POWER PLANT ELECTRICAL REFERENCE SERIES VOLUME 3 AUXILIARY SYSTEM PLANNING ELECTRIC POWER RESEARCH INSTITUTEPOWER PLANT ELECTRICAL REFERENCE SERIES VOLUME 3 AUXILIARY SYSTEM PLANNING Author G. O. Gerth | Written by Stone & Webster Engineering Corporation 245 Summer Steet Boston, Massachusetts 02107 Electric Power Research institute 3412 Hillview Avenue Palo Alto, California 94304 EPRI Project Manager D.K. SharmaOrdering Information ‘Requests for copies of this series should be directed 10 Research Reports Center (RRC), PO. Box 50490, Palo Alto, CA 94308, (615) 965-4081, For further information on EPRI technical pro- {grams contact the EPRI Technical Information Div sion at (315) 855-2411, or write directly to EPRI ‘Technical Information Center at FO. Box 10812, Palo Alto, CA 94303. 1.5036, Volume 3 Project 2884 18BN 0:6083-5002-3 volume |SBN 0:8033-5015.5 series ‘Topics: Circuit breakers Voltage control voltage ‘Design instrumentation ‘Design—power system engineering Copyright ©1987 Electric Power Research Institue, Ine. All ghts reserved. Reprinted in 1990 by Energy Conversion Division, Stoum- Turbine, Generator, Balance-of Pant Target Electric Power Research Institute and EPRI are registered service marks of Electric Power Research Insitute Inc Notice ‘This series was prepared by Stone & Webster Engineering Corporation as an account of work sponsored by the Elec: tele Power Research Institue. ine (PRD. Nether EPR, ‘members of EPRI, Stone & Webster Engineering Corpora: tion, nor any person acting on behalf of any of thers (a) makes any warranty, express or imped, with respect 10FOREWORD Inthe past, several electrical equipment manufac- turers published reference books dealing with specific technical areas. Many utilities have stated that these reference books have been very useful to them in dealing with plant emergencies and in ‘making decisions on design, system planning, and Preventive maintenance. ‘Unfortunately, manufacturers today seldom publish or update reference books on electric | Power apparatus, mainly because of tighter bud {get constraints. Until now, utilities have had no up- to-date industrywide practical reference manual ‘covering the various electric power apparatus and electrical phenomena commonly encountered in ower plants. The Power Plant Electrical Refer: fence Series was planned to fill this need. EPRI believes that the series will save utilities time and money. It will aid plant engineers in «= Prevention of forced outages through proper installation, application, and protection of station auxiliary equipment ‘= Recognition of potential problems and their prevention ' Selection of appropriate methods of main- tenance to ensure trouble-free equipment operation = Reduction of equipment installation time and expense ‘= Proper specification of equipment being ordered ‘= Better coordination and integration of system ‘components This volume deals with power plant auxiliary system planning. The electrical system studies made during the conceptual design stage for a power plant are vital in the engineering and de- sign development of the plant. In these studies the station service auxiliary system is examined in terms of required electrical performance, econom: ics, and future plant needs. Auxiliary system de- sign criteria are established, voltage levels determined, major equipment ratings selected, al- lowances made for margin, and decisions made for the arrangement of electrical buses and switching. Information for the design of station service aux- iliary systems has traditionally been obtained from ‘Recommended Practice for Electric Power Distribu- tion for Industral Plants (EEE Standard 141-1976); Electrical Transmission and Distribution Reference Book, published by Westinghouse Electrical Corpo- ration; Industrial Power System Data Book, published bby General Electric Company; and the ANSUIEEE application guides for circuit breakers. Because these documents do not pertain specifically to ower plants, it has been necessary to adapt the information for power plant applications. ‘This book guides the user in applying industry standards and references for power plant design. The goal of the volume is to explain the factors that affect the design of station service electrical equipment and to provide rule-of-thumb methods for the evaluation of alternatives D.K. Sharma Plant Electrical Systems and Equipment Program Electrical Systems Division Electric Power Research InstituteABSTRACT Auxiliary system planning involves specialized studies of power connections between the gener- ator and electric transmission system and studies ‘concerning the electric power supply to the station auniliary equipment required for operation of the plant. | This volume gives rule-of-thumb methods and | detailed calculation procedures used in the elec. trical design of the power plant. These methods and procedures are consistent with industry prac- tice for determining ratings of electrical equip- ‘ment; they are tabulated for quick reference and presented in an easy-to-use form. The volume also provides specific step-by-step examples for system load studies, short-circuit calculations, and voltage drop calculations required for preparing the station service system voltage profile. American National Standards for circuit breakers are applied in the text. ‘The content in this volume should provide the power plant engineer with practical information on power plant electrical design.ACKNOWLEDGMENTS a ‘The author is grateful to the people in the list be- ow for their efforts in reviewing the information presented in this volume and for their suggestions for additions and improvements. Electric Power Research Institute D. K. Sharma, Project Manager R. Steiner, Associate Director, Electrical Systems Division J C. White, Program Manager Stone & Webster Engineering Corporation G. O. Buffington, Project Manager P Garfinkel A. R. Fitzpatrick K. R. Bedall AP. Stakutis, KL Hicks EPRI Review Committee J. R. Boyle, Tennessee Valley Authority L. E. Brothers, Southern Company Services J. Erlingsson, Pacific Gas and Electric Company R. G. Farmer, Arizona Public Service Company R. G. Hodgson, Los Angeles Department of Water and Power J. A. Maxwell, Georgia Power Company W. L. Nail, Jr, Mississippi Power & Light Company D. G. Owen, Duke Power Company BK. Patel, Southern Company Services R. A. Schaefer, Public Service Company of Oklahoma J. E, Stoner, Jr, Duke Power Company D. M. Van ‘ssell, Jr, Florida Power & Light Company 3. E. White, Tampa Electric Company ‘The author especially acknowledges the review efforts of Edward M. Gulachenski, New England Power Service Company, and the special com- ments provided by R. G. Farmer and J. R. Boyle of the EPRI Review Committee.CONTENTS | secTION PAGE Figures sexi Tables a Bexiti Executive Summary ..........3-xv Acronyms & Abbreviations . .3-xvii 341 Introduction oa 3.2. Definition of Terms a1 3.3, Main Power Connections ....3-1 Generator Rating 33 Generator Unit Step-Up ‘Transformers . . 33 Unit-connected System Grounding ee Generator Main Lead | Calculations a4 Generators Serving Load at Generator Voltage 35 Current limiting Reactor Calculations 36 3.4 Station Service System Studies. az) Preliminary Studies Fi 37 Conceptual Design Studies 3-8 3.5. Detailed Design Studies ESt Data Base eet Short Circuit studies 313 Voltage Profile Studies 3.27 Voltage-Drop Studies .. 3-81 Voltage Profile Preparation 3-38 | Voltage Profile 302 3.6 System Operation... 3-43 References fpd50 3-45 | Bibliography : 347 Index : 3-49FIGURES FIGURE PAGE 3-41 - Simplified Single-Line Diagram, Unit-connected Station, Station Service System 32 3-2 system for Load-Flow Studies to "Determine Generator and Unit Step-Up Transformer Ratings ...3-4 3-3 Reactor Tie Arrangement ......3-5 3-4 Station Service Auxiliary System co BO 3-5 Medium-Voltage Bus Arrange- ments for Transformers .......3-9 3-6 — Medium-Voltage Buses for Alter- nate Feed Arrangements.......3-10 3-7 Power Station Auxiliary System... 343 3-8 short-Circuit Calculation for Close-and-Latch Duty Networks neve B45 3-9 Short-Circuit Calculation for Interrupting Duty Networks ...3-16 3-10 _X/R Range for Power ‘Transformers .. BAT 3-11 XR Range for Three-Phase Induction Motors .............348 Baz Equivalent ThreeWinding Trane former Circuit ..... 3-20 3413 _X/R Range for Small Solid‘Rotor and Salient-Pole Generators and Synchronous Motors .........-3-20 3-14 Three-Phase Fault Multiplying Factors That Include Effects of AC and DC Decrements (Local Sources) co BRS. FIGURE PAGE 3415 _Lineto-Ground Fault Multiplying Factors That Include Effects of AC and DC Decrements (Local SoUTEES) eee 32a 3-46 Three-Phase and Line-to-Ground Fault Multiplying Factors That In- clude Effects of DC Decrement Only (Remote Sources)...........3.25 3-17 Phasor Diagram of Voltage Rela- tions for Voltage-Drop Caloulations ...... 3-29 Phasor Diagram of Exact Voltage- Drop Calculation. . . 3-29 3-19 Transformer Representation in Voltage-Drop Calculation 3-31 3-20. Voltage-Drop Calculation, Stem Data... 3-31 3-21 Voltage-Drop Calculation, system Data in Per Unit 1000 kVA, 4.16 KV, 0.48 kV cece BBR 3-22 Voltage-Drop Calculation, Summary of Results. ..... “3-36 3-23. Voltage Profile Calculation for Max- imum Continuous Voltage ...... ..3-38 3-24 Voltage Profile Calculation for ‘Minimum Continuous Operating Yelege1000 HVA, 4.16048 RV ‘Transformer ....-. 3-39 3-25. Voltage Profile Calculation for Minimum Momentary Voltages (Motor Starting ..... 342 26 Voltage Profile...........0...2. 388TABLES mane PAGE ‘3-1 System Data for Load-Flow Studies to Determine Generator and Unit ‘Step-Up Transformer Ratings ......3-4 Auxiliary System Quantities ........3-7 ‘3-3 Equivalent System X/R Ratio at ‘Typical Locations (for Quick Approximations) ..........2......914 3-4 Locked-Rotor Indicating Code | Letters 6.2... o 316 3-5. Positive Sequence Reactances for Calculating ceo 317 3-6 Multiplying Factors for Low-Voltage Circuit Breakers ... ve B27 3-7 Load-Flow Calculation Printout .....3-37EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Voltage regulation and short-circuit studies are re- quired to determine the ratings of station service electrical equipment. Changes in standards and complex system calculations make a comprehen- sive guide necessary to determine the impedances of transformers and switchgear duties for the most economical equipment applications. Background ‘The electrical engineer endeavors to select the ‘most economical electrical equipment for a given service. Selecting the correct equipment rating re- quires a balance of system electrical losses, mo- tor starting and running voltages, and switchgear fault capabilities. Understanding methods of cal- culation and system variables that affect the rat- ings and operation of station service electrical equipment is important in the selection process. Objectives ‘This book intends to clarify existing standards and describe power plant applications to help en- gineers in the proper selection of station service auxiliary system electrical equipment. In addition, it gives some rule-of thumb methods for determin. ing the ratings of electrical equipment. Approach | Pertinent information came from a national sur vey of utility requirements. A search of the litera- ture on station service electrical equipment was performed to identify information specific to power plants. The EPRI Review Committee, with members from 11 utilities in various areas of the United States, and other industry experts reviewed ‘the material for technical adequacy and complete- ness. The resulting information was the basis for this volume of the Fower Plant Electrical Refer- cence Series. Results ‘The information in this volume is expected to provide guidance in performing calculations to determine the ratings of electrical station service equipment. | It will aid the engineering and operating depart. ‘ments of generating facilities in selecting satisfac- tory equipment and replacement components.ACRONYMS & ABBREVIATIONS - gee ampere(s) susceptance current transformers ratio (Eq. 359) voltage (Eq. 3-50) per unit voltage receiving-end voltage (electrical current clement) (Eq. 3-40) sendingend voltage (electrical current element) (Eq. 3-40) ‘exponential form of a complex number FA transformer cooling method: oilimmersed, forced.air-cooled Q eee FOA transformer cooling method: oibimmersed, forced.oil-cooled with forced-sir cooler G conductance for circuit elements hp horsepower 1 current (Bq. 3-4) In, fulldoad current KA kiloamperets) kv kilovolis) kVA kilovolamperets) KVAR kilovoltampere(s}-reactive kW kilowatts) ky, meter constant stamped on nameplate a, 259) Lc load center LTC load tap changer | motor | MCC — motor control center MCM 1000 eireular mils MVA_— megavoltampere(s) MVAR megavolt ampere(s}-reactive MW — megawatts) NC normally closed ‘National Electrical Code® [National Electrical Manufacturers Association NO normally open OA transformer cooling method: oilimmersed, selfcooled P power, watts PF power factor Q reactive power, voltamperes reactive a resistance Rex VAR, rectangular form of a vector root mean-square revolutions per minute power, voltamperes station service transformer (startupireservel secondary unit substation time (Eq. 321) short-circuit time constant in cycles Gq, 321) load current power factor angle (are cos ower factor) {Eq. 3-39) unit auxiliary transformer unit transformer voltampere(s}reactive voltage drop (Eq, 3.39) voltage transformer ratio (Eq. 3.59) watthour meter reactance value (Eq, 3-16) ratio of reactance to resistance (Eq. 3:14) generator subtransient reactance (Eq, 3-1) generator zero sequence reactance (Eq. 31) impedance (Eq, 326)VOLUME 3 AUXILIARY SYSTEM PLANNING G.O. Gerth §§ 3.1 INTRODUCTION Power plant design includes two types of system planning studies «= Studies involving the main power connections between the generator and the electric trans- mission system « Studies involving the electric system supply to motors and other electrical equipment re- quired for the operation of the generating station ‘The output requirements of the main power con- nections are determined by generation expansion studies, system load-flow studies, and system sta- bility studies. Power plant system planning studies then ensure that the generator, the step-up trans- former (also called the unit transformer), and their ‘connections are properly coordinated with system requirements. These specialized studies include selection of a generator rating, establishment of the megavolt ampere rating and turns ratio of the step-up transformer, and calculation of other main ower connection equipment requirements, such as the current-carrying capability and the mechan: ical strength requirements of the generator bus duct and the grounding scheme to be used. ‘The plant auxiliary power system supplies electric ower to the station power system equipment. Itis similar to the distribution system in an industrial plant. However, it has certain special requirements and limitations. Load studies must be performed to determine plant auxiliary system capacity and volt age levels. Voltage profiles that indicate expected voltage levels for various plant and transmission sys- tem operating conditions must be developed. Short- circuit currents, used for determining equipment ratings and relay coordination, must be calculated. Figure 3-1 shows typical elements of the electric system of a power generating station. Le yuuaaunsappaerapenenssanmeend 3.2 DEFINITION OF TERMS ‘Cogeneration station A generating station in which electric power is produced asa by-product of heat energy in the form of steam, air, or combustion products. Conjugate A vector displaced at an equal and opposite angle from a reference angle. Such an angle is said to ‘be a conjugate angle. Control center, motor control center (MCC) An assembly of devices for switching and protecting a num- ber of load circuits Generator circuit breaker The circuit breaker that, connects the generator to the system: it may be on the {generator terminal system or on the high side of the generator step-up transformer. EZ drop The vectorial difference between the vohages at the sending and receiving ends of an electric circuit element, Load tap changer (LTC) A selector switch device, ‘which may include current interrupting contactors, used tochange transformer taps with the transformer ener: ized and carrying full load, Secondary unit substation (SUS), load center (10) A substation consisting of ane or more transformers ‘mechanically and electrically connected to and coord nated in design with one or more switchgear or motor control assemblies. The low-voltage section of an SUS is rated less than 1000 ¥. ‘Station service system, station auxiliary system ‘The electric system supply to motors and other electrioal equipment required for the generating station operation. Station service transformer (SST), reserve trans- former, startup transformer A transformer that supplies power from a station high voltage bus to the sta ‘ton awsllaries and the unit auxiliaries during unit startup and shutdown and when the unit auxiliaries transformer is not available. ‘System grounding The means or techniques applied 10 limit system voltages to ground, Unit auxiliaries Any item or equipment required for the functional operation of the generator. Unit auxiliary transformer (UAT) A transformer intended primarily to supply all or a portion of the unit, aunliary load Unit transformer (UT) The power system supply ‘wansformer that transfers alr a portion ofthe generator unit power. ‘Vector A mathematical quantity that has magnitude and direction. —S 3.3 MAIN POWER CONNECTIONS Generating capacity rating and location are deter- mined by studies unrelated to the generating station,3-2 POWER PLANT ELECTRICAL REFERENCE SERIES Utiity power system IL. 0% unit, main Hlepeup teanstormer cin generator Be Stetion nit euxiries Aranstormer| r a \ "no \ 1 \ 1 Le — —Medium—veltage = =9———el 1 i i mats TN Rheor 1 I i \ \ 1 \ i i \ 1 \ i) 1 ee | L b } 4 aL seentey et —§ P| suoehtton eehetotmers Wy FT Lowmvottage eee F 1 1 1 1 1 L Low-voltage motor control centers Wt ‘Smell power ond lighting loads Figure 3-1. Simpities SingleLine Diagram, Unitconnected Seaton, Station Service System system design studies. The general size and location of generating capacity to be added to an electric system is determined by generation expansion studies. These studies take into consideration the projected load growth of the system, the desired reliability, and the economics of operation in order to determine the unit size, the type of operation desired, and the fuel supply. The general location of the station and its operating requirements are determined from transmission system studies inves- ‘gating the normal and emergency operation of this ‘unit in conjunction with other units on the system.Detailed system studies involve steady-state load flows; dynamic system studies involve transient, midterm, or ong term stability conditions. The lat ter studies develop essential machine requirements that dictate critical switching times, special govern- {ng control, excitation systems, and so on. The machine requirements are established to meet problems of harmonics, unbalanced loads, subsyn- chronous resonance, negative sequence currents, and toad shedding. The studies that determine these requirements are specialized: a general refer- ence book can only suggest that they may be made. The transmission system studies are required and determine the unit location and its interface “with system operation. They consider the unit as a fixed source of megawatts and as a variable source of megavolamperes-reactive to provide the system voltage level desired. The allowable system voltage variation must initially be established. ‘These studies determine the range of megavolt: amperes-reactive supply required by the system at, the selected plant location under normal operating conditions including heavy and light load periods, during maintenance outages, and under contin- gency conditions. GENERATOR RATING (Once the generation requirements have been deter- ‘mined by system planning studies, the options avail- able for the generator selection are limited. The final megawatt rating of the generator is determined by the output of the prime mover. A generator is often provided with a larger rating than the rated ‘output of the prime mover, but the decision to do this depends on the possibility of increased out- ut due to technological changes. Some variation, in megavolt-ampere or kiloampere rating may be possible. However, other generator characteristics, such as voltage rating, power factor, short-circuit, ratio, impedances, and time constants, as well as. the governing system and the excitation system, are determined by the manufacturer to meet the sys- tems specified requirements. Deviations from the ‘manufacturer's suggested generator characteristics require close coordination between the customer and the manufacturer's design engineers. GENERATOR UNIT STEP-UP TRANSFORMERS The series of simplified load-flow studies shown in Figure 3-2 and the data given in Table 3-1 can bbe used to provide a generator megawatt rating and 4 unit step-up transformer primary (low-voltage AUXILIARY SYSTEM PLANNING 3-3 rating). Figure 3-2 shows variations in the system load to represent the following: ‘= The normally expected generator maximum output in megawatts, megavolt-amperes- reactive, and system kilovolts. This condition is expected most of the time; therefore, the ‘most efficient operation would be desired here. = The maximum and minimum kilovolts at maximum megawatt and megavolt-ampere reactive output both lagging and leading, an ‘operation desired during system contingen- cies or other unusual operating conditions. ‘The primary voltage rating is usually 1 to 5% be- low the generator nameplate kilovolts. The low-side transformer tap should be fixed at this value, and. additional load flows should then be run to deter- mine the unit generation required for different ‘transformer high-voltage taps, system voltage levels, and system megavoltampere-reactive require: ‘ments. These runs will usually suggest some oper- ational limits, such as the generator reactive capability, the generator or transformer voltages, or the transformer rating, as determined from the high-voltage flow indicated by the load-flow studies. At voltages below the transformer tap kilovolts, the ‘transformer rating is limited to the tap amperes, not the megavolt-ampere flow. If the generator rating has been selected (the ‘usual casel, the unit step-up transformer rating can be established by using the procedure described in Volume 2, Power Transformers. Power Transformers The procedure in Volume 2 includes conducting 2 series of load flows with the {generator unit output fixed at various megawatt, megavolt-ampere-reactive ratings, or generator ‘operating voltages while the system is considered the swing generator. These studies provide trans- former ratings that will exploit the maximum capa- bility of the generating unit, although certain limitations may be imposed on system operation. ‘The unit step-up transformer rather than the more normally accepted step-down transformer should be specified with the low voltage as the pri- mary winding. If anormal step-down transformer (a transformer with a high-voltage primary and a low-voltage secon- dary) is considered for use as 2 generator unit step- up transformer, a higher-rated transformer will usualy be required to ensure that the lowvltage ‘winding is adequate for the service specified.3-4 POWER PLANT ELECTRICAL REFERENCE SERIES Generotor Swing generator Stotion cusiliory system Toad NW ond MYAR, Unit transformer ‘equivelent circuit tc sorte mine! kV Transformer System impedance food MW (resistance ond and VAR reactoncel Shunt loos were VAR cen to system with negigibie error . Figure 3-2. system for Loac-Fow Studies to Determine Generator and Unit Step-Up Tenstormer Ratings ‘These discussions are directed mainly toward unit connected generator and step-up transformer systems; they may not apply to generators serving load at generator voltage. However, the basic prin- ciples should be applied to installations with a generator circuit breaker in cases in which the unit auxiliaries transformer may be served by back feeding through the generator step-up transformer. In this case, difficulties may be encountered in providing adequate auxiliary system voltages when the auxiliary system is served by back feeding ‘through the unit transformer. This operating con- ition should be thoroughly investigated. UNIECONNECTED SYSTEM GROUNDING ‘An advantage of the unit-connected system is its ability to limit generator or transformer damage due to line-to-ground faults in the generator or transformer windings. The usual grounding scheme for the unit-connected system is to ground the generator neutral through a distribution trans- former with a low-voltage loading resistor. The ground fault currentis limited to very low value, only slighty higher than the charging current of the _generator-transformer system. The calculations for determining values of current and resistance are thoroughly discussed in Volume 8, Station Protection. GENERATOR MAIN LEAD CALCULATIONS ‘The other calculation required for a unit-connected_ system is the determination of maximum fault cur- rents to be expected on the connections from the generator terminals. If a generator breaker is provided, the circuit breaker interrupting and close-and-latch duties must be specified for the ‘maximum available fault current. The currents ‘come from either the generator (for a fault between the circuit breaker and the transformer) or the ‘generator step-up transformer (fora fault between the generator and the circuit breaker). The ‘Table 5.1. Syscem Data for Load-low Studies to Betermine Generator anc Une Sepp Transformer Ratings —— Sytem Data vale ‘vercomertighaolage lap ten vomina ows rarer lowsctage tan eal tap changer (TC) to hold 5025 per unt sam nom! sung generator to 01d 1000 per une of (eneatoeates vats vrarsomer megaictampare sytem load megavctamoeres ren (megevats ana mogarot ‘srpsreereacie) ato aviary ayer loa 6 128 of anstomer rng = 085 PF rrandoer mpedence num or rato nigh: “ohage base impulse suision Tow in case wanelomerresstance 20% of randomer rang srandemer shut oa, ‘egal (Yarstornerolcad ps vandorner ur a neguctamperesreactre (randeer ectg eure)‘mechanical strength of the main circuit conductor supports can be specified as the larger of these values, but the mechanical strength required for {ups to the unit auniliaries transformer; the potential transformer, the excitation transformer, or the ‘surge protection equipment must include the con- tribution from both the generator and the trans- former and system. The calculations presented in Section 3.4 take into consideration the maximum. short-circuit current and the maximum asymmetry. GENERATORS SERVING LOAD AT GENERATOR VOLTAGE For generators serving load at generator voltage, various bus schemes can be considered to limit the short-circuit duties to the capacity of commercially available switchgear and equipment. These systems are usually isolated systems or industrial installa- tions with cogeneration units of relatively small size (ranging from less than 1000'KW and 480 V to 20 of 30 MW at 13.8 KV). Systems with larger units can assume the characteristics of unit. connected schemes. The design possibilities of {generation and load are so diverse that each system. | will require individual analysis. However, in each | case, switchgear interrupting and close-andlatch duties should be carefully checked for the worst possible operating condition. Currentlimiting reac- tors are required for all but the smallest systems ‘and provide economical solutions up to the limits caused by excessive voltage drops and excessive Currentsiitn feactor ke Leads Leeds Generator Generator ©. Recetor between the buses Figure 3-3 AUXILIARY SYSTEM PLANNING 3-5, losses. Satisfactory designs minimize the flow through reactors, except during emergencies or equipment maintenance. ‘The simplest arrangement includes a reactor be ‘tween two buses, each with generation or a power source (Figure 3-3a) As the load grows, such a sys tem can be expanded into a synchronizing bus ar Tangement (Figure 3-3b). A special requirement for systems serving loads at generator voltage is a provision for system ‘grounding. Note that the distribution transformer- resistor combination grounding system, used almost exclusively for unit-connected generator systems, is not applicable to these systems unless the electric system is small and fixed. If all power sourees are grounded properly, the neutral reactance to be provided in the generator neutral connection to {ground is calculated as follows: Xq = (Generator X3~ generator XoV3 ee Sere eye eee ere eres meee cee ea windings are usually braced for the forces associated anna poe cee ees Possinie fie to ahaty system a Synehroniing bus current reoctor current reactor exer tor Loodes Generator Generator Generator ». Synchronizing bus arrangement Reacor Te Arrangement346 POWER PLANT ELECTRICAL REFERENCE SERIES ground connection is one-third the generator sub- transient reactance, Xi, less the generator zero se- quence reactance, Xy, The generator subtransient reactance to be used for this calculation and other short-circuit studies is specified as‘at rated voltage?” as the “saturated! value, or as X, Systems with multiple supply sources must be carefully analyzed to ensure that they are always effectively grounded under all operating conditions and that short-circuit currents do not exceed equip- ment capabilities of either circuit breakers or generator or transformer windings. Phaseto- neutral connected loads can only be served from effectively grounded systems in which the Xo; ratio i less than 3 and the RjX; ratio i less than 1 ‘The low-reactance grounded system described above is subject to circulating currents between generators due to differences in generator wind- ings. These currents are often small but may result in heating or unwanted trips because of ground: protective relay operation. Industrial medium-voltage systems are popularly low-resistance grounded. Ground fault currents are thereby limited in magnitude to minimize equipment damage but are of adequate values to permit rapid detection of faults and proper relay and circuit breaker coordination. Systems with several low-resistance ground sources may operate satisfactorily, but the variation in ground fault cur- rrent under various operating conditions may result in poor relay coordination. Other grounding systems include high-resistance or high-reactance grounding. Such grounding sys- tems may have special applications under certain conditions; however, the devices are expensive, and elaborate neutral switching arrangements are ‘usually required to ensure that a suitable ground for the system is provided at all times. (CURRENTLIMITING REACTOR CALCULATIONS In some situations the addition of current-imiting reactors may be an economically effective solution ‘to the problem of excessive short-circuit currents. ‘The short-circuit calculations can be repeated to determine the amount of reactance that would be required in a cireuit to limit the short circuit to the value desired. This reactance value in per unit on the study base can be converted to actual ohms as follows. The resistance value in a reactor is usually very small and can be neglected in calculations. reactor ohms = per unit reactance x base ohms (eq. 3-2) Where: base kiovols? ‘base ohms = Se megavoltamperes (eq. 33) ‘The specification for the reactor mustalso include the system voltage and the continuous ampere rat- ing of the circuit. These values completely describe the reactor, but its action can also be specified as the voltage drop provided at rated current 1% drop rated current x actual ohms in pereat "("—tnetneural vis | Tnetoneutral vols x 100 (eq. 3-4) ‘The amount of voltage drop caused by the reac- tor determines the maximum amount of current limiting that can be provided. Operation usually is considered satisfactory if this drop is less than. 410%, but the actual voltage levels to be expected should be checked by voltage-drop calculations us: ing the expected loads and power factors. Finally, the kilovolt-ampere rating of the reactor is often desired. Reactor kilovolt- amperes can be calculated as follows: three-phase ‘ilovolt amperes = circuit klovoltamperes, 1X drop in percent 700 (eg. 3-5) . Example ‘The following example illustrates the calculations. The short-circuit calculations, conducted on a 10-MVA, 4.16-KV base, indicate that a current-limiting reactor of 0.04 per unit reactance in the 1200-A feed is, required to limit the short-circuit current to the switchgear rating. Substituting these values in Equation 3-2, we get:AUXILIARY SYSTEM PLANNING 3-7 reactor acl ohms « 0.06 per unit acance (438°) « oo6s2 reactor IX drop in percent = 200A x 20892. ooo « 5.46% 160 Substituting the result of reactor IX drop in percent in Equation 3-5, we get: reactor three-phase kilovoltamperes = 1200 A x 4.16 kV sat Dyspnea 34 STATION SERVICE SYSTEM STUDIES PRELIMINARY STUDIES Rating and locating a new generating unit require careful study. The electrical service for the pro- posed unit auxdiaries is as vital as the unit output itself, ut studies concerning this supply are often neglected. When the unit is operating, it can serve its auxiliaries. However, these same auxiliaries, or atleast a major portion of them, must be served when the unit is not generating. A startup, or re- serve, source of adequate capacity must also be provided. As a rule of thumb for intial planning, the offsite source for this startup or reserve source should have a load-carrying capability of three to five times the estimated auxiliary system load, This will provide satisfactory voltage regulation to the auxiliary system. In addition, the off-site source should have a short-circuit capability approaching 1 MVAhp for the largest motor on the system, Although the auxiliary system load depends on ‘whether the unit isa fosslfueled or nuclear unit, for initial planning the aunliary system load can be estimated at 5 to 10% of the unit rating and the larg- est motor load at 10% of the total auxiary system Joad. The other large, medium-vohtage motors in the station constitute 70 to 80% of the auxiliary system Joad; low-voltage loads, such as small motors and lighting, constitute 10 to 20% of the auxiliary sys- tem load Each transformer or transformer winding serv- ing the auxiliary system load should be limited to maximum kilovoltampere rating corresponding to @ lowvoltage current of 2500 A. The minimum transformer winding rating in kilovoltamperes should be about twice the horsepower rating of the largest motor connected to the winding. Within these limits a coordinated design can be developed to provide satisfactory voltage regulation for normal 3.46% 100 300 kva ‘operation and for motor starting while short-circuit, duties remain within the range of available ‘equipment. ‘Table 3-2 summarizes the above rules of thumb. Table 3.2 Ausiiary System Quancves —— Quantity Vale teal awilay orton cad —~S 10 TOR oun ing Incvicl oacs: Taroest maar 10% of tes aay te meciemictage meters 70060 oa aur oad owsotage loss 1010 20% fe asiary las ‘rartormere Tmineum wincingrairg tem the largest mato rating (sown amperes) rmaxinum wicing rating _coresponds fo 2500.4 (reget ames) ‘seoordary curert revere source casscty 3105 tines ttl audit lose reserve source shorcrest 05 1 Mip fer largest mor apebity ‘As an example consider an 800-MW unit. The to. tal auxiliary system load may be 5 to 10% of this, rating (40 to 80 MVA), and the largest motor, 10% of this auxiliary load (5000 to 6000 hp). The mini mum transformer winding rating is 12 to 15 MVA. (twice the largest motor rating). ‘This rating, combined with the low-voltage cur- rent of 2500 A, suggests that a 4.16-kV medium- voltage system may be adequate. The maximum transformer winding rating for this system is 18 MVA; dividing this number into the auxiliary system load gives the number of windings as 2.2 10 4.4. At least two 3-winding transformers of 30 or 40 MVA are required. ‘The high-voltage startup or reserve supply should have a load capability of 300 MVA (three to five times auxiliary load) and a short-circuit capability ap- Proaching 5000 MVA. A 115-kV auxiliary system supply would probably be adequate.3:8 POWER PLANT ELECTRICAL REFERENCE SERIES CONCEPTUAL DESIGN STUDIES Unit Auxiliaries System Load ‘The studies made during the conceptual design of a power plant are perhaps the most important ones undertaken dur- ing the engineering and construction of the plant. At this time design criteria are established, volt- age levels determined, major equipment ratings selected, and bus and switching arrangement decided. The conceptual design is performed af- ter the turbine generator unit and the steam gener- ator have been selected. This means that the site, the fuel supply the flue gas treatment, and the cool ing water system probably have been determined and basic design questions, such as whether to choose two fullsize steam generator feedpumps or three half-size pumps, have been resolved. By the start of conceptual design a heat balance providing information on horsepower require- ‘ments will have been made, and certain design criteria will have been established. The fan drives for fossil-fueled units will have been determined, Steam generator feedpump and circulating pump ratings will have been decided. ‘Tocalculate the total connected load, add other Kilowatt or kilovolt-ampere loads, such as precipi- tators or electrode boilers, as well as unit substa- tions serving the lighting and small power loads. ‘The lighting and small power load can be consid- ered 10% of the total. Allow margins depending on the adequacy of the data available. If the requirements of special loads such as cooling-tower fans, coal-handling equip- ment, or flue gas treatment systems have not been determined, treat their entire load as if it consisted of medium-voltage motors. f later information be- ‘comes available and considerable low-voltage loads for these systems are indicated, the station design can accommodate this change more easily than if the load had been originally treated as if it con- sisted of low-voltage motors served from secondary unit substations. ‘The total connected load as determined from the above will provide some measure of the total unit auniliaries and station service transformer capacity required to serve the auxiliary system. Auxiliary System Voltage Except for special cases or for small generating units, a medium- voltage system is indicated. Medium voltage is specified for motors larger than 200 to 300 hp. However, iffor a smaller unit only one or two larger ‘motors (up to 800 to 1000 hp) are required, low- voltage systems may provide an economical ar- rangement. An economic analysis of the operational conditions may be necessary to determine the most suitable arrangement. The medium-voltage systems are either 2.4 kV, 4.16 KV, 6.9 KV, or 13.8 KV: Motors with more than ‘5000 to 6000 hp generally require a 6.9 kV system to provide satisfactory voltage regulation when they are started. In any event redundancy should be provided for as much of the system as possible so that in the event of outage or loss of any single element, the tunit can continue in operation. For every station this will require at least two sources, two trans- formers, and two buses so that redundant mechan- ical equipment can be served from separate systems. Figure 3-4 shows the simplest system. The minimum redundancy is provided by the unit aux. iliary transformer, served from the generator bus, and the station service (startup) transformer, served from the reserve source. For smaller units, or when a generator breaker at generator voltage {s provided, the requirement for redundant trans- former supplies can be questioned, considering the demonstrated reliability of transformers. However, unless operation can be proved operationally and economically sound, atleast this much redundancy in transformer capacity should be provided. Siar reasoning should be applied to the main auxiliary bus arrangement. At least two electrically indepen- dent buses should be provided and the loads divided. between the buses. In this way continued opera: tion of the unit can be expected, although perhaps at reduced load, even with one bus out of service. In situations in which multiple transformers, wind: ings, and switchgear buses are required, this prin ciple still applies, although transformer and circuit breaker arrangements could be developed to pro- vide the desired reliability without full transformer redundancy. ‘Transformer Ratings The total load (as developed above) provides some measure of the transformer ‘capacity required to serve the auxiliary system load. If the estimated load exceeds the capability of a sin gee transformer, additional units or transformers with multiple windings must be considered. Al though two-winding transformers provide slightly better reliability than multiple winding transform- cers, the savings in floor area and simplified connec- tions more than compensate for the slight decrease in reliability of muhiple winding transformers. From the standpoint of system calculations there is noSource 1 Source 2 Transformer 4 (often the unit ouxtior transformer! Transformer 2 7 (often the transformer! He ie ‘Small power ana lighting Motors Motors Remote Toods’ Remote Toads. Figure 3-4. Station Service Auxiliary Sysem Aifference, because the coupling between windings {is minimal and each winding can be considered a separate transformer. ‘Todetermine the minimum number of windings required, divide the total load including a generous 10% margin by the maximum self-cooled (OA) winding rating suggested above. Then adjust the ratings to provide the required total capacity. Busand Transformer Arrangements Alternate bus arrangements are shown in Figure 3-5, The ar- rangement in Figure 3-Sa can be used for smaller ‘transformer ratings, but larger transformers re- quire multiple buses served from each winding igure 3-5b) because of the limited thermal capac- ity of medium-voltage circuit breakers. A different bus arrangement provides a bus tie breaker between two buses (Figure 3-6a) or a dual- feed system (Figure 3-6b). The bus tie breaker ar- rangement will eliminate a circuit breaker, but the dual-feed arrangement is usually preferred. Design Criteria Before alternate arrangements of ‘transformers and buses forthe auxiliary system can be developed, certain design criteria must be either implicitly or explicitly determined. The term design criteria in this context inchudes specification not only ‘of equipment limitations, such as thermal limits and ‘operating voltage limits, but also of normal and oper- ating conditions, such as fullload, startup load, shut- down load, or specified emergency operation. It also includes a description of certain mechanical systems that may dictate electric system operation. ‘AUXILIARY SYSTEM PLANNING 3-9 For the conceptual design studies, equipment limitations are assigned as specified in industry's or manufacturer's standards, As a result thermal ratings are never exceeded, and normal operating voltage limits are observed. Operating Conditions The station design must take into consideration special operating conditions that have been specified. For example, large motors may be started in a specified sequence, or load shedding in certain conditions may be acceptable. In muktunit stations the reserve station service transformers may provide service to more than one unit, Finally, certain mechanical design philosophies ‘must be outlined, such as provision for two out of three system operations or the specification that certain equipment is required only during startup or when the unit is not in operation. ‘These conditions must be considered in the sta tion auxiliary system design. Alternate system ar- rangements must provide service in accordance with these criteria, Margins Some margins must also be incorporated in the system design to allow for manufacturing ‘tolerances, to account for reasonable unknowns or errors in the calculations, and to provide some re serve for load increases afer the station is in service. Even f these considerations are included, itis very possible that the alternate arrangements developed will not be completely comparable in function; the we * alone © One-bus-per-transformer winging ok Ps. —buses-per-transformer winding Figure 3-5. Medurn\otage Bus Arangemerts for Tansormess3-10 POWER PLANT ELECTRICAL REFERENCE SERIES differences will have to be described and judged according to personal preference, experience, or other measures. Design Considerations With voltage levels, num- ber of transformers, and number of buses tentatively selected in various arrangements, the loads can be divided among the buses and transformers to pro- vvide balanced loads and the desired redundancy. For additional factors that should also be incorporated in the system design, follow these guidelines: ‘= If there are substantial remote loads, such as a distant circulating water intake structure, consider a 13.8-KV distribution system serving secondary unit substations and medium: voltage unit substations. ‘= Serve multiple loads performing the same function from different buses and transformers. «= Balance the motor contributions to short circuits. '» Consider serving larger motors from one set of buses and smaller motors and unit substa- tions from another set of buses, so that the ‘unit substation low-voltage systems will be less affected by voltage drops during motor starts. + Divide static rectifier and inverter system loads between transformers to limit wave- form distortion, whe bo 2. Bus tle arrongements ale >. Ouel-teed errangements Figure 3-6 MediurmVoltage Buses for Atemate Feee ‘Arangemerts «= If several large motors require 6.9 KY, con- sider two medium-voltage levels. For many smaller motors 4.16 kV is desirable. Under special conditions 2.4 kV may be considered. «= In the case of two medium-voltage levels, vary the motor size break point between the voliage levels. = Ensure adequate transformer capacity for ‘emergency conditions by serving all redun- dant load connections from one source. «= Provide medium-voltage buses for remote loads, such as coal handling or flue gas con- tol, considering the feeds to the equipment, the operating conditions, and the redundancy required. ‘= Serve unit substations from the highest volt- age available. ‘= If the system contains one or two unusually lange motors, consider a separate transformer for these motors. Each of the tentative arrangements should be checked to ensure that the following requirements. are met: 1 Adequate capability of circuit breakers for the shortcireuit duty «= Voltage drops during motor starts within specified limits Short-Circult Caleutatlons The calculation of the shortcircuit duty in Kilovoltamperes on ‘mediumsvoltage buses should include the following: ‘« Medium-voltage motor contribution as six times the connected horsepower Low-voltage motor contribution to medium- voltage buses as twice the connected-unit substation transformer kilovolt-amperes Source system contribution as the trans- former rated kilovolt-amperes divided by the ‘transformer per unit impedance. (Be sure the impedance value used is on the same kilovolt- ampere base) ‘The source system contribution to the short cir- cuit can be varied by specifying the transformer impedance. The transformer impedance ranges from 5 to 12% of the transformer rating. For these calculations 50 MVA may be assumed as the shortcireuit capability for 2.4-KV systems,250 or 350 MVA for 4.16-KV systems, 500 MVA for 6.9-KV systems, and 850 or 1100 MVA for 13.8-kV systems. Note that these values are suitable only for these simplified calculations. Actual short- circuit duties for equipment must be calculated in accordance with procedures as detailed in appli- cation guides or industry standards, Motor-Start Voltage-Drop Calculation The motor-start voltage drop can be calculated as follows: ‘= Assume motor-starting kilovolt- ampere requirement is six times the motor horsepower: «= Divide motor-starting kilovolt amperes by wansformer kilovolt ampere rating. ‘= Multiply above result by transformer impedance in percentage. (Be sure that the impedance value used is on the same kilovolt- ampere base.) vohage drop _/ largest motor horsepower x 6 in percentage ~ | Transformer rated Klovoltamperes x, Tansformer impedance in percentage (Bq. 3-6) If more than one motor must be started at one time, the total horsepower must be used. The volt age drop calculated in this manner should not ex: ceed 15% for 80%-start motors or half this value for standard 90%-start motors. ‘These calculations should eliminate many of the alternatives considered, especially if rough cost es- ‘timates of equipment are developed using catalog price information. Installation costs can be ignored unless obviously significant. ‘Those arrangements that appear most desirable should then be refined, optimized, and studied in ‘more detail according to the following detailed de- sign and calculation procedures. 3.5 DETAILED DESIGN STUDIES After the conceptual design of the station auxiliary system has been completed and a system design selected, detailed studies of the proposed system ‘must be performed to provide information for specifying equipment and to verify system opera- tion in accordance with the design criteria. These detailed studies can be performed in various ways depending on the information available and the AUXILIARY SYSTEM PLANNING 8419 accuracy desired. The sequence for performing the calculations includes: = Collection of data and establishment of a data base ‘= Short-circuit studies to determine switchgear short-circuit capability and minimum trans- former impedances = Voltage profile studies to check system opera- tion under various operating conditions DATA BASE A data base serving as a basis for the calculations and providing documentation for the data used should be established. This data base clearly iden- tifies assumptions and criteria used in the calcu- lations. Data base revisions occur as the plant design progresses and more information, such as manufacturer's data, becomes available. Sources of data should be identified and dated. Including copies of correspondence and memoranda in the data base may be desirable; however, references to such backup data should be satisfactory. ‘The arrangement of the data base depends on information available and detail desired. Separate listings of motors, transformers, and circuit infor ‘ation as well as calculated and assumed bus loads are recommended. The listings should include the quantities to be used in the calculations, either as volts, amperes, and power factors for loads and ac- tual ohms for circuit resistance and reactances or as megawatts and megavolt-amperes-reactive for Joad values and per unit values for circuit resis- tance and reactance. Calculations should be documented so that values used in the calculations can be easily verified Per Unit System Although the station service cal: culations can be performed by using actual volts, amperes, and ohms (either measured or calculated), the per unit system offers a convenient, simplified calculation tool. The per unit system equates a 1.00 er unit voltage to a nominal base voltage and a 1.00 per unit current to nominal base kilovolt- amperes or megavolt-amperes, usually selected as 110 MVA or 100 MVA. ‘The basic formulas for converting actual electri- cal quantities to the per unit system are: 1.00 per unit threephase base a rmegnokamperes “ megnctampers +S 1100 per unit volage = Pave Kovels oq, 3.6)342 POWER PLANT ELECTRICAL REFERENCE SERIES 1.00 per unit current __ base loot amperes -_ beekiocts vs 1.00 per ___base kilovolts? : tt ohme ~ Tae megaltampes S10) Changing per unit ohms from kilovolts or mega- voltamperes on one base to kilovols or megavolt amperes on another base involves the fllowing: per unit ohms on new __ per unit ohms megmoltampere ~ on old base base new base 4 Begavoltamperes Se eq. 310 megavoleamperes per unit hms on new = per unit ohms on old base lovoltbase x [oe base Kowal F eq. 342) [A single-line diagram of the system should be included along with a plot plan and preliminary layout of the plant. The operational scenarios under consideration can then be followed and unusual conditions identified Motor and Load List_A motor and load list in- corporating as much information as possible must bbe included with the data concerning pumps, fans, heating and ventilating, and the like. This infor. mation should be provided by the personnel most. familar with the requirements. Off-site Source Capabitity Before the results of detailed studies can be considered acceptable, the offsite power source information including ade- quate documentation and verification must be available. The auxiliary system design is dependent on off-site source conditions to the extent that the proposed offsite system may have tobe revised to ensure satisfactory operation. The data must Include the expected range of operating voltage on the generator bus and the range of operating voltage onthe reserve source bus, as well asthe maximum and minimum short-circuit currents available on. the generator unit step-up transformer system and the off-site reserve or startup source. Operating Conditions The plant operating oon: ditions will have been well outined inthe planning criteria developed in conceptual design studies dis- ‘cussed above. These conditions should be reevalu- ated and verified. The expected loads under various ‘operating conditions should be tabulated and sum- ‘marized in a form suitable for carrying out the cal culations. The load tabulations should take into consideration the large mediumaohage motors and loads as well as estimates ofthe low-voltage systems, Which include unit substations and motor control center loads. These extensive breakdowns are re- quired so that, ifthe final design deviates from the assumptions made in these studies, the deviations can be clearly noted and additional studies made, if required. Margins The planning criteria should include ‘margins considered in the study calculations made early in the plant design. These margins should in- clude the effect of manufacturing tolerances, al: Jowance for unknowns and calculation errors, and some reserve for load increases as the plant design progresses. An allowance should also be made for load growth after the plant is in service, ‘Margins can be expressed or accounted for in various ways. Compensation for manufacturing tolerances can be made by including the tolerance factor to provide the most conservative results. For example, tolerance allowed in the specified im: pedance of a three.winding transformer is +10%. The impedance value used in short-circuit calcu- lations should be 90% of the specified value. The impedance value used in voltage-drop calculations should be 110% of the specified value. ‘Amangin could be applied to the manufacturer's guaranteed ratings. Thus, short-circuit duty caleu- lations would limit the short-circuit current cap: bility to 3 or 5% less than the manufacturer's guaranteed value. The maximum load currents ‘could be limited to 5 or 10% less than the manufac- turer's continuous thermal rating, Voltage-drop studies could define the maximum voltage drop, Which could be accepted as providing voltages above the minimum required for operation at the ‘manufacturer's guaranteed values. The minimum voltage for continuous operation could be stated as 91% of nameplate voltage; the maximum voltage dip on motor starting could be specified as 82 or 83%. These compare to the manufacturer's stated values of 90 and 80%, respectively. ‘The above planning criteria should be clearly delineated and included in the data base withadequate documentation or explanation of the ‘methods selected for the calculation procedures. Similarly, major assumptions of data, operating conditions, or simplification in calculations made during the studies should be repeated and identi- fied. This will ensure that they are considered when the results of the studies are analyzed. ‘The station service studies should inchide the re- maining system variables of bus arrangements, trarisformer impedances, and operating conditions. ‘This approach provides the optimum system within the limits of circuit breaker short-circuit capability, voliage-drop limitations, and load-carrying capability SHORT-CIRCUIT STUDIES Every electrical system is subject to short cireuits, or faults, which may cause currents greater than normal. The system must be able to withstand these abnormal currents, and equipment must be provided to interrupt the current and remove the fault from the system. This section covers the procedures for perform- ing short-circuit studies and for applying the results to the specifications of equipment with adequate ‘mechanical strength, short-time thermal capacity, and short-circuit current interrupting capability ‘The basic principles of fault current analysis, sources of short-circuit currents, and methods of calculating both are thoroughly discussed in many nis-kv AUXILIARY SYSTEM PLANNING 3-13. textbooks, industry publications, and manufac: ‘turers’ manuals. Only requirements and concerns specifically pertinent to power plant auxiliary system design and operation are included here. Similarly, the application of circuit breakers and switchgear to medium- and low-voltage industrial distribution systems is thoroughly described in and {intimately connected with industry standards and test procedures and with manufacturers’ applica- tion, operating, and maintenance instructions, The necessary calculations should be performed in strict accordance with this information. Only the special conditions experienced in power plants are described in this volume. ‘Once constructed, a power plant auxiliary system ‘undergoes few changes. Such a system is unlike an industrial system in which new processes and equipment often result in modification or expan- sion of the distribution system. This relative stability permits detailed system analysis, maximiz- ing use of equipment but providing little margin for change. The illustrations provided are examples of the factors that are typically incorporated in an original power plant system design. Application of industrial system design practices toa power plant auxiliary system may result in certain elements not being included in the power plant design; this can result in unsafe conditions or reduced reliability ‘The following examples use a typical power plant auxiliary system (Figure 3-7) to demonstrate some Maximum shortmeiceult current avoiloble 3000 MVA ot 115 KV XR ratio = 18 Minimum short-circuit current MS-KV switehyord bus = 4000 MVA Station service transformer (SST) Y 158 Secondery Unit substation transformer (SUS) 3000 kVA, 4160-480 V i= 5.78 4.6-kV medium-voltage switchgear bus 10/125 MVA, OA/FA: TIS—4.16 KV Full toed = 105 A. NEC toge letter G 460-v motors Figure 3-7 Fail food = 290 A NEC code letter F Power Station Auniary System3-44 POWER PLANT ELECTRICAL REFERENCE SERIES of the techniques involved in performing short- circuit studies and determining appropriate cit cuit breakers or switchgear ratings. Information in Figure 37 was taken from equipment nameplates except for the 115-KV system short-circuit current availabilty. Ths information can be obtained from a utlity system short-circuit study as performed by the utility system planning or relay department. Data Preparation Developing data for the short- circuit studies involves listing and documenting the elements of the system with their source, any as sumptions, and any calculations required. ‘The information in Figure 3-7 constitutes the start of a data base for the voltage profile studies described later in Section 3.5 as well as the short. cireuit studies described here. ‘The calculations use the per unit system. As dis- cussed earlier in Section 3.5 by reducing all quar- tities to a common base the per unit system simplifies the required calculations and minimizes the probability of error. It accomplishes this at the cost of the additional calculations needed to con vert the system data to the common base and then to convert the calculation results back to actual system quantities. ‘The selected bases for an example are 10,000 kVA or 10 MVA, 115KV, 4.16 KV, and 480 V or 0.48 KV. It is necessary to calculate both the short-circuit, current magnitude and the reactance to resistance ratio, X/R, in order to check the mediumvoltage circuit application. The XIR ratio and machine short-circuit time constants have a significant ef- fect on the decay of the short-circuit current from its initial value at the occurrence of the fault to the value of the current at the protective equip- ‘ment interrupting time. So in addition to the system quantities (Z or X) required to determine the mag- nitude of the short-circuit current, the resistance, R, of each circuit element must also be obtained by one of the methods described below, starting with the 115-KV system element Source System Impedance MIS-V system: ‘maximum short-circuit ‘current avallabie UR = 15 = 8000 MVA at 115 kV ‘The system element reactance, Xs, in per unit on the selected base megavolt amperes (10 MVA) is calculated by dividing the base megavolt- amperes by the short-circuit megavolt-amperes. The system element resistance, Rs, is calculated by dividing the reactance value, Xs, by the X/R ratio. 10 ‘3000 base megavoltamperes, Xs ‘Short-circuit megavoltamperes ‘= 0.0013 per unit on 10 MVA, 115 KV (Bg. 3-13) Hs 9s * cor 0.0013 15 = 0.0001 per unit (Bq. 3-14) If a system X/R ratio is not available, a typical value may be selected from Table 3-3 (2. ‘The above values would then be entered into the data base and into the reactance and resistance networks shown in Figures 3-8 and 3-9. ‘Table 3.3. Equivalent System 20 Ratio 2 Typical Locations for Quick Approomacons) ——— “ipe ot Grout ‘Synchronous machines corneted Greco the bus oF coveced trough racers Syretvoncus machines consecied tough vanomers Fates "00 MUA ana ger Syrerronavs machines coneced tough vantormers falna 2510 100 MA foreach tee phase bare Remote sctvenous machines connect trough traneorners rales 100 NA er lrger for each tree [hace bank, with he varsermere proving 908° ‘ove of fetal ecu rpecance te tat pore Remote nctrenaus racines connected rough transornars ree 70 to 100 WA foreach twee phase Dank win tne Vartormes soning 80% or more ‘he tl equnler mpesance fo te faut POE Female syctvonous machines comedies trough cher ‘pee of orouta even ae vancormas raed TOMVA or inal each tree phase bank, anemason ines, Serban eedets, 0 50 Series SOURCE: Applicaton Guse by AC hignetage Creut Breer Fated on a Symmatc’ Bass New Yote Arsencan Naor ‘Stancards nttustnse ef Blectncal ana Everonios Engnees 197. ANSWIEEE St C3TOIOTGTS © 170 EE, 10.10 “0-80 30-80 3080 100 Station Service Transformers Reserve station service transformer nameplate data (use minimum tolerance for conceptual studies!: 1012.5 MVA, OA/FA, 115-4.16 kV mz 415% With only the above transformer nameplate data available, the transformer reactance and resis- tance values to be used in network diagrams for calculating short-circuit currents and X/R ratios ‘can be obtained by using the steps described be- low and in Figure 310 (1).‘Multiply the transformer OA rating by the proper factor from Figure 3-10. Enter the curve of Fig- ure 3-10 at this megavolt-ampere value. Then se- lect the X/R ratio from the curve, using the low range for lower-rated voltage transformers (up to 25 kV) and the high range for voltage ratings of 230 KV and above. ‘The transformer impedance angle is that angle ‘whose tangents the X/R ratio. The transformer reac- tance is the transformer impedance times the sine of this angle; the transformer resistance isthe trans- former impedance times the cosine of the angle. three-phase FOA = Power transformer -megavolt amperes |_ 10(0A rating) x 1.67 (factor from Figure 8-10) eral (eq. 315) At 16.7 MVA and 115 kv, 2UR (rom Figure 310) = 16 ‘wansformer impedance angle = are tan 1 transformer reactance () = 8.15 sin 86.4° 864° 8.13% ‘ansformer resistance (R) = 8.15 c0s 864° = 0.51% Once the transformer reactance and resistance percentage values on the 10-MVA base have been calculated as shown above, they must be converted to per unit on the study base megavolt-amperes as follows: x= Bereent base megavoltamperes 100” Transformer megavoltamperes 13, 10 = $23. 20 - 0.0813 per unit 1. 2.6) 100" * 40 be ene a DSL x 10 5 oo951 100 * “10 ‘These values then are transferred to the reac: tance and resistance networks shown in Figures 3-8 and 3.8 If measured or guaranteed losses for the trans- former are known, the transformer resistance and reactance can be calculated as shown in Equations 3:22, 3-28, and 3.24, Induction Motors Motor 1 (ML: 800 hp, 4.0 kV, 1180 rpm fullload current = 105 A, NEC code letter G "AUXILIARY SYSTEM PLANNING 345 Note: impedences in per unit on 10-MVA dase 5 kv System sus leeo-v moter ‘0.0001 R, =0.0053] R,,=0.0930 Ry 0.5882 Motor Mt 0483 Motor M2 (0267 ©, Resistonce network MS kV 416 RY 0.48 RV Motor Mi y=? 2087 Moter w2 xygn8,8270 b, Reaetence network Figure 3-8 shon-Circuit Calculation for Closeane Latch Dury Networts Motor 2 (M2 2000 hp, 4.0 kV, 3550 rpm fullload current = 290 A, NEC code letter F A significant amount of the initial short-circuit cur- rent for a fault on a generating station auxiliary sys- ‘tem is contributed by the induction motors on the system. This contribution decays rapidly as com- pared tothe short-circuit currents from generators or synchronous motors, but it must be considered in determining the short-circuit duty on circuit breakers and other electrical equipment. Basically, the initial contribution to a fault from a rotating ma- cchine is calculated from the machine subtransient reactance (XG). This reactance, in per unit for induc- tion motors, is calculated as the motor fullload cur- rent divided by the motor locked-rotor current.3446 POWER PLANT ELECTRICAL REFERENCE SERIES. Note: impedances In per unit on 10-MVA base 8 ay 435 nv 048 RV System | sr Jsco—v motor ,=0.0001 R, #0.0081] R,,=0.0930 Ry, =1.4706 Motor Mt ‘sees eter M2 Ryse8.035 6. Resistance network MS ky AIRY 048 kV sus _leso-v motare System] _ sst x 205674 Ky =7.3545 x,=0.0013 x, 0.08 M2 gn 2407 », Reactonce network Figure 3-9 Shor-Circut Caleulaton for interruting Dury Networks \f manufacturer's data for the motor locked-rotor (starting) current is available, this value should be used, With only the above nameplate data available, the locked-rotor current may be obtained from Table 3-4 (2). Jockedrotor maximum {motor current x Kilovolt amperes| lnorsepower in amperes, per horsepower! eee (&q. 317) ‘The motor X/A is obtained from Figure 18 of ANSVIEEE Standard C37.010-1979 (Figure 3-11) (0) ‘The high curve is assumed to represent 3600-rpm_ ‘motors; the medium curve, 1800-rpm motors; and the low curve, 1200-rpm and slower motors. Table 3.4 Lockec-Roto Inctcating Code Leters Kiovatamperes| er Horsepower ‘Wn Loses Rot ose ai5-as 258.300 aoue 50-589 See) ea708 7798 30899 90-999 rOo-1019 125-1398 140-1899 160-1799 180-1999 200-2238 2ascand up 8 g a ‘SOURCE: Motor and Generator: Wasringlon, DC: Natona! Berea Manutacurers Asocimion 1961, NEMA MOIMIST, Sec. 5096 dune 1381, Ths mates reproduced by permiscn of {he Nona! Esectica Manuaetuer Aesooaton tam NEMA Sar ‘ards Pubsicaton MGI-T97, rev T861,Copynget® 157 by NEMA, Calculate motor Xj in per unit by using Equa- tion 3-18. Calculate the motor resistance by using Equation 3-14 (repeated here) 2G = in per unit motor kilowoltampere base (q. 3-18) (per Equation 3-14) For short-circuit studies the reactance and resis- tance values must also be modified by multiplying factors included in Table 3-5, a table taken from Section 5.4.1 of ANSI/TEEE Standard C37.010-1973 (0, These muhiplying factors take into account the Gecay of the motor contribution from the time of the inception of the fault tothe time several cycles later when the protective device contacts part to interrupt the short-circuit current. ‘Note that these values are in per unit on the mo- tornameplate kilovolts and motor kilovolt- amperes. ‘The latter is calculated as: motor lalovot- amperes '= motor fulhload amperes x nameplate Kilovolts V3 (Bq. 9-19) ‘The calculated values must be converted from the motor kilovolt-ampere and nameplate kilovolt60 50 “0 30 20 10 ° Typical x 8, Te ieaee0) $0100. §00 1000 Three-phase, FOA-power transformer MVA (tenders impedance limits! Clos Rating in MVA Factor on all ratings: 167 FA up to 14.9 133 FA 18 ang up 125 FoA ail ratings 10 SOURCE: Applicaton Guide AC High Notage iri Brokers Fated o0 a Syrmenca Ease New York: Amencan Nana Si Gara raul of Elecsreal anc Elecronce Engineers, 179 ANSIEEE Sts. CHOWIONE © EEE 97S, Figure 3-10 XP Range for Power Tansformers bases to the study bases by the following conver- sion factor: conversion __ study base klovoltamperes factor ‘motor Klovoltamperes nameplate Kilovols (sudy base Klovons| 2 $20” The following demonstrates the steps required for determining the proper motor reactance and resistance values, These are used in short-circuit studies to calculate the motor contribution to a fault. Note that different values are required for the interrupting duty and the close-and-latch duty networks (Figures 36 and 3-9) For 800-hp Mi: motor 800 hp x 6.29 KVAIhp Tocked-otor | __ throm Figure current in ~ {9 KV nameplate volage x VS amperes 6A ‘motor subtransient reactance, xj = 2054. 726A = 02446 per unit motor resistance, A= 24 = —__04446_ XR” WS Grom figure $0 (0.0096 per unit For an 800-hp, 1180-rpm motor the close-and- latch duty calculation multiplier is 1.2 Xj and the AUXILIARY SYSTEM PLANNING 3-47 interrupting duty calculation multiplier is 3.0 X3 (Grom Table 35) Table 3.5. Postive Sequence Reactances for Calculating Sequence ‘tors wen amorieceur wnange fro all conaenoere ytrogeneator wihout ‘amoseur winonge [As spetvonovs meters Iresacion mtore ‘Above 1000 no st “800 tem oF toss ‘Above 250 ho a "3600 en Frm $00 1000 np at $800 rp oF tess 300 From 50 250 ho "3800 rm Neglect st ovee phase Pausien motor bee 5D and at Single-phase meta SOURCE: Appcavon Guse AC Hignsotage Grout Bese ates on» Syrmewncal as New Wer: Amercan Nations ‘Sancars Inatutlnstue ol Eecical and Eecrones Expres NGTB ANSINEEE St, CHTONDIWTBO (ELE For the close-and.latch duty calculation: 2X5 = 0.446 x 1.2 = 0.1735 per unit A = 0.0096 x 1.2 = 0.0115 per unit For the interrupting duty calculation: XG = 0.1446 x 3.0 = 04338 per unit A = 0.0096 x 3.0 = 0.0288 per unit ‘These values must be changed to the study base values from the motor nameplate kilovolt and kilovolt-ampere bases by the conversion factor cal: culated as follows: amperes 7 1054 x 40 kV V3 1,000 KVA | 4.0K Fa cary 727 kA (4.16 KV ‘conversion factor = The values tobe transferred tothe reactance and resistance networks in Figures 3-8 and 3-9 are: For the close.and-latch duty network:POWER PLANT ELECTRICAL REFERENCE SERIES so 40 4 igh se i curl Low] 30 x 3 20 é » l ° 50100 250 500 1000 2500 5000 10,000 Nomeplate tho! ‘SOURCE: Apptication Gude fr AC Mighatape Crout Breakers Fated on a Symmeticl Bass. New York Ameican Natooal Si ‘ares etutsingne ol Elesnen ang Elecwonies Engineer. {SPB ANSWNEEE Ss. COTOWITGD IEEE 199, Figure 3-11. 218 Range ot Three Phase Induction Motors Xu = 01735 x 12.7174 ‘= 2.2067 per unit on 10 MVA, 4.36 kV Ruy = O.OUS x 12.7174 = 0.1469 per unit For the interrupting duty network: Ay. = 0.4338 x 12.7174 = 5.5168 per unit Fy = 0.0288 x 12.7174 = 0.3663 per unit For 2000-hp M2: Similar calculations will be performed for M2, motor 2000 bp » 559 kVAIhp locked-ot0r ‘from ‘able 34) current in.” JOR nameplate voluge x VE amperes 161s A = 0.1797 per unit aver 30 Grom Figure 310) = 0.0045 per unit motor resistance, R= For 2 2000-hp, 3550-rpm motor the eloseandiatch duty calculation X; multiplier is 1.0 and the inter- rupting duty X3 multiplier is 15 (from Table 3:5) For the close-andatch duty calculation: XG = 0.797 x 10 = 01797 per unit A = 0.0085 x 1.0 = 0.0085 per unit For the interrupting duty calculation: xu B 04797 x 1.5 = 0.2696 per unit 0.0085 x 10068 per unit ‘motor KVA = 290 A x 4.0 kV VE = 2009 kVA The conversion factor is calculated as follows: ; For the close-andilatch duty network (Figure 3-8): 10,000 vA, 72009 KVA 40K conversion factor = [sou a6 kv 021 Aye = 0.1797 x 4.6021-= 0.8270 per unit Ry = 0.0045 x 4.6021 = 0.0207 per unit For the interrupting duty network (Figure 3-9): yea = 0.2696 X 4.6021 = 1.2407 per unit Rye: = 0.0088 x 4.6021 = 0.0313 per unit When the motor short-circuit time constant ("is ‘obtained from the motor manufacturer, more accu: rate reactances than those obtained by using Table 3-5 can be calculated by using the following factor: reactance multiplying factor = e™” (&q. 2-21) Where: 1 = Kor 0. cycle for close-and-latch calculation or: ‘= contact parting time in cycles for interrupting calculation 1 = short-circuit time constant in cycles The above consideration is particularly important with large, high-speed motors, such as steam gener- ator feedpumps, in which the slower decay of motor contribution to faults will tend to increase the in- ‘errupting short-circuit duty. Conversely, with large, low-speed motors, such as induced-draft fans, the rapid decay of motor contribution may decrease the interrupting duty: The latter characteristic is espe- cially applicable in situations in which additional ‘ripping delay is introduced to reduce the interrupt. ing duty of circuit breakers.Secondary Unit Substation Transformers 1000 KWA, 4160-480 V: impedance fullload curren = 575% 1203 A ‘Transformer losses for small standard transform: ‘ers can often be obtained from catalog data and. the transformer resistance calculated as follows: load loss = fullload loss ~ noload loss (Bq. 3-22) load loss in resistance in _ _ kilowatts x 100 = _Kilowatts * 100 (eg. 323) percentage ~ “Transformer rating or in kilovoltamperes reactance in = — mh percentage load loss = 11,600 W ~ 2300 W (catalog data) = 9300 Ww'1000 (eq, 3-28) = 93 kW 93 x 100 7000 resistance = 0.93% reactance = (5.75 ~ 0.938) = 5.67% 57, 10MVA 100“ a MNA 10MVA TMVA 15670 per unit fon 10 MVA, 0.0950 per unit on 10 MVA Low-Voltage Motor Contribution One may as- ‘sume the motor contribution from a group of 460.-V motors to a fault on the 480-V system to be four ‘times the full load current suggested in ANSV/IEEE, Standard C37.13-1981 (3). If the 480-V system in- cludes motors of more than 50 hp, their full-load currents should be included. ANSVIEEE Standard €37.010-1979 permits the omission of the contribu- tion from motors below 50 hp. However, the more conservative practice of including all motor con- tributions is recommended and is ilustrated below. 460 motor motor = transformer fulHload amperes x4 = 1208 x 4 = 4812 A 4812 x 0480.45 = 4000 KA at 480 V (&q. 3.25) For lowwvoltage circuits, where circuit resistances are often a considerable portion of the circuit AUXILIARY SYSTEM PLANNING 3419 impedance, the calculation of short-circuit currents using only reactance (X) values may result in ex: cessively conservative circuit breaker application. Its therefore suggested that impedance (2) values be used for low-voltage short-circuit calculations motor Z = base megnoltamperes ___ 10, Thorveiroult megavolamperes 4 5000 per unit = om 10 VA, 480 V eq. 320) Assume the motor contribution, X/R, as from 50-hp, 1800-rpm motors from Figure 3-11, equals 5.0. ‘480. motor impedance angle = arc tan 5.0 = 78.69 motor Xj = motor Z, sin of impedance angle = 2.5000 x 0.9806 = 2.4515 motor = motor Z, cos of impedance angle = 2.5000 x 0.1961 = 0.4902 From Table 35 the close-andlatch duty calculation ‘multiplier is selected as 1.2 X% and the interrupt. ing duty calculation multiplier as 3.0 X For close-andlatch duty calculation: Aggy = 24515 x 12 = 2.9818 per unit 0.5882 per unit 0.4902 x 12 Fe For interrupting duty calculation: Xyy = 2.4515 x 3.0 = 7.3545 per unit Ruy = 04902 x 3.0 = 1.4706 per unit ‘Transformer Turns Ratio If the actual trans- former turns ratio (as determined by the trans- former tap position) is different from the base voltage ratio, the impedance values on one system or the other should be adjusted to reflect this different base voltage. ‘Therefore, in our example, if the unit substation transformer is on the 4056-V tap, the 480-V system ‘impedances (including the transformer impedance) should be adjusted by the usual voltage-squared formula: od vohage adjusted Z = old 2 [seein (eq. 3-27) [few voiage) However if the 480.V system motor contribution hhas been estimated as it has in our example, the ‘minor refinement provided by the adjustment shown above is not warranted.320 ‘Split Secondary or Three Winding Transform- ‘ers Power station auxiliary systems often include threewinding transformers with windings of different ratings. The nameplate provides im- pedance information between terminals HX, HY, and XY. These impedances must be converted to a common kilovolt-ampere base and then to an equivalent wye representation in the following 2 = Hin = Zot (eq, 3:28) Xq and Ry are calculated similarly. 2 = Het er Ht (q, 329) 2X, and Ry are calculated similarly. fer ee By = Hien Biot = Zan (eq. 3-30) Xy and Ay are caleulated similarly. ‘Note that this isnot a detato-wye transformation. ‘The check for correctness is that Z + Zy must equal Zy,., a5 shown in Figure 3-12 (2) Figure 312 Equvalent Thee Winding Tanstormer Cicut Generators Usually the generator reactance data ‘must be obtained from the manufacturer or cal- culated from the generator three-phase short- circuit decrement curve, if available. The generator subtransient reactance at rated voltage, Xin per unit on the generator rating is obtained by divid- ing the generator-rated fullload current by the maximum symmetrical rootmean-square (rms) value of current. The generator reactance to be used in the interrupting duty network would be the fullload current divided by the symmetrical rms value of current atthe circuit breaker contact parting time. ‘The generator three phase short-circuit decre ment curve is usually calculated at the generator POWER PLANT ELECTRICAL REFERENCE SERIES field current corresponding to rated load and power factor. ‘The generator effective resistance can be calcu- lated using a formula suggested in ANSUIEEE Stan- dard C37.010-1979 (1): = (q. 3-3) Where: ay © rated voltage negative-sequence-reactance Tay = rated voltage generator armature ‘ime-constant, in seconds f= frequency at rated voltage ‘The resistance can be estimated from the X/R ratio given in Table 3-3 or, for smaller generators, from Figure 3-13, both of which are from ANSU/IEEE Standard C37.010-1979 (1). The resistance values submitted in the generator data should not be used ‘because the latter are usually quoted as de or at temperatures not related to normal operation. If the auxiliary system includes small generators for startup or emergency use, their contribution to.auxilary system short circuits should be included, because operating procedures usually require exercising the unit on a regular basis. Cable and Bus Duct Procedure The resistance and reactance of wire and cable circuits in vari ‘ous configurations are generally available in indus- ‘ry sources such as the VEC, IEEE publications, or ‘manufacturers literature. Volume 4, Wire and Cable. ‘provides methods for calculations as well as typical values for commonly used sizes and installations. ‘The conductor temperature used for determining ‘the cireuit resistance should be chosen taking into 70 oe Rao ag S40 es iediura & 20 + =v DSS fi I , 25. «5 10 1S 20.28 Nomepiate INVA? SOURCE: Appleatin Guide fr AC HighVotage Cit Breakers Faved on @ Symmes! Bans. New York: Araran Nabors Sar (Garos atte ratte of Beariss and Becrones Engineer, 12 ANSIEEE Sa, CSTDNGAWTS® EEE 1979 Figure 313. x/RRange o: Small Sold Resor and Satent Pole Generators and Synchronous Motorsaccount the operating conditions of ambient tem: perature and insulation temperature rating. The reactance is largely dependent on the spacing be- tween conductors and the magnetic properties of the conduit or raceway. In a power station the conductor size is deter ‘mined not only by its thermal capacity but also by its short-circuit withstand capability and by voltage- drop considerations. ‘The most difficult impedance value to determine {s usually the value for high-capacity circuits such as transformer secondary leads, which may be multiple conductors in trays or ducts, cable bus, or bus bars in enclosures (bus duct. Satisfactory rules of thumb for estimating the re- sistance of a high-capacity circuit are the assump: tions thatthe station design will usually result in 2 5-10 7-V drop/1000 ftat the ampere rating of the circuit and that the reactance, especially for medium-voltage circuits, will be 0.02 0/1000 ft ‘Thus the impedance ofa 2500.A feeder from the station service transformer to the medium-voliage switchgear can be estimated as follows: AUXILIARY SYSTEM PLANNING 3-29 S-7V_ , sirouit length in feet (pa. 3.30) 71000 cae 2500 & cireuit length in feet X = 0.02 x Lcuit length in feet ¢ 1. 3-33) 02 et (eq. 3-93) ‘The impedance data calculated should be care- fully checked, filed, and transferred to a digital short-circuit program or to resistance and reac- tance networks (Figures 3-8 and 3-9). Calculating the short-circuit current for a fault at a specified location requires that the reactance network be reduced to a single equivalent reac- tance value at the point of the fault. The calcula~ tion of the circuit breaker duty associated with this fault requires the calculation of the X/R ratio of the system at the point of fault; this in turn. requires the reduction of the resistance network to a single equivalent value of resistance at the point of fault. With the two networks separate, this reduction procedure consists of adding reactances, X, or resistances, fi, for circuit elementsin series and ad- ding susceptances, B = 1/X, or conductances, G = ‘UR, for cireuit elements in parallel, © Example 1 Fault on 4.16-kV Bus Step 1 Reduce interrupting duty reactance network, Reduce the interrupting duty reactance network (Figure 3-10) to an equivalent reactance as demonstrated below. (Calculate the corresponding X and B as they are encountered in the calculation.) Starting at the top of the interrupting duty reactance network, combine the 115-kV system and the station service transformer series reactances by adding X, and Xr. Xser = Xp + Xp = 0.0013 + 0.0813 = 0.0826 1 1 wrestle = 12.2065 Bers 5” ote ‘Similarly, combine the 460-V motor and unit substation transformer series reactances by adding Xx, and Xy, 7.3545 + 0.5674 = 7.9219 Braves * Katy + Bee Byrwors = 0.1262 ‘Then, parallel the 115-kV system and station service transformer equivalent, the 460-V motor and unit substation transformer equivalent, and Mi and M2 reactances by adding susceptances Bs.x, By-rs: Buy and Buz. Xu = 5.5168, Xue = 1.2407 Bog = Boot + Buwows + By + Bo Bog = 12.1065 + 0.1262 + 0.1813 + 0.8060 Buns = 0.1813, 3060 Bua =3-22 POWER PLANT ELECTRICAL REFERENCE SERIES 5 eq = 18.2200 interrupting duty equivalent reactance = Xeq = 2 = 0.0756 Ba ‘Step 2. Reduce interrupting duty resistance network. ‘The interrupting duty equivalent resistance is calculated similarly. Ager 0.0001 + 0.0051 = 0.0052 Gser = 192.3077 Fuso = 1.4708 + 0.0930 = 1.5636 Guyer, = 018396 Fyn = 0.3663 Gar = 2.7300 Fy = 0.0313 Gyaa = 31.9489 * Gqq # 192.3077 + 0.6396 + 2.7300 + 31.9489 27.6262 interrupting duty equivalent resistance = Rgg = 0.0044 Step 3. Reduce closeandlatch networks. ‘Similar reduction of the close-and-latch duty reactance and resistance networks yields the following: closesandelatch duty network Xqq = 0.0712 Reg = 0.0080 Step 4. Calculate E/X symmetrical currents. ‘The short-circuit currents in these calculations are called £/X in amperes and are calculated as follows: xin amperes = ISR wate ETA pase amperes (eq. 3-38) ‘The prefault voltage to be used in this calculation should be the maximum operating voltage expected for the load conditions represented by the connected load. Since maximum short cireuits are usually available at maximum load periods, the maximum voltage will generally approximate the bus nominal voltage, so the prefault voltage can usually be assumed to be 1.00 per unit unless voltage profile studies indicate a different value. base Kilovoltamperes (64. 3.35) ‘bse lvoks V3" base amperes = Then: interrupting Ex = —102 0.0756 x 1388 = 18,360 A (symmetricaD interrupting xin = Xen = 00756. Teg 0 =172 Then: close-and-latch EIX = on x 1388 = 19,494 A (symmetrical)AUXILIARY SYSTEM PLANNING 3-23 Step 5. Calculate circuit breaker interrupting duty and capability ‘The EIX values calculated above represent symmetrical current values. To determine the equivalent symmetrical current value for the interrupting duty to which the circuit breaker is subjected, we must find the multiplying factor needed to adjust the value. The multiplying factors for interrupting duty can be determined from curves in Figures 3-14 (1), 3-15 (1), and 3-16 (2), which are from ANSUIEEE Standard C37.010-1979 (2. Figures 3.14 and 3-5 are applicable, respectively, to three-phase and line-to-ground faults that are s0 close to generating sources that their fault current contribution varies during the occurrence of the fault. A close, or local, generating source is defined as one in which the reactance from the genera: tor to the point of fault is less than one-and-one-half times the reactance ofthe generating source itself Figure 3-16 provides the multiplying factors for faults that are so electrically remote from the gener- ator source that the effect of the fault on the generator could be attributed to a change in system load. ‘As noted in the Figure 3-14 and 3-15 captions, these curves include the effect of the ac decrement. If the generator reactance has been calculated as described above, the ac decrement has already been Contact Fines as 1 TT ity ROBE aT 2 eye nas 21 5 BES | sl ]_| L | 109 so} — Ratio x78 7 H : Li 304 1 nol [breaker [orecker breaker breaker nm 19 5 ol 74 LOW WIS ts LOT 2S 14 OAS WO Ta AS Multiplying foctors for E7X omperes NOTE: Consideration has been given to extending the curves of Figures 3-14, 3-15, end 3-16 below the multiplying factor of 10, but since there are possibilities of noncongervative application in Doth tymmetricel und asymmetrical current determinations in thie orea, the curves nave not been, extended. Further studies within these rones are recommended for future revisions of tie spplication guide Minimum contact parting time SOURCE. Anplcaton Guide fr AC Highotage Creu Breskers ‘ates on 2 Symmaira! Bass. New Ye Amercan Natal Sa (Gare imtsanaese ol Becrod ano Becroncs Engineers {99 ANSMIEEE Sid. CHOWIR.S IEEE WS Figure 3-16. ThreePhase Fauk Mutipying Factors That Include Eifects of AC and DC Decrements {Local Sources}3-24 POWER PLANT ELECTRICAL REFERENCE SERIES | considered. Therefore, Figure 3-16 should be used for determining the interrupting duty. In most cases, however, the procedures outlined in ANSVIEEE Standard C37.010-1979 will provide satisfactory results. Because this example uses a remote system source, we use Figure 3-16. For a five-oycle breaker with a three-cycle contact parting time, the multiplying factor for an X/R ratio of 17.2 is 1.03. This is the factor by which the symmetrical interrupting E/X amperes should be multiplied to determine the circuit breaker interrupting duty. interrupting duty = multiplying factor x interrupting E/X = 1.03 x 18,360 A = 18.9 kA (Eq. 3-36) ‘Thé rated interrupting capability of a typical 4.16-KV breaker is 29 kA at 4.76 kV. The maximum capa- bility is 36 kA at 3.85 kV and below. The interrupting capability between these voliage limits can be caloulated by multiplying the rated short-circuit capability by the maximum voltage divided by the oper- ating voltage. 4 maximum voltage (eq. 3-37) = trated shortcircuit capability) interrupting capability pabilty 7 | _If'we consider the operating voltage as the prefault ‘of 1.00 per unit, the circuit breaker inter- oper | mupting capability at 4.16 KV is: Contact verti in oF v30f r ; nore OM! §=[o) Coo fal BRE! ef kee of dalle md sf &] 5 SRB) 8 ele | 100 +H | | « ee HE | = | | so] aq a ie cycle VA _lerstise Bo eresker Vv | ie x Ws ws we Me tes Mutinying factors for EX amperes Minimum contact porting time Figure 3:15 Lneto-Ground Fautt Multiplying Facto That incuce Efecs of AC ang OC DecremeresjLocal Soures)‘AUXILIARY SYSTEM PLANNING 3-25 Contoct porting | eke | {| LAT § 2 | 4 y 20 - toon scale aye Bale ° srasket sak? cae | rae | 1 5 al L Lt wou wis wow is wis wu a3 Muttislying factors for EX amperes | Minimum contect parting time SOURCE: Apolcaton Guide for AC Mightotage Crest Seats Raed on a Smet! Base New Yor Ameean Naioal San i i taainahte of Berea ano Ekczoncs Engeee 173 SNSIEEE Sa. COTOIOTETSO EE SE Figure 3-16 Three Phase and Lneto-Gound Faut Mutyng Factor That Incude Elects of DC Decement Ony (Remote Soures) 4.76 kV imerrupting capability = 29 kA x aad Yn 29 KA x Taek = 331 ka The interrupting duty of 18.9 kA as calculated above would be compared to the circuit breaker inter- rupting capability of 33.1 KA. Step 6. Calculate close-and-latch duty and capability, The circuit breaker close-and-latch duty is calculated as 1.6 times the close-and-latch E/X symmetrical amperés, or: closeand-latch duty = 1.6 x 19494 A = 312 kA (asymmetrical) ‘This would be compared to the 58-kA close-and-latch capability of a typical 4.16-KV circuit breaker. In the industry, the close-and-latch duty is often called the momentary duty. ‘Total-Current-Rated Cireutt Breaker Many in- expanded. They include medium-voltage circuit stallations still in service may be modified or breakers applied in accordance with procedures3-26 POWER PLANT ELECTRICAL REFERENCE SERIES established for circuit breakers rated on a total- current basis. ANSVIEEE Standard C37.5-1973 (4) provides the recommended method of calculation for applying these circuit breakers. The recommended method includes the £/X calculations as described for the close-and-latch and interrupting symmetrical E/X currents. The 1.6 multiplier to determine the asym- ‘metrical duty is the same. However, the multiplier to be applied to determine the interrupting duty at the circuit breaker contact parting time shall be ‘determined from the X/R ratio as calculated above, using Figure AS of the Appendix to ANSW/IEEE. Standard C37.010-1979 (1) for remote sources and igure A8 for generator sources close to the fault, ‘The momentary duty calculated in this manner approximates the calculation procedures used previously. The interrupting duty for power station. auxiliary systems will be larger than previously cal- culated due to the inclusion of induction motor contribution. Calculation of short-circuit current using the total-current method is addressed in Volume 15, lant Improvements and Modifications. Example 2 Fault on 480-V Bus Shortcircuit calculations for low-voltage systems are performed ina similar manner, except that the symmetrical current is calculated at one-half cycle after fault inception; thus, only the close-and-latch networks need be reduced. It is desirable to use impedance values in calculating short-circuit cur- rents because circuit resistances often have a sig- nificant effect on current magnitudes. However, unless a digital short-circuit program is readily available, only a small error is introduced if the high: and medium-voltage networks are reduced as demonstrated above and only the low-voltage Portion of the system is solved using impedance. In the following demonstration, the calculations for alow-voltage system include a fault on the 480-V ‘bus of the secondary unit substation (Figure 3-7} us- ing close-and-latch duty networks (Figure 3-8) Step 1. Reduce medium-voltage system close-and: latch duty reactance network. Develop the equivalent reactance for the series ‘combination of the 115-KV system and the station, service transformer reactances by adding X, and Xe Xser = 0.0013 + 0.0813 = 0.0825 Bser = 12.1065 This equivalent should then be paralleled with the two medium-voltage motor reactances by adding susceptances and inverting to determine an equiva: lent reactance for the 4.16-kV system. Xun = 2.2067 Bye, = 0.4582 ya = 0.8270 Bye = 1.2092 Base = Boor + Bus + Bua Burg = 121065 + 0.4532 + 1.2092 = 13.769 Xess = 0.0726 Step 2. Reduce medium-voltage system close-and- latch duty resistance network. Reduce the close-and-latch duty resistance net- work to a single value in a similar manner. Add 115-KV system and station service transformer resistances. Ager = Bs + Ry = 0.0001 + 0.0081 = 0.0052 Gs.z = 192.3077 Then, parallel with mediumvoltage motor resistances by adding conductances: Fug, = 02463 Bua = 0.0207 Gare = Goer * Gur + Gua = 192.3077 + 6.8353 + 48.3092 = 247.4522 Fase = 0.0040 Guz = 6.8353 Gz = 48.3092 Step 3. Add secondary unit substation trans: former impedance. Zaae = Ras + Kare * 0.0040 + j0.0726 Zn 2s = yy + JX = 0.0980 + j0.5675 = Zaye + Zqy = 0.0870 + 0.6400 = 0.6473 251.382 Step 4. Parallel with low-voltage system motor equivalent. Zana = Baas + ogy = 05882 + j2.9818 3.0000 78.69°‘The paralleling of impedances can be performed. in various ways, but the method demonstrated here uses the vector mathematics discussed below. agg = 22% Ea Zs * Zue -_ (0.6478 261.389) x (3.0000 78.699) (©.0970 + jo.473) + (0.5882 + 2.9618) ase 260.076 oss2 + 3.5891 ._ 2.9419 zagpo72 73.6599 77919" 0.8315 sao.ase 0.0842 + j0.5247 XIR = 623 Step 5. Calculate short-circuit current, per unit volage Zz = Petunit voltage base kilovltamperes z ‘base kilovolts V3 x base amperes VOLTAGE PROFILE STUDIES The load-carrying capability of a generating sta: tion auxiliary system is limited not only by circuit ‘element thermal capabilities, but also by the neoes- sity of providing adequate voltage during normal ‘operation as well as during motor-starting condi- tions. Calculation of voltage drops in circuits and careful analysis of voltage levels throughout the system are required to ensure satisfactory opera- tion. In this way the generating unit output is not lost or limited at the times when the output is most needed, ‘The procedures for performing voltage-drop cal- culations are not as well documented nor as gener- ally available as those for performing short-circuit studies. Even when performed on sophisticated digital computer load-flow programs, voltage-drop studies require an inordinate amount of data to provide accurate results. Manual calculations are tedious and repetitive; therefore, accurate and detailed calculations are often neglected. Approx: imate or other shortcut rule-of thumb methods are justified if generous margins are given or stringent AUXILIARY SYSTEM PLANNING 3-27 4.00 x _x 12,028 Oss “OseV3 Ossis = 22,690. (eq. 3.38) ‘This result should be compared with the ratings of the 480-V system circuit breakers. If the shortcireuit current power factor is less than 20% or the X/R ratios more than 4.9, the calcu- lated short-circuit current should be increased by ‘the multiplying factor listed in Table 3-6 (3) Table 3.6 Muttplying Factors for Low-vota Cicue areas ‘Seam Mutipying Factor or Short Cecuit etelated Shor-Crcuit Curent Power Facto: System Unfused Greut Fused Greut oy Xfato Breakers Breakers 2 “3 100) “00 8 és 100 cd 2 227 toe an 0 935 i 1 5 we 18 7 bes " 128 ‘SOURCE. Amencan Natona! Stages for L-voage AC Paver Grout renners Used in Ereceures New Yore Ameraan Naan ‘Sandarae nvdetnette ot Elorcal ano tlesrones 1951. ANSUEEE Std, C37IG-1081.0 IEEE 19 ‘operating conditions assumed. If this point of view is acceptable, the use of voltage-drop charts or ap- proximate formulas can be considered. However, extreme care must be exercised in combining the voltage drops thus obtained for various portions of the system into an overall voltage profile of the complete system, ‘A voltage profile is compiled from a series of voltage-drop studies under various operating con- itions, encompassing variations in station aux iliary load, source voltage, and motor starting. The study sequence starts with a lightoad study at the highest source voltage to be expected. The load will be the minimum expected. Unless some form of voltage regulating equipment is provided, ether as transformers with LTCs or feeder voltage regula tors, this study will determine the transformer tap settings and will provide the maximum allowable voltages within equipment limitations. The lightload studies are followed by maximum: load studies using minimum system voltage. These studies determine whether or not voltage levels ‘throughout the system are adequate for continuous3:28 POWER PLANT ELECTRICAL REFERENCE SERIES operation under the most unfavorable operating conditions. Finally, motor start studies must be made to en- sure that adequate voltage will be available to start large motors and to verify that the voltage drops caused by motor starting do not affect the satis- factory operation of other equipment in the station. In conducting these studies, consider that the supply source voltage, either the unit generator bus for the unit auxiliaries transformer or the high- voltage switchyard bus for the reserve station ser- vice transformer, is determined by off-site system conditions and that auxiliary system changes will |. have minimum effect on the source voltage. Voltage-Drop Calculation Methods As sug: gested above, the use of voltage-drop charts does not provide sufficient accuracy for the satisfactory determination of a system voltage profile when maximum equipment utilization is desired or when extreme operating conditions are considered. It is therefore recommended that the voltage drops in circuit elements be calculated using one of the methods described below. ‘An accepted formula for the approximate volt- age drop in a circuit is: VD = IR cos 8 + 1X sin® in ineconeutral vols 4, 339) Bes sa theephase linetoiine vs q. 2-40) Where: = sending-end voltage B= receiving end votuge VD = voluge drop 1 = Joad current in amperes A» circuit resistance in ohms X= rout reactance in ohms © = toad current power factor angle in degrees (are cos power factor) A diagram representing this approximation is shown in Figure 3-17. ‘Anexact solution for calculating the voltage drop is E, = (le, cos @ + IR V3P + sin @ + VBE (eq. 3-41) vp =£,-E, (£9, 3-42) A diagram representing this solution is shown in Figure 3.18. Another method of exact solution involves the use of vector quantities as follows: Ey Me = Ee Me + BU L=8x 22) (Eg. 2-49) Wwe k- 5, eq. 3-40) Where: E,W, = sending-end voltage vector magnitude and angle E, (Ye = receivingend voltage vector magnitude and angle 1228 = load current vector magnitude and nege tive of power factor angle 2% = circuit impedance magnitude and angle asm A minimum knowledge of vector arithmetic is required for these calculations. It is sufficient to know that addition and subtraction of vectors are more easily performed in the rectangular form (R + jX) and multiplication and division are more ‘easily performed in the polar form (Z 0). ‘These operations are: Addition: (Ry + JK) + Oy + JK) =, + A) ++) eg. 3-45) Subtraction: +2) ~ Oy + 3%) =~ AY +H, -%) eg. 5-46) Multiplication: 1B xZ-OxDAebso egg) Division: Ely i2 £0 = (82) Ay) eq. 3-48) If the computer or calculator available does not have routines for rectangular to polar coordinates, ‘the multiplication of vector quantities can be per- formed by normal mathematical methods as follows:Senging-ens or bus voltage | Receiving-end oF load waitage nV trees oVE Calcutotes —4 Error voltage arop Retual veltege érop Figure 3-17 Pnasor Diagram of Votage Relations for \Votage Drop Calculations Multiplication: Ug ~ jig + 0, (eq. 3-49) Where: Ig. = imphase component of current = Feost-8) = quadrature component of current =F sint-6) From the standpoint of accuracy, the approxi- mate method described above normally provides results as suitable for these calculations as the exact ‘methods suggested. However, the approximate ‘method does result in a small error, especially at lower power factors. With the general availability of calculators and computers, the difference in cal- culation time between exact and approximate so- lutions is so insignificant that the exact method is recommended. Figure 3:18 Phasor Dagam of Exact Votage Orme Caleutaton AUXILIARY SYSTEM PLANNING 3-29 ‘Any of the calculation methods described can use actual volts, amperes, and ohms, along with the es timated power factor. Remember to include the proper V3 multiplier for three-phase calculations ‘anda mubtiplier of 2 for single-phase circuits. The er unit method described in the short-circuit cal- culation section is recommended because it sim- plifies the calculations, minimizes possible errors, and facilitates the transfer of information between, system voltage levels. ‘At this point, we should note the conventions concerning vector angles and positive and nega- tive quantities. If a voltage vector (assume E, in Figure 3-17) is. selected as a horizontal line extending from origin to the right, the convention that phasor voltages always rotate counterclockwise means that, in the assumed direction of power flow, the angle of a cur- rent vector at lagging power factor will be nega- tive with respect to the voltage vector (/at a minus @ angle). Angles of impedances consisting of resistances and inductive reactances willbe positive (Z ata plus 6 angle). Voltage drops in the circuit will be represented by an IR component in phase with the current and an IX component perpendic- ular to the current angle (90° ahead), resulting in a calculated IZ drop. These drops, added vectori- ally to the reference voltage (E,), determine the ‘magnitude and angle of the sending voltage (E;). ‘The voltage drop in the circuit element is not the IZ drop calculated but the arithmetic difference between E, and E,. In the example developed in detail below illustrat- {ng the series of voltage-drop calculations required for a voltage profile study, the receiving-end volt- age, Ey, is always assumed to be at an angle of 0°. ‘The accepted angular relationship and horizontal and vertical components of impedances and load Kilovolt amperes are thus maintained without the necessity of adjusting these angles, as would be the case if a different reference angle were considered. Load Representations A common oversight in voltage-drop and regulation studies is the failure to consider the effect that voltage levels have on. the load currents, Most engineers are aware that, ‘motors operating at low voltages draw more current and are subject to overheating, but this awareness {is not always translated into proper calculations of, voltage drops. ‘A motor load is usually considered as a constant ‘megavolt ampere load. That is, variations in volt- age have little effect on the kilowatt or kilovolt- ampere-reactive loads of a motor. It is true that at a lower voltage the current must be increased to330 ‘maintain the same kilowatts, The only way this can be done is by slightly increasing the motor slip. The resulting decrease in revolutions per minute pro: vides a slightly lower horsepower requirement. ‘The motor kilovolt ampere-reactive requirements ‘generally increase slightly, but for the purposes of these studies both the kilowatt and kilovolt ampere- reactive requirements can be considered constant. ‘Note, however, that the kilovoltampere-reactive re- quirements of a motor do not decrease as much as the kilowatt load f the motor is operating at less than full load. A satisfactory approximation as- sumes fullload kilovoltamperes-reactive even if the motor is lightly loaded. ‘Assuming a constant megavolt-ampere load im- plies that the load current varies inversely as the voltage and may be calculated as: Eset tow» ta (aq, 3-50) ‘This adjustment should be carefully followed in every step of the voltage drop calculations. ‘The other load representation is demonstrated by electric heaters or lighting equipment in which the current varies directly as the voltage. This load representation is termed constant impedance. For generating station auxiliary system studies this characteristic is most important in determining the current drawn during the starting of a motor, be cause the locked-rotor impedance of a motor is con- sidered a constant impedance load. The motor locked-rotor current is markedly decreased at the lower voltages often caused by the starting of lange motors. ‘The current fora constant impedance load varies directly as the voltage: Same * tl | (84. 3-51) This calculation is easily performed when in- dividual motor or resistance loads are considered. However, the engineer must usually make a judg- ment about the system reaction of a composite load. In many cases a lowvoltage system serving general load may be considered as constant cur- rent, assuming a 50-50 split between motors and lighting. On the other hand, the load on a secon dary unit substation serving a group of large mo- tors, such as cooling-tower fans, would be considered as constant megavolt-amperes. ‘Note that the currents for these load represen- tations vary directly or inversely as the voltage, but the impedances or megavolt- amperes, megawatts, POWER PLANT ELECTRICAL REFERENCE SERIES ‘or megavolt-amperes-reactive corresponding to these load representations vary directly as the ‘square of the voltage. Thus, a 100-kW resistance load will draw only 81 kW, and the impedance ‘representing a constant megavolt-ampere load wil be 81% of the impedance at 90% voltage. Load Power Factor Another important factor in the calculation of voltage drops is the lack of ac- curate load power factor data. The load power fac- tor on the auxiliary system of a generating station can vary considerably in some parts of the system. ‘The power factor of large motors operating near their rating can sometimes approach 0.95 PF, but the majority of smaller motors, often operating at Joads much lower than their rating, may result in voltage system power factors below 90%. In addi- tion, the FX lasses usually exceed the resistance losses by several multiples, so that as we advance ‘through the system from the load to the source, the current power factor becomes successively ‘Poorer, unless power factor correction equipment (capacitors) is installed. ‘Assuming a load power factor of 85 to 88% for individual motors or groups of motors and 90% for composite loads (including lighting) generally pro- vides satisfactory conservative results. ‘Transformer Representation ‘The recommended ‘wansformer representation in a voltage-drop study (Figure 3-19) includes an ideal transformer to a count for the transformer turns ratio and an im- pedance to represent the through impedance of the transformer. Ifthe calculations are being made in actual engineering quantities, such as volts, am- ‘peres, and ohms, the transformer impedance or resistance and reactance values can be calculated as follows: wwansformer _ transformer RX or Z ‘ohms 00 x Hmwformer Klos? a, 5.52) ‘The transformer kilovolts in the above formula should be the rating of the winding connected to bus? of the diagram in Figure 3-19. The ideal trans- former side (bus 1) should be the winding that is actually with the taps, either for the transformer no-load taps or for the LTC taps. In per unit calculations the transformer imped- ‘ance must be on the bus-2 voltage base. If the voltage rating of the winding connected to the impedancediffers from the bus-2 voltage base, the impedance ‘must be modified by the usual voltage-squared for- mula as follows: (eq. 3-53) ‘The transformer turns ratio in per unit is caleu- lated as follows: bust ——_,_transformer tap volts_ per unt tap ” “Transformer rated vole bbas2 base volts *Qusrbee vis OE FSH Including this transformer representation sim- plifes the voltagedrop calculation by separating the two elements with a fictitious internal bus in the transformer (Figure 3-19. \VOLTAGE-DROP STUDIES ‘The steps involved in performing the series of voltage-drop calculations required for the prepa: ration of a voltage profile are demonstrated in the following application, in which the operation of the system shown in Figure 3-20 is investigated. This application demonstrates the procedure used to de- termine the minimum voltage on the 4.16-kV switchgear bus, which will provide 95% of motor nameplate voltage at the terminals of the 200-hp, 460:V motor. The calculations are performed using per unit quantities and vector arithmetic methods. ‘The bases selected are 1000 kVA, 4.16 kV, and 480 V. Data Preparation The first step is the conversion of the data in Figure 3-19 to the per unit quantities required. These calculated values are summarized on the impedance diagram (Figure 3-21) Bus 1 ee volts Transformer top volte Transformer rates Internal bus bose volts Teanstormer impedance Bus 2 Bare volte Figure 3:19 Tansformer Representation in Votage Drop Catculaton AUXILIARY SYSTEM PLANNING 3-31 System source Source system short-circuit impecence Shortweireuit current 2'Se ka ot 4.16 bY WR rate = 20 4.26 KV Medium=veltage switchgear bus Secondary unit substotion transformer, 1000 kVA, 4160-480 V. set on 4056-V te We 8.75% as0v Unit eubstotion Other 480-V ioge 720" ‘at 0.90 PF Motor feeder, 150 tt S00-MCM copper in nonmagnetic conduit R= 0.0300 071000 tt x = 010289 871000 18 = 0.0085 a.x= 0.00430 Motor = 200 hp, 460 V In = 226-4 NEC code letter F Figure 3-20 votage-Drop Calcuianon, Syser Data Step 1. Source system impedance For voltage-drop calculations, the short-circuit cur- rent available under minimum generating condi- tions should be used to determine the system impedance, which in turn determines minimum. motor starting voltages. If this value is not availabie, a short-circuit current 60 to 75% of the maximum. will generally provide suitably conservative results. short-circuit = 36 kA at 4.16 KV, X/R = 20 shortirouit iouit = shorteircuit current x system kiloolts VF = 96,000 A x 4:16 kv 5 = 258,590 kVA (Bq. 3-55) system reactance (xg) = base Wovoltamperes, ilovoltamperes 1000 kVA 259,390 kVA = 0.0039 per unit (Bq. 3-56) system reactance tem resistance i) = a 9° ratio3-82 POWER PLANT ELECTRICAL REFERENCE SERIES 4.16-kY system bus 4.16-kV eystem AAB-KV ewitengeor bus Secondery unit sudstetion tronetormer tap 480-V transformer internal bus Secondary unit sudstetion tronetormer impedance 480-V unit substetion bus Motor feeser System source 0.0002 + 0.0039 = 0.0039 /a7" 0.875 per unit 0.0093 + 0.0567 = 0.0575 fax" Other 480-V load 2U= 0.539 0.0195 + 0.0187 = 0.0270 /4: Motor-running load Pu= 0.1884 Qu 0.0885 Motor-starting loos (ot 480 V) Pay = 0.1616 oe = (0.7817 Figure 3-21 Votage-Drop Cakiaton. Syste Data in Per Uni 1000 VA. 416 KV 0.48 KV 0.0038 20 = 0.0002 per unit (Bg. 3-57) Step 2. Secondary unit substation transformer 1000 kVA, 4160-480 V, set on 4056-V tap, IZ = 5.75% ‘The transformer representation (Figure 3-21) in- cludes an ideal transformer to incorporate the transformer tap settings calculated as follows: transformer _ high-voltage tap vols per unit tap ~ “lowsvolage tap volts xc Jowevoltage bus base volts high-voltage bur base volis 40s6V 450 as0V * ai60V = 0.975 per unit tp (eq. 3-58) ‘The determination of the transformer resistance value is not as necessary in voltagedrop studies asin the short-circuit studies, butit can be included if calculated previously. The short-circuit example provides values for comparable 1000-KVA, 5.75% impedance with 0.93% resistance and 5.67% reac ‘tance on the rating base. These values must be con- verted to per unit on the study base as follows: 387 10 x 100040 study base To000ka transformer rating 480 transformer rating voltage f “480.V study base voltage = 0.0567 per unit 480 ‘0 wre ny = 293. . 2000 KA 100 ~ “1000 kva = 0.0083 per unit Step 3. Load data Load data for the voltage-drop calculations are obtained from summations of connected loads or from instrument readings. Using load tabulations requires that estimates be made of demand and diversity factors as well as power factor. Instrument. readings of either watts and volt-amperes-reactive ‘or power factor, volts, and amperes would be most, desirable, but such complete instrumentation is,seldom available. Generally, the only information available is various ammeter readings, from which estimates of peakload values and power factor must be made. Circuit power factor isa very important element in the calculation. Unless experience suggests a reliable figure, efforts should be made to determine at least a typical value. Ifa circuit is metered, the circuit kilowatts can be obtained by timing the re- volutions of the disc of the watthour meter (Whm). \vre an eros | HOU + Wy ‘ime in seconds 71000 (Bq. 2-59) xm Where: ‘kh = meter constant stamped on nameplate VIR = voltage transformer ratio, if present CTR = current transformer rato, if present Ammeter and voltmeter readings at the same time will provide the circuit kilovolt- amperes. Idosotamperes + amperes voit ig sa The circuit power factor in per unit is (eq. 3-60) Kilowatts ee (&q. 3-61) power factor = and the current angle or load angle is the angle whose cosine is the per unit power factor. are 00s power factor © = or cos" power factor rae For a lagging (inductive) load the current angle will be negative and the load angle positive. ‘The data for the other load shown as 720 A con the 480V bus ofthe unit substation Figure 3-20) ‘could have been obtained in various ways. It could be an actual current measurement in the field, or it could have been calculated by totaling the full- load currents of the motors connected or in ser- vice. in any event the voltage should have been noted and the load current converted to the study base voltage of 480 V. ‘The load amperes should be converted to kilovolt amperes, kilowatts and kilovolt amperes-reactive for ‘these calculations. Generating station auxiliary loads AUXILIARY SYSTEM PLANNING 8-33 consist largely of induction motors. Conservative results will be obtained if the constant kilovol “ampere representation is used, except for special circumstances, such as large resistance heating or ‘motor-starting loads. The calculation of this other load is indicated below. Ifthe Joad as measured is known to consist mainly of lighting, resistance heaters, inductive heating ‘equipment, or capacitors, the load should be con- sidered as constant impedance, so the power and reactive (P and Q) will vary as the square of the voltage (E/E. If the other load is a composite of motors and lighting, the lad could be considered as constant, current, so the power and reactive (P and Q) would vary directly as the voltage (Ey/E,) other load amperes = 720 A at 480 V at 0.90 PF Hlnvaitanperes ~ 720A x 048 kV VS 599 KVA at fare c0s 0:90) are cos 090 = 25.84° ahr lad kilowatts = 599 KVA cos 25.84° = ss9 kw other load kilovoltamperes reactive = 261 KVAR, = 599 KVA sin 25.542 ‘These values divided by base kilovolt-amperes will provide the per unit values used in the calculations. other lad Kowares, A, = 338 BW = 0.5890 per unit kW other load Kilovolt-__261 KVAR, amperes-reactive, Q., ~ “1000 KVA += 0.2610 per unit VAR other lod Kick amperes, S, ‘= 015990 per unit KVA at £25.842 Step 4. Motor feeder 150 ft, S00-MCM copper, R = 0.0045 0, X = 0.0043. actual ohms ‘base ohms ‘= actuah ohms base Kilovolts? ohms in per unit = (eq. 3-63)3-34 POWER PLANT ELECTRICAL REFERENCE SERIES 0.0085 © x 1.0 base MVA ee (048 VE = 0.0195 per unit 0.0043 Q x 1.0 MVA Xp = 20088 x10 MYA go367 per uni Ont 0.0187 per unit Step 5. Motor load 200hp, 460-V motor, 226-A fullload current 40 "1000 ‘motor kilovoltamperes = 226 A x = 180. kVA Assume power factor of 88% lag. Power factor angle = Po nt power fcr are cos 0.88 = 25.36° (q, 3-65) ‘motor power = motor kilovoltamperes x cos power factor angle = 1801 x cos 28.36° = 1584 kw (&q. 3-66) motor reactive = motor kilovoltamperes x sin power factor angle = 1801 x sin 28.36° = 55 BVA (Bq, 3-67) = 041801 per unit 1584 kW ‘motor power, P = —1584 KW _ 7000-kVA base = 0.1884 per unit on 85.5 KVAR notor react 7000-KVA base = 0.0855 per unit Voltage-Drop Calculation The voltage-drop cal: culation starts with the specified voltage of 95% of 460-V motor nameplate at the terminals of the 200-hp motor. This voltage vector, By, is consid- ered the reference voltage at an angle of 0°. 460 x 095 | 4a7v By ~ SOV 085, 4800 base” 460V = 0.9108 /0° per unit V ‘The per unit magnitude of the current drawn by the motor at this voltage is the motor per unit kKilovolt-amperes divided by the per unit voltage. “The angle of the current isthe negative (conjugate) of the power factor angle. 0.3801 0.9108 = 0.1978 £=28.36° per unit A he = ‘The IZ drop in the motor feeder is: Inge = (01978 £~28.36°) x (0.0270 43,80") 0.0053 25.44° = 0.0051 + j0.0014 per unit ‘The above multiplication can also be performed by using Equation’ 3-49 as follows: motor in-phase current = Jy 006 (-8) 0.1978 cos 2=28.36° 0.1741 per unit motor quadrature current = Iy sin (-@ 1978 sin /=28.36° 0.0940 per unit Ide = (0.1741 ~ 0.0940) x (0.0195 + jo.0187) = 0.0034 + j0.0083 - jo.oo1s + 0.0018 0.0082 + jooos ‘And the voltage at the unit substation 480:V bus will be: Bago = By LU2 + IyZp 22 (0.8104 + .0000) + (0.0051 + j0.0014) ois + jooo4 0.9155 £0,092 x 480 V = 439.4 V ‘The voltage drop in the motor feeder can be cal- culated as the arithmetic difference between the Per unit voltage at the bus and the per unit volt ‘age at the motor terminals multiplied by the base voltage. VD = 0.9155 ~ 0.9108 = 0.0051 x 480 V = 24V or: vo = 4994 ~ 497.0 = 24‘The total load on the transformer is the sum of, the motor load and the other load on the bus. The motor feeder load as measured at the bus includes the FR and PX losses in the feeder added to the motor load as follows: motor feeder load = motorload + motor feeder losses ‘motor feeder load Fe = Phe + Use) = 0.1584 + (0.1978? x 0.0195) 0.4588 + 0.0008, 0.1582 per unit kW ‘motor feeder load reactive, Qe * Oy + he x0 = 0.0855 + (0.1978? x 0.01871 = 0.0855 + 0.0007 = 0.0862 per unit KVAR The transformer load is the sum of the loads served from the 480:V bus (in this case the motor feeder load and the other load) ‘transformer load = motor feed load + other load transformer load = Pee power, Py = 01592 + 0.5390 = 0.6982 per unit kW ‘wansformer load reactive, Qp 7 FH = 0.0862 + 0.2610 = 0.3472 per unit KVAR Sansformer Ios «0.7798 26.4s® per unit kVA ‘The transformer load, S;, can be calculated either by vector conversion from rectangular to polar coordinates or by calculation of the magni- ‘tude as the square root of the sum of the squares (Pe + Qe)%, with the load angle equal to the arc tangent of Qx/Pr. The transformer load current must be calcu- lated at the bus voltage as determined above, with the current angle being the negative of the load angle. wansformer load __ Sp current, Ir” Easy AUXILIARY SYSTEM PLANNING 3-35 0.7788 9 ois = 08538 /=26.48° per unit A ma ‘The Z drop through the transformer impedance added to the 480-V bus voltage provides a fictitious internal voltage; this value, multiplied by the per unit tapor the transformer turns ratio, then deter- mines the transformer primary voltage. ansormes gs (2644210 0575/8089) = 00190 5425 0286 + jo0298 per mtv creator internal Exso + IyZy voltage, Er . = (sss 20% + 10800 25425") = aise + 00000 +2086 + jo0208) = ose + oas08 = 09449 22412 per unt V transformer terminal voltage, Eg * Ey x tap ratio = 09449 x as75 0.9213 per unit v = 3833 The transformer primary load is the transformer load plus the transformer losses calculated in the same manner as described for the motor feeder load Paap = Pr + Hy = 06982 + assis? x 0.0093 = 06982 + 0.0068 = 017050 per unit kW Qr + FXr 0.3472 + o.ssis* x 0.0567 0.3472 + oa = 0.3883 per unit kVAR Seg = 0.8049 per unit kVA at 28.85° ‘The above calculation is included to demonstrate the effect of system reactive losses as compared to system kilowatt losses. Power (kilowatt) losses are important in deter- ‘mining the system efficiency. However, the system3:36 POWER PLANT ELECTRICAL REFERENCE SERIES reactive voltage drops and losses often determine the satisfactory operability of a system. Although not required for this example, the sys- tem voltage behind the system impedance will often bbe required for motor start cases and would be cal- culated in a similar manner. suse = Sit at 2056 Eax6 08049 28048 / ease 09213 = 0.8737 £=28.85° per unit A system IZ = IaaeZs (0.8737 £~28.85*) (0.0039 /67.06°) 0034 58.21" 0.0018 + 0.0029 per unit V system vols (B3) = Bare + lareZs (0.8213 20%) + 0.0084 25821° = (0.213 + j0.0000) + (0018 + 0.0029) = 0.8281 + jo.0029 0.9281 20.18¢ per unit V ‘Thus the minimum 4.16-KV bus voltage required ‘to provide 95% of nameplate voltage at the terminals of the 200-hp, 460-V motor shown in Figure 3-20 is 0.9213 per unit of 4.16 kV, or 3833 V. The results of this series of calculations are sum- marized in Figure 3-22 Load-Flow Calculation As a final example of voltage A EL5036, Volume 3 ISBN 0-8033-S002-3