithiied, maybe metamorphesed, and tore complexy | Cretasous feted than younger rocks. However, rocks ofthe same | Jurassic Mesozcic | fgemay be very dierent nareasot diferent patetectoic | Tassie E lo Hatori, og ho contrasts betwen he rocks ofthe east [ Perrion 1 fad west coast of ho USA, Ferri ous {Pennsyvanian ‘Quaternary sediments are so young that most have not | Devonian (Mississippian Seen dooply buted they are argo uncorsatasted ard | Sayan Paeoroie tinimaly formes. Oraovien | ‘The stratigraphic column divides geological time into | Gamonan | potods, andre samerames appiytothosystemsofrocks Perera + 5 fomed nro prod 7 aa | rhe names are international, except that Carboniferous is recamirian | replaced by Mississippian and Pennsylvanian nthe USA. (olginof the earth) 4600 1910 Boundary Hazards Earthquakes CCausod when relative movement of pats or favt blocks Srercomes shear resistance ofa fal. Movement Duds {plastic ira rocks out pure and rock rebound ‘Shoago sain enrgy ax ground shock waves. Most earhnuakes orgnate a focus <20 kn deep Surface dapiacement may be Tew mates or absent Faul breaks may exond over longi 1100 kn ‘SIZE AND SCALE OF EARTHQUAKES Ground movement is measured In afferent planes on seismographs. Magnitude defines the size of an earthquake on the Richtor scale: logy9 of the maximum wave amplitude ‘microns on @ Wood Andersan selsmograph 100 km from the epicentre (point on the surface above the focus). Moment magnitude relatos to fault aroa, movement and rock rigidity ~ a better indication of earthquake’s energy. Intensity isthe scale of earthquake damage at any ono point, described on the modified Mercalli scala, and Seating away from the epicenire IMSK intensity i similar i Maca, but with more detail Damage relates largely to peak ground acceleration, ‘also to peak velocity, requency and duration Duration usualy < 10 s for magnitude 5, may last 40 6 for magnitude 8; increases away irom epicentre ‘ereall Earthquake Intenly on nx co Nota Wt” Acobecamaged 0-0) 1h Fatetret it Meson domoges. ih Fetincoe 1% Fouaatone craged 1V Wirdowaraie (co.nz) Buidngs desoyed 2060) Fat ucor Xi Ratway ao Feanen3 a_i ate deetructive eurace waves. Velocity ciference of P and $ creates time lag on @ siesmograph, eo cistance to epicenre Is calculated at about 9 krvs ofthe lag. EARTHQUAKE PREDICTION Most are on plate boundaries; 80% on subduction Some occur on inraplate faults: Britain has up to MS, and the Mississippi Valley earthquakes of 1811 reached Ni-8 Also due to magma movement under volcanoes. ‘Some faults sip smoothly: the Cienege Winery in Caifornia has its foundations displaced 16 mmiyear by the San Andreas Fault - But no earinquake damage, ‘Tangshan quake, China, 1976, kiled > 250 000 people. Prediction: research is now greatly reduced, in favour of research into structural survivabiity in earthquakes. Side effects of ground stain before some quakes may Include foreshocks, pl, dlialion, gas emissions, ‘groundwater changes and inevease in Seismic veloc, but monitoring reveals inconsistent patterns. Historical data may indicate seismic gaps (with no recent movement) on an acive feu, where @fulure earthquake is more ikl Control: raised water pressures reduce shear strength, ‘and cause fault movement before large strain energy accumulation. Pumping water into deep wells does trigger premature small quakes, but legal complications make serious earthquake contol impossible : ‘World aisribution of earthquake: Each year there are about 20 of M7, and about 3000 of M> 6. ‘Approximate Correlation of Earthquake Magnitude, Intensity and Damage sraray sgn [Exam tran Aran nance 1 T= _| Sock esturvace, no damagi | Linted 1 ‘© |isrecense ws | vr | Stant Listed Major aang fr Sri) Ey | 5 |ta7eSan Francisco MES | Vii | Une damage to reintrced corte ‘iin earguake fr Castors) Severe damage foods houses | nny Vi sight domage fo 10 km awn soco | 6 |ro71sanFemendo Mes | ix | Severe omege to many tulsngs | inonsty Vi osage to 1Okm nay somo | 7 [rs7ocHmeein (Pen M77 | x | NMojordamege most butaoge | Ieansty Vl gamsgo 0 SO km away ‘onooto | 8 |e San Franco” mea | xi | Ttaldesruaion transty Vl mage o 200 on aay Saintes. 20CONSTRUCTION IN SEISMIC ZONES ‘Adobe and dry stone walls fall under horizontal ‘Acceleration of 0-19, but good low rise timber bullaings ‘can withstand any earthquake, Reinforced concrete structures need bracing to stop ‘hombohedral collapse; tis can be provided by massive, ‘esstant shoar wal, or diagonal steelwork. Febars must be integrated across intersections of columnsfbeamstwvalsisiabs. Plecap falures are resiainod by to beams and integrated basement structures, Buildings and bridges can be isolated on rubber spring blocks: and steel springs can act as energy absorbers to sabiize structures. Precautionary provisions add $~10% to construction Costs, Later moaifications are more expensive. ‘Avoid ornamental appendages which can fal of Use land zoning to avord areas of deep sok soils and ‘known fauit traces ~ any displacement of Holocene sais indicates modem activiy on a faut. ‘New building in Califomia is prohibited within 15 m ot ‘active faults: wider 2ones apply to larger buildings and less well-mapped faut. DEEP SOILS AND EARTHQUAKES Soft sols do not dampen ground vibrations. They amply ‘them. Bullcings on soft sol suffer much worse earthquake ‘damage than those on bedrock. ‘Wave amplitude may double passing trom rock to sol Dominant natural period of the shock waves aiso inoreases, from about 0-3 seconds in solid rock, to 14 ‘Seconds on soll. The natural period further increases with ‘Sol depth, and with distance from the epicontre. Buildings have a natural period of about N/10 seconds (N = number of stories). Maximum damage is due to esonance, when periods of building and soil match, Deep soft sols have long periods which match those of high rise buildings susceptible to more catastrophic ‘damage ~ as in the Mexico City earthquake in 1985. Compared to adjacent bedrock, soft sols cause damage T-dintensiis higher ‘Secondary earthquake phenomena ‘Subsidence due to liquetaction of low density sands Landslides and slope fares of all sizes and speeds. ‘Teunamis ~ oceanic seismic waves (section 17) Seiches ~ oscillating waves on lk Volcanic Eruptions Basaltic volcanoes lie on divergont plate boundaries (6.9. tceland), or on plates away trom boundary disturbances (¢.9. Hawai), where magma is gonerated ‘rom mantle plumes. They produce large flows of mobile lava in quiet, offusive eruptions, with only limited fountaining or expiosions. ‘These volcanoes are tourist attractions, which may ‘heaton fixed structures, but offer minimal threat to it, Prediction of eruptions is largely based on volcanic inflation (uplit) and selcmic monitoring, with succosstul forecasts of repetve basalt emissions. Scale and size ‘of explosive eruptions cannot be reliably predicted, nor ‘can their precise timing and location within the volcanic Explosive voleanaes all a on the convergent plate boundaries (eg Krakatoa, St Helens), where magma is (generates by subduction meting. Viscous magma, of lndesite or rhyolite, makes ges pressures buld up. Eruptions produce’ high ash clouds, explosive basts land very dangerous pyroclastic flows (of not gas and ash) whieh turn into lahars (mud flows) lower down vallays; ava lowe are minor and shor. Flank collanses can cause massive lateral blasts. ‘These eruptions are dangerous, largely unpredictable ‘ana totally uncontroliabl; they must bo avoided, ¢ World distribution of volcanoes ‘There are > 500 active volcanoes in the word. ‘Typically > 50 erupt in any one year. =!" basaltic volcanoes: a a explosive voloanoes. a