SECTION 2 LEAK TESTING Charles N. Sherlock, Willis, Texas fe ot ROE PET PHENOL PH TS DYNO FF A: leriCcPnC TC TICE ok Pie tt a 926 / NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING Overview PART 1” MANAGEMENT AND APPLICATIONS OF LEAK TESTING Functions of Leak Testing Leak testing sa form of nondestructive testing used for detection and location of leaks and for measuremest of uid Jeakage in either pressurized or evacuated systems and com, ponents, The word leak refers to the physical hole that exes fad doesnot refer to the quantity of fid passing thovsh that hole. & leak may be a rack, eresce, Bure, hole, or passageway that, contrary to what i intended, admits wetes air oF other fluids or lets ids eseape (a with a leak tn roof gx pipe, or ship). The word leakage refers to the fone off trough devout eget ee hee hole through which flow occurs. Reasons for Leak Testing Leaks are special types of anomalies that can have tre- mendous importance where they influence the safety or pe. formance of engineering systems. The operation relist of many devices is greally reduced if sufficient large leale vist. Leak testing is performed for three basic reasons 1. to prevent material Jeakage loss thet interferes with system operation; 2 fo prevent environmental coniination haar or nuisances caused by accidental lenage and 3. to detect unreliable components and those whose leakage rates exceed acceptance standards, The end purpose of leak testing is to ensure reliability and serviceability of components and to prevent prematury failure of systems containing fluids under pressure or vace uum: Nendesttie methes for ea ee ye teed or evacuated systems and of sealed components are ‘thus of great industrial and military importance, Relationship of Leak Testing to Product Serviceability Most types of nondestructive tests are designed to aid in gvaluatng serviceability of materials, pets and assemblicg ‘Tests are used for determining integrity of structure, mea, suring thickness, or indicating the presence of interval sel surface anomalies. For most nondestructive test methods evaluation is indirect; the quantities measured have to be properly correlated to the serviceability characteristics of {he material in question. Thus, the use of indirect teste lepends upon the interpretation of the test results, Leck ‘ing procedures, onthe oherhand ena ee untion. The measured leakage rate represents the ply sia effect of a faulty condition and thus requires no“hotior alysis for practical assessment, determination of Overall Leakage Rates through Pressure Boundaries [Many leak tests of large vessels or system are concemed with the determination ofthe rate at which aliquid, gus, or vapor will penetrate through their pressure boundaries Leakage may occur from any location within a component, assembly, oF system to points ouside the boudare or hans tial eons 0 poss wth a vlan nae fon esure boundary: When a uid lows through a small lek, Bredenlage Now rte dopend upon (1) the geometry ofthe ish @) he nature ofthe aig hacen ing conditions of fuid pressure, temperature and fype of fost For purposes oflea testing, an easily detectable gas or liquid tracer fuid may be used, rather than ar or the stem opetatng fluid. Leakage typically occurs as a resuk of & Brespue differential between the two regions separated by the pressure boundary term minimum detectable leakage refers to the smallest fluid flow rate that can be detected. The leaka rate js sometimes referred to as the mass flow rate. In the case pf gas leakage, the leakage rate describes the number of molecules leaking per unit of tie, ifthe gas temperature 4s cohstant, ss of the nature of the tracer gas empltyed in leak testing, When the nature ofthe leaking ft and the gas temperature are known, itis possible to use the ‘eal fas todetemmine the seul nares leakage. Measuring Leakage Rates to Characterize Individual Leaks Jn pressurized or evacuated systems, an individual leak s #5 8 hole or porosity in the wall of an enclosure defn e 2 9-9 -& 2H -98 enon % #fede ye bi fy 9 a 9, 2 a a 2 =D - Ff 3 + 4 caer i al Sa at IC tat GFF cblolyhHhbE HES 7; | TABLE 1. Leakage rate (mass flow) conversion factors I dhe i REAR 8 LEAK, TESTING / 27 TABLE 2. Leakage rate comparisons in various units of leakage To Convert trom Te ‘Multiply by Pascal cubic meters per stdems! 9.87 fz 10) second Pam!) tors! 7.50 must 1.00% 10" stair! 1.28 Standard cubic centimeters Pam's! 1.01 10" fd ems) torts! 7.60% 10" mist 101 sid tet 127x104 “Torr iters per second Pars! 133x107 torts) sidemis! 132 mis! 133 sd fre! 16710" ‘aibar ters persecond Pans 1.00% 1* mois") Siders! 9.87 10" torts! 7.50x 1" sd Ptr 1.26 1p Standard cubic feet perhour Pam®s! 0.80 (sta rr) sdemis! 7.87 torts! 5.99 mots! 794 capable of passing a fluid from one side of the wall to the tier sie."The flow of id through the leak pels results froma pressure differential ora concentration differ- ential of a gaseous constituent that aets across the pfessure hhoundary. ‘The flow characteristics of a leak are often described in terms of the conductance of the leak. The leak represents a physical hole with some equivalent length and internal cross-sectional area or diameter. However. since a leak s not manufactured intentionally into a product or 533- tem, the leak hole dimensions are generally unknom and cannot be determined by nondestructive tests. Therefore, in Teak testing. the quantity used to desenbe the J is the measured leakage rate.: The leakage rate depends upon the pressure differential that forces fluid through the leak passageway. The higher this pressure difference, the greater the leakage rate through a piven leak: Therefore, leakage measurements of tt sane ek under difering pressure conditions can reine ing values of mass flow rate. The leak conductance is defined both by the leakage rate and the pressure differential across the leak Thus, conductance or leakage rate ata given pres- sure fora particular tracer fluid should always be specified in reporting and interpreting the results ofa leak test. air at 0°C Pamir! stdemist std Liday _kg-yrt ' 10 264 400 5 432 200 2 173 80 1 864 40 os 432 20 oz 173 8 on 36 4 sx? 43° 2 2x0? 17° OB 10? os os Sx102 0.43, 02 10% B6x10? 4x 107 Sx104 443x109 2x 10? 104 aexto4 4x 107 Sx105 43x10 2x 108 105 eex105 4x lot 10+ Bbx104 4x 105 10? 86x10? 4x 10% 108 Bx10% 4x 107 10" bx 10" = 4x 10% 1" 86x10" 4x 107 to 6x10" 4x 10-7 10 86x10? 4x10" Quantitative Description of Leakage Rates ‘The significant quantitative measurement resulting from Teak testing is the leakage rate or mass flow rate of fluid through one or more leaks. Leakage rate thus has dimensions equivalent to pressure times volume divided by time. The tits used previously for leakage rate were standard cubic centimeters per second (td cms"). The Nondsrcve Testing Handbook uses the international standard ST nomen- lature. In ST units, the mass of gas is measured in units of pica cube meters (Pan), The leakage rates measured in pascal cubic meters per second (Pam?!) Table 1 gives fac- tors for conversion of leakage rates in various common units that are gradually becoming obsolete. Table 2 provides leak- age te comprons hich permit beter undetandig of ‘the quantities involved, when rates are specified. A Se (Gtd m?). This unit is equivalent to one million units given as28 / NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING OVERVIEW atmosphere eubi centimeters (atn em?) Both units ind tate the quantity of gas (ar) conned na ni sole at average sta level stosphere presi. The menige si Sphent pressure at se evel s 1013 kPa (160m of es Chiy or 760 tore). The Sunt of pressure, the pele alent to newton peraquare meter (Now) ——— Examples of Practical Units Used Earlier for Measurement of Leakage Various units have been used for measurement of leak- age, including many related to English units commonly used in engineering, Justification for prior use ofthis diversity of vats nthe aes wil wich hee common ants can be adapted for many practical engineeting problems For example, suppose thi an operate has 1g, opindar with @ pressure gage calibrated in units of pounds per square inch (bein. With daily gage readings its conve. nent for the operator to express leakage as the gage pres: sure change multiplied by cylinder volume, divided by the leakage time period (days). Ths simple calculation results in leakage rate measurement in units of Ibn. Fe/day. This leakage rate has dimensions of (pressure) x (volume) (time), To have expressed the leakage merely as the volume Of gas ost is insulent since the slum og tat eaves dala igh ender presi wil be conalenty het than the volume leaking to the atmosphere each day when the intemal pressure of the cylinder is lower. Many combi- nations of units for pressure, volume and time are possible. The preferred SI leakage rate unit paseal cubie meter per second Pam? out this section Units for Leakage Rates of Vacuum Systems AAs another example, suppose that leakage of ar into a vacuum system has an undesired effect upon the pressure within the vacuum s) stem. The operator of the vacuum sys. tem can read vacuum pressure in paseals or torr from gages rmanently installed in the system. (The pressure unit Evcwm sss tors defined ws U0 of ec nt sphere. It differs only by one pat in seven million from the well known barometric pressure unit of millimeters of mer. ccury:) Tn the past, the leakage rate in vacuum systems was measured in scientific units of torliters per second. Ifthe Yolume ofthe vacuum chamber had ben measured incubic meters, the operator might fin it easier to measure leakage ‘ate in units of pascal cubic meters per day or per second. | Leakage isnot simply the volume of ir entering the vae num chamber. Instead, the ential factor isthe mime of gaseous molecules entering the vacuum system, This mu of molecules, in turn, depends upon the extemal pres pire, temperature and the volume of gus at this presre at leaks into the vacuum system, The leakage rte Is pressed in terms ofthe product of this pressure difference ltiplied by the gus volume passing through the lek, per mi of time. Thus, the leakage rate is diretly proportcnal the number of molecules leaking into the vacuum system unit of time ‘Nsuring System Reliability through ‘ak Testing One important reason for leak testing is to measure the reliability of the system under test. Leak testing is not a direct measure of reliability, bu it might show a fundanen- tal fault of the system by ahigher than expected leakage rate tieeurement. A high eof lage fot methane con netions might indieate that a gasket is improperly aligned (of missing. In the same manner, a high leakage value wight sliow the presenie of a misaligned or misthreaded flange Therefore, i is possible to detect installation errors by high leakage ves. However, the absence of high eahege seg not necessarily indicate the absence of improperly installed components.) Leakage measurements to detect iestalltion errors need not be extremely sensitive, since the leakage rates to be expected from serious error will be relatively high (10° to 10° Pa-m?s" or 10-to 10° std ems"). Thus, leak locations can usually be detected readily eee cere tseereeeeeee Leak Testing to Detect Material Flaws Many leaks are caused by material anomalies such as crapks and fissures. Some of these can be detected by meu. surement of leakage rates. Other leaks can be detected by discontinuity detection techniques that identify leak loca. tions. However, nether of these two leak testing technique ‘categories will detec all anomalies. Leak testing s therefore complementary to other nondestructive testing methods that are used to find and evaluate basic material anomalies. Because service reliability is not necessarily a direct function of the leakage in a system, iti difficult fo establish tm acceptance level fr lelage rie, The decion nay be Influenced by the fact that increased leak testing sensitivity ‘may detect only a small number of additional leaks at con. siderable added cost. Ths is because most leaks in welded, brazed and mechanical joints tend to be relatively large oneane froth tet y fenae ipet el Ne tye ® ® Sgr er genees £ - eeei. Sas de dh a 4 “ i. buds feds & & & & oto aye Nt de “This is partly due to the clogging of smaller leaks by water spor and liquids that occurs in parts exposed to industrial rocesses oF to the atmosphere. The only ease where small ESS Sf icts thin 10% Pans" (107 std em's') are encountered is in parts that receive special cleay} room treatment during manufacture. Specifying Desired Degrees of Leak Tightness In industry, the term leaktight has taken on a viet of, easily meanings. A water bucket is tight if it does not all etectable quantities of water to leak out. A high facuor ‘see's tight if the rate of apparent leakage int te stern Chnnot be indicated with the equipment on hand. One night even consider tha a gravel truck is leakight slong as there sre no openings in the truck bed large enough fo allow the smallest nugget to escape. The degree of leak tightness {lependls onthe individual situation. Leak tightness requires that the leakage flow be to smal to be detected. However, Jeak tightness is a relative term. Therefore, it becomes @ necessity to establish a practical eve of leak testing fensitv~ reese en component under tei. Thas, aig Teaktight except by comparison to a standard or specifica tion. Even then, the measured degree of leak tightness can be ensured only atthe time of leak testing and under spe- cific leak testing conditions. Later operation at higher pres- sures might open up leaks. sep eee cece secs cee Avoiding Impractical Specifications - for Leak Tightness Aiming at absolute tightness is an academe endeavor. In practice, al that ean be asked for isa more or less stringent egree of tightness selected according to the application requirements, Nothing made by man ean trly be consid tered to be absolutely leaktght. Even in the absence of fninute porosities, the permeation of certain gases through metals, eatals polymers and gles stl ex ‘Thus, itis necessary to establish a practical leakage rate that is acceptable for a given component under test. A pre- liminary decision has to be made concerning the definition of leak tightness for the particular situation. Because leak tightness isa relative term and has no absolute meaning, the sensitivity ofthe avalable leak testing equipment sa pract- cal guide to attainable levels of leak testing sensitivity. Any Increase in required sensitivity of leak testing increases the time required for leak testing and increases test cost. This Increase in cost of leak testing reaches a maximum when the Teakage specification is given in such impractical term as: LEAK TESTING / 29 no detectable leakage; no measureable leakages no leakage; and zero leakage. Impractical leak testing specifications are expensive to smplohent, ‘They are also very confusing unless the leak testing method is precisely described, With specifications in impractical terms, the leak testing operator is alvays work- ing against background instrument noise. He must then decide whether the leakage reading obtained is caused by the random factuatons of test instruments orb the actual detection of specific leakage. It is much easier to diserimi- nate whether a measured leakage rate is above or below a given standard than to diseriminate leakage from random Instrument noise. Tt is therefore suggested that, when spec- ified, zr0 leakage be defined as a measurable quantitative value of leakage rate that i insignificant inthe operation of, the system. Such a definition allows the system or the mea- surement sensitivity to be compared with a flow through a standard phsical leak. In this way. a qualification ofthe 533- tem performance acceptability can be made during the test operation eae eee cee eee Specifying Leak Testing Requirements to Locate Every Leak Occasionally itis desirable to locate every existing leak irrespective of size forthe following reasons. 1. Stress leaks have a habit of growin fea may become very twovblen repeated stressing, 2. High temperature leaks may be very small at test temperature but may have higher leakage rates at 5s- tem operating temperatures 3. ‘Temperature eyeling to either high or enyogenic lev. cls usually creates stress that results in change of Teakage rates. ‘The criterion whereby a decision is made whether or not to seek greater reliability should be the ratio of cost of the Teak testing procedure to the number of leaks found. For example, improving leak testing reabiity from 10* Pam? (io sid ems") to a reliability of 107 Pam's! (10° std em?) may not be justified. The cost of obtaining the small increase in reliability may be prohibitive ia relation to the value ofthe increase in detection reliability: “The expected leak tightness of sealing operations that wll be used to isolate the system during leak testing must also be casted. The leak testing specication shout be writen with advice from an experienced engineer who makes a30 / NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING OVERVIEW Judgment of the reasonable value’of allowable leakage rate Facts fo be considered nce he ak eating method and technique; type, size and compleity of the system under tes and the sevice requirements and operating con ditions under which the tested system will be wed Specifying Sensitivity of Leak Testing for Practical Applications In specifying the sensitivity of the leak testing technique, an op ledge sestanty ole shoudl bees Large deviations from this optimum value could increase the cost and the dificulty of measuring the leakage rate Secondly, any inerease in the sensitivity specified for par. ticular leakage test automatically increases the cost of leak testing. Therefore, a compromise has to be reached between testing cost and leakage tolerance. Thirdly, the se- sitivity required in leak testing depends upon the particular effects of leakage that must be controlled or eliminated, as illustrated in the flloving examples. Finally, the langua in which the leak testing speiftion i writen should be easy to interpret and to implement in testing to ensure that ‘management's goals are achieved by the leak test. Specifying Tightness Required to Control Material Loss by Leakage The first consideration in specifying the leak tightness required of faid containment stem so ensure thatthe system does not leak sufficient material to cause system fil- ure during the operational life ofthe system. The greatest allowable leakage rate would then be the allowable total leakage divided by the operation Ife of the stem Of course, cofversion might have to be made between numeri- eal values for the tracer gas leakage during leak testing and {hose fr the matral leakage under stm operation eon- tons. Specifying Tightness Required to Control Environmental Contamination by Leakage Contamination failure of a system might cause envion- ‘mental damage, personnel hazard, or degraded appearance. ‘The environmental damage to a system may be caused by material leaking ether into or out ofthe system. For exam ple, system damage may be caused to a liquid rocket motor when the oxidizer leaks out of the storage tank and reacts ‘with parts of the motor. On the other hand, electronic com- ponents can fail when aiy or water vapor enters a hermeti- cally sealed protective container. It is often difficult to calculate the very small amount of material necessary to ‘cause a contamination fallure to occur. However, in most cases, such calculations are not impossible if the failure can be defined. For example, if some decision can be male as to the allowable amount of reaction between the oxidizer and the rocket engine parts, the maximum acceptable rate of total leakage of otlaer from the stonge tank can be defined. Similarly, in an electronic component, if fulure results from adsorption of a monolayer of leaking molecules onthe sure, then knowing that 10" moleules er v monolayer on a square centimeter of surface makes it poss! ble to calculate the allowable leakage rate for this particular component. If fulure results from a pressure rise, then the ‘maximum allowable pressure, the planned system operation time and system volume are all that are necessary for 2 lation of the allowable leakage rate Specifying Tightness Required to Avoid Personne! Hazard Caused by Fluid Leakage Material leakage can cause personnel huzard during 5- temopertion. Ifthe tolerable concentrations ae known and these ae often reported in hteratue, itis again quite eas to calculate the maximum tolerable equipment leakage rate Specifying Tightness Required to Avoid Undesirable ‘Appearance Caused by Leakage An appearance specification isa specification for masi- run feag tht sade Benue leakage of igher ae will spol the appearance ofthe system. Appearance is often specified when no more stringent specification is necessary. 2 spectenton fer laage of ot ofthe lpn of ne ‘aria good example. This leakage specfieation may not be caused byconcer that to moct ail bela or tat dare Gee fhe cor ote wl ocur, nse taped because the prospective buyer would not be inclined to buy a car that would immediatly dirty his veway and that the time of sale, was dripping ol ant the showroom flor. Specifying Tightness Required to Avoid Nuisance Caused by Leakage When appearance sets the allowable leakage of the sys- tem, th leakage often only nsance, However cn leaks that are largely a nuisance may alter the effectiveness of the total system. For example, during the East Coast power blackout in the United States on November 9, 1965, Ale eam genrtor fled during the shutdown beause the auiliany steam supply used for lubrication purposes was not avalable. This stein supply had been shut afer by workers who were bothered by excessive leakage of steara Uhrough some valve packing, This steam leslage was not critica, but it was enough of a nuisance thatthe system was shut down for repair. The repair did not take place in time sar the bearings ofthe generator bured out Gurng emer. gency shutdown ofthe system.BVI parece ob Sus a a “3 13 ' LEAK TESTING / 31 Definition of Leak Detector and Leak Test Sensitivity I A leak detector’ sensitivity is measure of the concen- tration of flow rate of tracer gas that gives a minimum mea. sureable leak signal. Sensitivity depends on the minimum detectable numberof tracer as molecules entering the detector. The sensitivity ofa leak detector is independent of the pressure in the system being tested, provided that ime is ignored asa test factor. Leal et sent ers fo the ini detectable amount of leakage that will occur in a specific period of time Under specie leak test condition Its neces Yo state both the leakage rate and the prevailing test conditions to properly define leak test sensitivity i terms ofthe smallest plyical sie lesethat ean be detected, To avd confor set of standard leak test condition i required, Standard Conditions for Leak Testing The set of standard conditions most commonly accepted is that of dry air at 25 °C, fora pressure differential benveen one standard atmosphere and a vaeuusn (a standard atmo- sphere is 101.395 kPa). For practical purposes, the vacuum need be no better than 0.01 of an atimosphere or 1 kPa, When a leak s being described and only the leakage rate is given, its assumed that the leakage rate refers to leakage at standard conditions. The sensitivity ofa leak testing inst synonymous with the minimum detectable leakage ‘or minimum flow rate the instrument can detect. These minima are independent of leak testing conditions. When the instrument is applied toa tes, the leak testing sensitivity depends on existing conditions of pressure differential, tem. perstre and fd pe natn to the istrent seni jowever, the leak test instrument should be more sensitive by at least a factor of 2 than the minimum leakage to be detected, to ensure reliability and reproducibility of measurements Example of Sensitivity and | Difficulty of Bubble Leak Testing Each modification of leak testing procedure has an opt- mum sensitivity value at which itis most readily used. Devia. tion from this optimum value of sensitivity makes it more clificult to perform the measurement and decreases conf. dence inthe results. Figure 1 shows the influence of leak test. ing sensitivity level on the ease of operation of test ‘equipment. In most cases, after reaching a plateau, further ‘increase of sensitivity rapidly decreases the ease of operation FIGURE 1. Ease of test operation as a function of leak testing sensitivity een EASE OF OPERATION 8 LEAK TESTING SENSITIVITY Bubble testing by immersion in water isan example of how the optimum value affects the ease of performing the test The bubble testing sensitivity ange extends from 10? to 10% Pasm*s" 10" to 10+ std em?sr), In measuring for 10° Pasm?s* (10° std ems) leaks, a component may be placed in water and observed quickly: Bubbles may emerge from the pressurized component af such a rapid rate tat there is no question ofthe existence of a leak. When check ing for leaks in the range of 10° to 10" Poms" (10° to 10° std cm?s"), the opérator must be sure thet the test object or component is submerged long enough for any Lbubbles coming ftom crevices to have a chance to collect and rise, When locating leaks inthe 10° Pam (10 std em?s"}) range, the component, after immersed, has to be completely stripped of attached air bubbles so that the bubble formed by leaking gas mey be detected. The 10 Pam?! (10- std om? echage eage {5 near the limit of detectability of the bubble technique. although longer waiting periods theoretically could obvain higher sensitivity. Longer waiting periods become impracti- cal when the rate ofbubble evolution approaches the rate at ‘hich tracer gas is dissolving in the test fluid. Specifying sensitivity much greater than 108 Pam?.s (ao-lstd ems) makes bubble testing exceedingly dificult For instance, bubble testing could be used at higher sensi. tivity by saturating the immersion liguid with the tracer gas used in lea testing. However, it would be better to change tea diferent leak esting method that mor eft st that higher sensitivity. Bubble testing to detect leaks than 10S Poms? Gor ad eae tee «leat because of rapid gas evolution and 132. / NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING OVERVIEW in the system under iést. However, difficulties in the less sensitive test range are usually not 50 great asin the wee stringent sensitivity range Relation of Test Costs to Sensitivity Of Leak Testing Leak testing instrumentition costs increase as required test sensitivity increases, as sketched in Fig. 2. The to equipment investment for determining a ledkage rate oF 10 Parn?s" (10° std ems) is negligible compared with that for a sensitivity of 10"? Pam! (10-2 stl emer!) whose cost is 10,000 times higher. Even alRtera tent tock” nique has been selected, raising leak sensitity require, ents within this technique will result in an inerete op measurement cost. This increase i usualy caused by greater complexity of leak tess with ineréased sensitiit Cost increases become particularly drastic. when dts Fequired sensitivity is higher than the optimum operating range shown in Fig. Selection of Specific Leak Testing Technique for Various Applications Figure 3 provides a graphical ude to selection of leak testing mead an tec eh of nk shows decision tre with which the choice ofa leak testing method becomes step-by-step process. The selection pr SSE apes by Fig 9 sve ar a base gude: Pater Consideration of specific leak testing requirements may soe, other methods or technknes ort wl the test engineer to modify leak testing procedures, The final selection ofthe leak testing method will typically be made from pethaps only three or four possible tet meth, ‘ods. The special conditions under which tests must be made can become a major factor inthis final test selection The fist question to be asked when choosing the best leak testing method, or technique of a method, © “Shonk this test reveal the presence ofa suspected leah orisits pure pose to show the location of a known leak” The second ‘question to be answered is, “Is it necessary to measure the tate of leakage at the specific leak?” If leakage measurement is essential, use of calibrated or reference leaks of other means to provide quantitative leakage measurement ie equited. In the decision tree of Fig. 3, the fst bunch (op ‘eton point) answers the preceding questions and deter- mines if ‘or requirements ofthe test lead to the upper branch, ea oat ony orto lower branch of ieege rate measurement Types of Fiuid Media Used in Leak Testing ment. Each method in all eatgories moles Fed trace and ome means focal tl or other means foreasing fd ew tRocah ia keke leaks. Possible uid media include gases, vapors and haw or combinations of these physical states of fluid probing media. Selection ofthe desired fluid probing medium fee leak testing depends on involving factors such as RELATIVE LEAK TESTING EQUIPMENT COST Basic Categories of Leak Testing c Tek testing can be divided into theee main categories 1) leak detection, (2) leak location and (3) leakage messuse, lishing a pressure differen ‘operator or engineering judgment FIGURE 2. Effect of detection equipment Tequired sensitivity on leak cost LEAKAGE MEASUREMENT SENSITIVITY Standard cubic centimeter per second 5 LEAKAGE MEASUREMENT SesmTViTY pascal cubic meter per second| ‘ESTING / obe Outsi has inleak zer probe, vod is wheth a. the inhere tronic type « ponsive to 8 ‘uum systen iressure aa line fro ystems, and: thin the evac ust be exam nitions an b tracer prob paket change gt heated anode las spectrom These methods se second hor Fig. 3 for leak 1 usage. Other P tracer gases, and other “However, if for detector ling discussion ® complicated ag selection of Leakage nofFig. Sis a techniques for nents can be the nature of ared. The frst st surfaces on ast objects are th sides of the B or detector34 / NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING OVERVIEW ! 1. Spe and size’6F test object or system to be tested; 5 Bplcal operating conditions of test objector sat 3: exsronmental conditions doing leak testing 4+ hazards associated withthe probing medion and the sure conditions involved in testing, leak testing instrumentation to be used and its response tothe probing medium, and! thesioge rate tat sa bn andthe accuracy with which measurements must be nade FaGURE 4. Tracer gas probing techniques used fot locating leaks with sensitive electronic lag detection instruments: (a) tracer probe technique; (b) detector probe technique fa) 1 Bs mu h Gases and vapors are generally prefered to liquid media here high sensitivity to leakage must be attae I however, Lagu probing media are used for leak testing in many spe- ctl aplcasson bad ree Selection of Tracer Gas Technique | for Leak Location Only . | ‘A; shown on the upper branch of the decison tree of | ce Saat Fs whose purpose is leak losation ony akter the presence of leak has been ascertained. Pre eon Probe technique is used when the test system is ersccseed sane et e™ 25 applied fom the ouside of te pes sure boundary of the fest sytem, The detector probe tech pigue is selected when the test system is presieioal oot gues including hee 5 (used) and the sling et _test PPlication, However, each leak testing technique ean Fampling of the leaking gis being done at samarrecg ive a, HON ‘ensitvty under different operating ESSue inthe ambient: This section cones atin For example, a mass spectrometer leak fetene dantatond decision point in the upper brinch of fic aeee, fp IOOHD re Sensitive than a heated anode halogen raapairh tection instrument when used for leak loots sion tree of Fig 3. fs tracer coe location test of an evacuated necel Kove if these two instruments are used for leak dete : = on on & pressurized test system, the halogen lek detec Factors Influencing Choice Superior by approximately ihe fame ratio, The — for I abParent discrepancy becomes obvious upon elon Petween Detector Probe and ion ofthe oper cae en Tracer Probe Tests fstruments. The mass spectrometer is Gesigned for per. Ghreinder vacuum conditions, whereas the heegest ee ope os dict and important decisions ithe gf under Aesigned for operation in air at atubephirne porta igned for ope i reach i ak testing method should bowed care SCO" tre oak ean ene Sensi, cost and rely ot PRUE. example, a helium mass spectrometer leak the leak testi fia of sores fet detector may tne Eenstivity of 10" Pamdet Teak test econ te fedvay, (ui stcm?s) rng out lea tating oi po while adding tothe diffeuly of testing One implied way leakage measurement techniques oh very small systems of teeta rank various leak testing methols ty nen, ih ptimum sensitivity may be increased 6 10 Reese cng, Raage ens If his were silent Ue en (as a Gainer would only need to decide what depress = leakage measurement technique Howse ay Brongratited and then to select the tes methol ney Among tow ollering adequate senstvty for the specieeed dd a ee Hg ly & bwtoty & FS us SS Therefore; the last sensitity stated above is subject to some uestion. It must be recognized that each méthod of leak letection or measurement is usually optimized for one pars ticular type of leak testing, Therefore, it can be a mistake to compare sensitivities of various leak testing methods under the same conditions, if each testis not designed to operate under these same conditions. Leak Location Technique with Detector Frobe Operating at Atmospheric Pressure When testing a pressurized system that i feaking into the atmosphere the nest decision point is whtther or not the leaking uid can be used asa tracer (this dacsion point lies along the top branch of the tree of Fig. 3). Hor example, ‘most refrigeration and airconditioning systems pre charged, with a refrigerant gas (R-12 or R-22) which is afuorocarbon to which the heated anode halogen vapor detector i spect ‘cally highly sensitive. When searching for leaks in operating systems of this type, the inherent tracer dictates the use of the halogen leak testing method. Because of potential envi- ronmental effets from fuorocarbons, some qurrent sys. tems are being charged with R-I4a reffigerant das or sullar hexafluoride for use, respectively. with modified fsidual gas analyzer halogen leak detectors or electron capture halogen Teak detectors Ifthe pressurized test system contains amm| chemical type of leak detector might prove to bd optisnumn, In certain cases where the mass spectrometer led detector is to be used, the presence ofa specific gis (such as argon, helium, or neon) within the system provides an| excellent inherent tracer. Altomative procedures involve pressurizing the test system with such a tracer gas, or a mature of a with tracer ga. Some other methods for leak location do ‘upon the specific nature of the leaking gas: among these are the ultrasonic leak detector and bet lesting. In some eases, the tracer gas might be suitable for use sth ‘more than one testing method, e.g, helium cou used for Dubble testing for large leaks, or for mass spectrometer test ing for small leaks or quantitative leakage measurements, tthe detector probe leak testing methods, in order of increasing leak sensitivity, the and costs, are ulrasone, bubble, chemical, pressure or low ge response infaed 28 detector, mass spectrometer leak detector and halogen vapor detector. These relative sensitivity ratings apply for detector probes searching with the detector inlet probe or sniffer searching in ar at atmosphere pressure. Theve alter. jative leak test methods are listed vertically atthe right. hand end of the top branch of the decision tree of Fig. 3 The lowest cos, highest speed, simplest lek tests are atthe bottom of this list. The slower, more costly higher sensitivity {est methods appear at the top ofthe list shown to the right ofthe top branch athe decom wee of ig 3 3 depend LEAK TESTING / 3 Leak Location Technique with Tracer Probe Outsid an Evacuated System ‘When testing an evacuated system that has inleakag from the ambient atmosphere or from a tracer probe, th frst consideration in selection ofa test method fs whethe there is an inherent detector within the system. the inherent detector might be a reir eg fa lt peo irably, a gage that is specifically responsive fo Part pressure oft este tect ge, ee ‘ystems often contain one or more types of vacuum pressure gages 2s Fig. hs point apea nthe second ne ng the top for tracer probe testing of evacuated systems, and is Ibeled inerent deer a If vacuum pressure gage does not exist within the evac- uated system under test, other test methods must be exam. ned individually to determine their limitations and advantages for leak testing of this system. The tracer probe leak testing methods, in order of increasing leak sensitivity, time and cost, are ultrasonic, pressure change ga response, high voltage electrical dchage, heated as eSe halogen detector, nfared gas detector and mass spectiom- eter helium leak detector {highest init) These ects ae listed vertically at the righthand end of the second hor izontal branch in Fig, 3. The methods shown in the upper half of Fig. 3 for leak lotion are those in primary or most common usage. Other method, such as those employing ve tracer gases, are not generally employed because of safety and ether ‘operating problems associated with their use. However if none of the leak location methods described for detector probe or tracer probe leak tests in the preceding discussion is satisfactory for a specific application, more complicated leak testing methods may be considered during selection of an appropriate leak testing method. — Selection of Technique for Leakage Measurement ‘Tite lower half ofthe decision tree diagram of Fig. 3s a ide for step-by-step selection of optimum techniques for fe measurements. Leakage measurements tan be divided into two different types based upon the nature of the test objects whose leakage is to be measured. The fist decision is based upon the accessibility of test surfaces on the pressure boundaries ofthe test object, Test objects are classified by accessibility into two groups: 1. open units, which are accessible on both sides of the Presure boundary for tracer probes or detetor probes;36 / NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING OVERVIEW 2. sealed units, which are accessible only on external surfaces, The second category-usually consists of mass produced items such as transistors, relays, ordnatice components and sealed instruntens, In the lover parton of fg a shoice i Indicted fist on the delton pith fe een measurement —— Practical Measurement of Leakage Rates with Gaseous Tracers Principles of Leakage Measurement All leak detection with tracer gases involved their flow from the high pressure side ofa pressure boundary through a presumed leak to the lower pressure side ofthe pressure boundary. When tracer gases are employed in leak testing, instruments sensitive to tracer gus presence or concentra. tion are used to detect outflow from the low pressure side of the leak in the pressure boundary: Where leak tests involve ‘measurements of change in pressure or change in volume of £85 within a pressurized enclosure, the loss of internal gas Jreaure or volume indies th lesage tae occured through the pressure boundary (or temporary seals pla on openings a the pressure boundan). When cca oe low pressure test systems or components are surrounded by higher pressure media such asthe earth's atmosphere, or & hood oF test chamber containing gases at higher pressures, leakage can be detected by loss of pressure in the external chamber or by rise in pressure within the lower pressure system under test. Classification of Techniques of Leakage Measurement with Tracer Gases Leakage rate measurement techniques involving the use of tracer gies fal into two ther clastftions leg as (1) static leak testing and (2) dynamic leak testing, In static leak testing, the chamber into which trace gas leaks and accumulates is sealed and is not subjected to pumping to remove the accumulated gases. In dynamic leak testing, the chamber into which tracer gas leaks is purmped continuously oF intermittently to draw the leaking tracer gus through the leak detector instrumentation, as sketched in Fig. 5. The leakage rate measurement procedure consists of fist pla. ing tracer gas within or around the whole system being tested. A pressure dlferental across the system boundary is established either by pressurizing the one side of the pres. sure boundary with tracer gas or by evacuating the other side. The concentration of tracer gas on the lower pressure side of the pressure boundary is measured to determine leakage rates. ised In dynamic leak testing techniques using {acum pumping: (a) pressurized system mode r leak testing of smaller components; (b) pressurized envelope mode for leak testing # larger volume systems pete 5. Modes of leakage measurement tay Be source oF makes Leakage Measurements of Open Test Objects Accessible on Both Sides When test objects have pressure boundaries that are accessible on both sides, the second decision in the selection of a leakage measurement test method is whether the unit can or stould be evacuated during leak testing. Also, it ‘would be important to determine ifthe leak test canbe per- formed wi'h the tracer probe or detector probe at atmo- sphere pressure. If one side ofthe pressure boundary eas be evacuated so that leakage occurs fo vacuum and the leak detector is placed in the vacuum system, more rapid leak {esting methods can be used. In vacuum, the tracer gases can reach the detector quickly, particularly with dynamic tests in which the evacuated test volume is pumped rapidly&é & He BF Bu °§ sg tre hl fos of and continuously. In ts 9 does not stratification of trcer gases. However, evncvatl alwvays produce the most sensitive and reliable leakage mess surements Ithe test volume extremely lrg, Mish pene ing speed is necessary to reduce response fine’ Such aunty pumping will redoce the amount of trier gat reaching the leak detector. This, in turn, can retluce signal levels and leakage sensitivity. Other restraints may prevent ma he test aster ose oe ene Convention helium ass apecrosetes ha letectors for example, should be operate at vaguum pres sure of O1 Fa (10° tor) or loved: The svete oP jwipment under test (particularly if thin walls not intended tonal eeral free he mech titel use of leakage rite measurement techniques invwlfeh the vacuum. In Fig. 3, the fF the leak to eau represents the point of leak detector must operate within lowest branch leading to the junct path and the leak to atmosphere pa Aecision discussed in this paragraph, Selecting Specific Method for Leak Testing of Evacuated Test Units or Systems As indicated slong the nextto-bottom decision path at the center of Fig. 3. the fist approach to selecting leak test methods for units that can be evacuated is to determine whether or not there isan inherent tracer in the test system For example, ifn normal operation the system under test contains one ofthe specie acer ges sakes he halogenated hydrocarbons, a test method sensitive to the specific tracer gis might be preferred. In this wan: consider, able savings in test time and cost ean be realized if there ts ‘no need to ill the system under test with a tracer gas, If no inherent tracer gas is availble within the system under test, the nest decision step might be to determine if there isa pressure or flow gige already present the eee uted system to be leak tested If so, this gage se for leakage measurement in place of some atonal wpe of leak detector. This intemally available gage might be an. ple ‘acum dial, thermocouple or ionization sige of, in Some fortunate cases, a mas spectrometer that is incorpo, rated into the system as apart ofits analytical instrumertoc tion or controls. Consideration need not be limited to thaws 'ypes of gages commonly used for leak testing. Angas con centration measuring equipment that happens to be aval. able may be used forleakage measurement. For example it is possible to measure the pressure rise in a leaking vaeuum tube (evacuated electronic tube) by means ofthe plate cur, rent increase ina triode, This snot the intended fenction of a triode electron tube but, because its circuit is sclemati- cally similar to that of an ionization gage, it ean be used for leakage rate measurements during testing. This decision Point is that labeled gage in place in the two bottom decision pathways shown in Fig 3. LEAK TESTING / 3; Methods of Leakage Measurement in Evacuated Systems with No inherent Tracer JF there is no inherent tricer or gage present within an Evacuated test system, standard leak testing methods must be considered. Methods for leak testing of evacuated sys. tems in order of increasing leak sensitivity and cot of leak {csting equipment, include ga flow measurement, pressure ghange ‘measurement, heated anode halogen vapor leak dltection and mass spectrometer helium leak detection These ‘methods, listed vertical at the end of the nextto-bottom decision line in Fig. 3, should each be con: sidered individually and evaluated in terms of their advon {ages and limitation. In most cass, all ofthe possible leak festing methods should be considered. Selection depends on pertinent factors. for example, a more sensitive leak tect, ing method might invlve higher nial est for eocptane and test setups but, onthe other hand, it might result in ‘great cost savings during testing programs, or provide speater relly in ea testingreeuke eo Onee the basic vacuum leak testing method has been selected, a second consideration involves selection between staticand dynamic test techniques. tis usvally preferable to perform leak tests using a dynamic testing technique (teste involving pumping of the vacuum system throughout the test periad), Howeser, static techniques of leakage rate imcasurerent should also be considered. Static tests vel, ing tse of loss in pressure, or accumulation of tracer gases grer prolonged leak periods, are slower’ than ‘Spica! dynamic Teak tests. However, higher sensitiity cat be ved in static tests ithe volume under testis not exces, sive this may be worth the extra effort. Selection of Test Methods for Systems Leaking to Atmospheric Pressure ‘The choice of testing methods for test systems leaking to atmospheric pressure should be made by following the ene type af decision patter as for leak testing of evacuated sy tems. The decision path for this ease appears atthe bottom of Fig. 9, The lek testing methods applicable to testing of systems leaking to atmosphere, in oer of ineressng fest Sensitivity, are flow measurement, prescure messurenent fmmersion bubble testing. infrared. gascous leak testing, heated anode halogen leak testing. mass. spectromete, helium leak testing and leak testing using radiosctive tracer fees A dpa leak testing mth sould be wed whe ever possible. After various dynamic leak test methods hans been considered and those whose limitations are unaccept able have been rejected a static leak testing method shoudl38 / NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING OVERVIEW also be considered. Although a static technique will nerease leak testing time, wil also increase leak testing sensei. Purposes of Leak Testing to Locate Individual Leaks Leak testing for the purpose of locating individual leaks i cequired when necesito detect rae oa ad ate each leak; unacceptable leaks then can be repaired and total leakage from a vessel or system brought within accept. able limits. Methods for detecting and locating individeal leaks are generally quantitative only in the sense that the loser limit of detectable leak size is determined by the sen, sitivity of the leak detecting indicators and test method used. Thus, only rather crude overall leakage rate informa- tion could be approximated by adding the leakage rates measured for the leaks that are detectable. Numerous dif. ferent leak detecting, locating and measuring techniques and devices are available, The selection of test eq tracer gas and leak detection method is influenced by the following factors: size of the leaks to be detected and located; nature and accuracy of leak test information required; size and accessibility ofthe system being tested, system operating conditions tht influence leakage, Iazards associated with specific lak location methods; and ambient conditions under which leak locaton tests are required to be carried out (wind or lack of air circulation and stratification effects can influence test sensitivity and personnel). Un ope Classification of Methods for Locating and Evaluating Individual Leaks Methods for location and evaluation of individual eka an be categorized in various ways, including by types of ick tacer ttlized in he detecio, ‘al posible ‘measurements of individual leaks. A primary classifeation is that between the use of liquid tracers and the use of more Sensitive gaseous tracers. Leak location methods that depend upon tracer gas properties ar listed below in gene eral categories, in order of increasing lek testing senstvity and compleaity of test methods: 1. icak location methods that are independent of any characteristic properties ofthe tracer gas (use of care les, liquid and chemical penetrants, bubble testing and tole orultrasonieleak tests, for xasiple) 4 2, leak location methods using tracer gases with cally detectable physical or chemical properties (pase, wth thermal Sonus or chemi ropes differing from those of the pressurizing gas, gaseous falogen compounds and gives having characteristic radiation absorption bands. in the ultraviolet or infrared spectral ranges); and. ‘3. leak location methods invoking the use of tracer {gi8es with atomic oF nuclear properties providing easly detectable leak signals (helium and other inert gases having specific charge-to-mass properties that permit their sensitive detection by mass spectroine. ters and gaseous radioactive isotopes detectable with Particle counters and radiation detectors), Tables 3 and 4 list some typical leak detection systems and give their leakage sensitivities. le Techniques for Locating Leaks with Electronic Detector Instruments Figure 4 shows arraigements of two basi techniques for lating leas with lectroni instruments that detec dhe a presence of specific tracer gases: (1) the detector probe probe technique and (2) the tracer technique. With either it 's important that leak location pinpointing be attempted only alter the presence of a leak has been ascertained, When choosing between the pressure test technique and the vas. tuum test technique, both of the altemative techniques listed above must be considered when the test object will withstacel either pressure or vacuum. If a satisfactory choice of one technique has been made, isa good idea to compare it with a satisfactony choice of the other technique, to see if reduced cost oran easier test method might be pesibe, ‘The detector probe leak location technique is used when the system under test is pressurized and testing is done at ambient atmospheric pressure. The tracer probe technique ‘susully used when the astern under tat ee the tracer gas comes from outside this system. The tracer probe technique is usually the most rapid test because the tracer gas travels more rapidly in vacuum and so reaches the leak detestorin a shorter time. On the cther hand «higher Pressure differential can be used with the. detector probe, Coordinating Overall Leakage Measurements with Leak Location Tests Leakage rate measurement techniques do not provide information onthe number and locations of aaa eeas » ESS Potowwvsssrrcard vivleS % & eae ah POSS TABLE 3. Sensitivity limits of various techniques of leak location Minimum Detectable Iraroge nate etnod _rambir" pignes) Comments retimted — presure change. generaly ite sense eas oa over quotaive Rare no lomaton Sek ion: tne consuming leak oation on fst no ‘icon up can Stet fom cance forty tgeeskr on single 0 use Tesson on may pt Sroteate outs Sean up for teak orator: ds ray lg sa aks tropes denne | sale compet parable rexperave serve (0 (erous gues operates cpmatesin ae sestve iio" dames win Sitar evant peoraole eautes Beanuposessenstiy Saye: seratve to Groene sige gases rmoweoceurat for acu cing. expensue + teooy comes nt tp porate a hatogen Selators: machen sete wnen used ia fesuerenng | Mass oss Unasonics 00s (05) Chemical $107 [5 10) penetrants upoies 105 104) Treimal 10+ 104 ‘eonducthy Halogen 10? 10%) Mass 10? 10") spectrometer “The latter can only be determined by leak location test tech- ‘iques. However, use-of the leak locaton techniques alone Caunot give relable assurance that no leaks exist, or that feats have revealed all leaks that exist. Without prior assur~ fince that Teaks do exist, leak location test techniques ‘become arbitrary in application. | Tn practice, preliminary leakage testing is offen done fist by less sensitive methods to permit detection, location and rectification of gross leaks. Next, the opeiator can determine if any additonal leakage exists by an overall leak- age measurement ofthe entire test vessel, system, oF com Ponent. Then each individual leak should be discovered by LEAK TESTING / 39 TABLE 4. Relative ultimate leakage sensitivities of leak testing methods under ideal conditions with very high concentrations of tracer gases? Minimum Detectable Leakage Rate Test Method Pam? (std cms!) Liquid pressure drop — — Gas pressure drop = a Pressure rise = — Untrasonic leak detector 107 0") ‘Volumetric displacement # 102 3) Gas ascharge 10? (103) Famonia 2nd phenolpnenalen 10310 10+ (102%0 109) ‘frnmonia and bromocresol purple 103 t0 10+ (10210 107) ‘paumonia and hydrochloric acid 103t0 10% (10210 107) ‘Ammonia and sulfur donde 10310104 (103x010) Halide torch 10" 103) ‘Aa bubbles in water 10410 10% [10310 10%) ‘nit and soap or detergent 1o4to 10% [10210 104) ‘ermal conductivity 105 0) tefrared bx105t [6x 10410 exio? —6x104) Hydrogenpiceni 10? 04 Hoemiamentionization gage 10710 10% [10-510 10°) 1o#to 107 [10410 10%) Mass spectrometer sift test 107 to 107 [10% 0.10%) Halogen diode detector Hycrogen bubbles in alcohol (5x104) Palagium barter detector 1-10 107 [107 1 104) Hass spectrometer envelope tet 10" (10%) Ragioactve isotopes 10 to 10°? (10"*t0 10°") “Tmumoens NOT TO 8 USED AS GUIDES IN PRACTICAL LEAR TESTING. SROMREE SO Votume resreo avo PRESSURE RANGE OF CAGE. »Bepewos ov VOUME TESTED. SGasrire row meres sensitive leak location techaiques and repaired if feasible SEUlall detectable leak locations have been identified and thr less rece: For Binal surance hat the test jest aoe fein meets leakage specification requirements, it may or stem mest cover lehage at measurement Pe oternine whether the total leakage rate fas within the acceptable limits. Laser Based Leak Imaging! ‘The badseatterbsortion gs Imaging (BAD tech- nique is efferent from other laser based remote detection TeEiques in that fe is designed for the sole purpose of [Grating leas or tracking gas clouds. I should not be con Rand with other laser based gas detection techniques caps- tic of measuring ges concentration. The BAGI technique is P Goltative thee dimensional vapor visualization scheme.40 / NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING OVERVIEW In its present state of development. the technique provides noabsolute gas concentration data but dvs quit elfectney Provide concentration distributions through its imaging REE With this technique normal visible gas leakage betomescsbleonasanladees ens often af interest. The image of the escaping gas allows the osemtog to quel dent the lacsion of te Te Te chen can detect tracer, gis leakage of 27 x 10% Pander Gar 10 std em?s") (50 gir equivalent) and displaying the leakage in realtime on a standard television montten The principle of operation ofthe BAGI technique isthe Production of a video image by backscattered later ight Shere the lier wavelength is strongly absorbed by thers, ofiterest When achieved, the reslt thatthe normaly invisible gas becomes visible on a standard television mene tor. The technique has three basic constraints, 1. Thee must be a topgrphical backs agains which the gas s imaged The stem must operate nan stnosphere teansnision winds 8. The giv ofnterest nt bso the srg infrared imaging systems have been consid- éred because most hazardous gises are active absorben a {hi spectral region, However there i no reason why th technique would spheric transmission regs A simulated leak location demonstration at a eyinder onige aea is shown tn Fig 6, The prototype gu imaging Aastem shown here isa shovlder mount, multieaelesgus (tunable) unit with a 14 by 18 degree field of view and'on effective range of about 30 m (100 ft). The shoulder mount standard black-and-white television picture on the can, Corder style viewfinder for operator viewing of can be hard Ufted 10 larger television monitor, as done in Fig. 6. For of the cylinder by aplastic tube connected toa supply bot, Siting atthe ba ‘the cylinder. oe «The laser used in the gas imaging stem is a tunable, 2M COs waveguide laser. Use of such alow laser power ‘ossible because of the unique optical arrangement that mits the laser beam and the intantancoos ete ee FOV) ofan ifsed dee to be scanned in synchro. ‘ization across the area of interest. The instantancene fed soyiew produced by the smal (0.05 x 0.05 min [0.00% 0.003 in cote infarc detector and a collimating lens is ‘canned ina rasterlike fashion across the tagetaree by te 4 FIGURE 6. Leak location demonstration of the gas imaging technique {ASEH IMAGING SYETEMS, REPRIVTED WITH PERMISSION | sathagonaly positioned horizontal and vertical sean mirrors The fcr boo get tote esa view ppticl path and is scanned nema the target area by the sie orthogonal mirors. This ensures thatthe detects instaaneous Feld of view and the laser beam are in pene tation and thatthe laser need irrdiate only thee iewed by the detector This Leena to a tinimum and makes the er power requi ssten| totally eye sufe Pecause of the many leuk testing techniques and the tnultiple vatiations of each, leak testing could require more {raining and knowledge than any ofthe other nondestrace {is testing methods, Successful execution of many ofthese technighes by inspection personnel is highly dependent og nee aad Nee MeN dee instace rea ainng material available fo leak testing than fr ‘other methods. INT-TC-1A divides leak testing into four methods (see able Si bubble test (BT), pressure change test (PCI) logen Hiode leak test (HDL) and mass spectrometer leat, 1) The recent revisions inthe leak testing train, CfSNE-TC-14 expanded ths list of four methods ‘oa totalof 12 methods (see Table 5), The 34 variato g uy & “we 8 ef 9-2 @ i ee ea 8 aon ory ha oofOP dedodos é wbetude iy w os & eae eee eee ee whic & & xe TABLE 5. Leak testing methods and techniques LEAKTESTING / 41 TABLE 6. Comparison of leak rates Methods Techniques ‘BabbIe solution “ramersion: fim soln Uasonicfacoustic _sonic/mechanvcal low, sound ‘generator Votage discharge voltage spark: color change Pressure hydrostatic: hydropneumatic, ‘pneumace ] rorvzation Photo ionization: lam ionization Conductivity thermal conductivity: catayee combustible Radiation absoxption infrared ultraviolet: laser Chemical based ‘chemical penetrants; chemical gas wwacer Halogen detector halide torch electron capture halogen diode Radioisotope krypton 85 Pressure change absolute reference: pressure fie: ow measurement; pressure day: volumetric hhelum or argon, tracer location: Roading total leskage: detector probe location; spaled objects: residual gas an ‘Mass spectrometer very dificult to meet the training and experience guidelines that are recommended by ASNT for more than tw or three techniques. A brief listing foreach technique may fake you sawn of your weaknesses, Variations of each technique may require familiarity with ciferent test equipment anf tracers. ‘Many inspection people are also confused, when choos- {ng a technique, by the disadvantages and limitatiogs in sen- sitivity foreach technique. Tnspection personnel often have difficulty undefstandin hhow extremely small some leaks are that they will th of This also makes it difficult to realize that some leals may be temporarily sealed by foreign material such as oi, grease, ‘water, or even cleaning solvents. Improper handling after cleaning may temporarily prevent location of leaks that will reappear ata later time. A comparison of leakage rates in thre diferent ways (Table ) may help to vinlze the sie When leak testing i performed with equipment capable of locating and measuring leaks smaller than 10°? Pasms"! (10% std ems"), tracer permeation through the test object materials of construction m: a5 a leak indication several seconds to hours after application ofthe tracer. This may require a knowledge of those materials that allow per- rmeation by the tracer being used. Many Level If or HT inspection personnel establish reject specifications that are unrealistically smal with respect tothe ‘Measurement Approximate ‘Approximate stdems' Equivalent Bubble Equivalent® to! std crPsi0s steady sveam 10? sidemPr1005 os" 10? 3 dem? 1st tot Istdemaan ons? 105 iswem24n — Jo 1 std em72 we — 10? 3 tdemaye . “ 1o® adem yr “ 107 1 ed enP/30 yr — 1O" 1 se em?/3,000 yr — Bladen ai xiotnaim, 2. ASSUMING BUBBLE OF Y mo (6.1 1092) OLLIE Rinses roo nett 10 Gbetve Ox rama OSs01, expected life of the product being tested. As a result, many tested objects with leaks that are 10 to 100 times smaller than an acceptable level are ejected for repair or destruction. This creates unnecessary cost and los of profits. Some examples of leaks that may affect certain products are as follows: chemical process equipment, 10 to 107 Pam's! (10" to 1 std ‘om? torque converter, 10" to 10% Pam?s (10° to 10% std cm?) beverage can end, 104 to 107 Pamis? (10 to 10% std om®s"); vacuum process system. 107 to 10 Pam?.s (10+ to 107 std ems); integrated circuit package, 10-8 to 10-* Pass"! (10 to 10 std ems pace- maker, 10" Pam®s" (10° std em?) ‘Another reason training must be emphasized is that many leak testing hazards may exist which cause injury to inspec- tion personnel, damage to test equipment, or damage tothe product being tested. The following examples illustrate humerous hazards: lammable/tosc solvents for cleaning, flummable/toscfexplosive tracers, asphyriation by vapors or tuner gases, access difficult on large objects, pneumatic and hydrostatic pressure, radioactive tracer gases, compressed {3 cylinders/egulators and structural stress. ‘To summarize the need for leak testing methods train- inl there are 11 reasons to expand this training: choice of many techniques, sensitivity of various techniques, advan- tages and limitations of each technique, dependence of techniques on testing skills and experience, leakage location versus measurement, factors affecting measurement accu- racy, employers’ cutling cost by hiring entry level people ‘and minimizing training time, hazards to personoel and. products, few courses available tht offer skills training, im- hted available training materials and the small number of qualified Level ITI personnel.42. / NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING OVERVIEW: PART 2 : SAFETY IN LEAK TESTING TN General Saen Poca rocesses involve the use of liquid General Safety Procedures for Test sai ents and vapors, sone ofwhich present possible hazials Jammabilty, toxicity, or asphyaiation. Liquid leak tracers Personne! otdn have sar hace ifragor souls working are}s. Ventilation must be provided to prevent hasmdace Test Personnel Dedication to Safety Procedures ‘spp concentrations. Electrical systems must be enclosed oF pfotected to prevent ignition of funmable vapors in as sed aro pplations of ek testing iso wide and OI test surfaces, particularly on lange strokes a sated that to sing st oft forprotectio oper 5 Leardeas if sealflding is indequae Ughting i rel ane! and property can be made to cover all eases. Lek cen}, or bad housekeeping creates hazards such & oily work recap Perzonnel must be made avare afb hizardsand be i ces or obstructions in passigewsre receptive to proper training in order to protect thenchex sgeway and others working cose by On inany job, testing mac Berformed at od hours and unde? Scie sn : Night shift work, weekend work and work in unheated aress Psychological Factors and the in winter and uncooled areas in summer are common ocean fences. Clinbing through manholes, elimbing ladders ant SAMPCY Program Sartimapealneng on rico members, r other ake, nature of leak testing work requires a competent ‘worghmaneuvers may all bein ada’ work safety program. Much of the success of such « program £ Jn addition to technical ables fd ining in test pro program. Seoeptance by those We wn ee stats He meege team ust Have othr GPE Spon sae Been aft dvs ast ow aay een us be determined to doa safe jb under Progrim that some human being could not disrupt cy iia | Sete ai aes, He must be ling to listen and to coop- iimpatr The human factors that operate ata levels in od | Ril Reheat onerieonel acute e The hres tr treat foruccorfatue —, field, but he must not compromise the safety aspects of his [9 2 ey progean. The president of company, the ais F TEE rhe comenionce of hinsl, hs crew ar someone 88 od the le eng spencer nae se ox! alse, size safety or subordinate it to production goals, Produenog ‘Test personnel can acquire a proper attitude and point of Gees See goals. ns view toard salty only hough led with expe- inure tng perme tc al important con Fence. The training program should include frst aid and al differences ate reese ficrone lifesaving techniques. In situations where iitating toxic, or Dr erences differences must beset ted wick meet Fecha es, vapors o Mud are present the test ‘ier gtOups to use god salety pret on ae hours. The leak testing technician should have more thor ractie! Morte the desire to ignore ssafery dence or eating in scident prevention tan the reg plant iter with pedcon 6 area ie at patton erat workers. For him, safety involves not a set Conflicting motivations should also be considered in any Fel pabieen Put & complex and constantly changing attempt fo understand human relations that influence dhe set of problems. eoeteee ‘ . success of safety programs. Industry has recognized the effects that attitudes can have on production, plant morale Hazards in Leak Testing sini AAs a result, management mee ‘on- effort to determine the attitudes ofits workers log of test surfaces is required for leak testing sider ie ‘where surface contamination might prevent entry of ludd ‘Measuring, developing and changing attitudes constituajar problem for management and psychologists dnd are ‘of extreme importance to the safety program. Personnel Safety Training Requirements ‘There should absays be concer with safety tating of personnel. The leaming process starts at birth. Moit early Safety training is through experience, as when a chifd m hhave touched a stove and been burnt, played with f knife and been eu, o fallen from a precarious treehouse ad bro- keen a bone. However, personnel testing today’s vessHls that tal gses, vapors and quis various emperatred and st absolute pressures ranging from very high vacaum [nano aseals)t0 pressure levels of megapascals cannot afford to lear safety by causing or experiencing disasters Control of Hazards from Airborne Toxic Liquids, Vapors and Particles Toxic Gas and Vapor Sensors and Alarms sasesina workarea canbe provided by various types elec fone instraments with detectors and san systems respon theta many dient sire em eae or iriculite mater For general protective service applic fons, wall mounted, selfcontained monitors can detect and provide auble signs of the presence of various come Bintble gases. fumes and microscopy sited arbor par teulte contaminants These are bp provided wih pot Tights to Indeate the presenee of alerting euredt line Power and standby battery power. ashing fed lights are Eetusted wen abnonnal concentrations of contaminants cour The alam sent contrl ean be adjusted tallow compensation for nonal ambient quiescent stmoephere Contamination levels The sensor assembly of pia gas ‘monitor and lam system contains a ested semiconductor Cloent hos esac oct vio ton ofthe ype and quantity of gas molecules adsorbed on ts sur face. The beateteflctely bolls off adsorbed contaminants. Sensor resistances thus primary afancton of adsorbed tmolculs, shove number slated to thei eltve concen Tratons in the amblent it atmosphere. The sensor i designed for more tha 00 exposures and can detect 50 fag! of many combustible and toie gates and vapors, inching thse sted in Table 7. Ventilation to Reduce Vapor Hazards in Solvent Use Areas Many applications of leak testing in various industries have, asa prerequisite to testing, some cleaning operation. ‘This operation often involves the use of volatile solvents Leak TESTING 7 43 TABLE 7. Combustible and toxic gases and vapors detectable by area monitors and alarm systems ‘eetaldehyde ‘inirobenzene med butyl Ketone ‘acetone Ginirototuene meth celosotve acetonitrile propylene gycol_methy! chiorde acetylene etnyl ether methyt chloroform fetrabromice _epichlorhydrin | methyfcyclohexane ‘acohol Zethoryethanol methyicyclohexano! ‘aly aicoho! eryiakonol methylene chloride calyigivadyierner — ethytamine ‘met ety ketone ammonia ettyl benzene emethy! mercaptan benzene etiy| bromide naphtha bbenzoy| chiore ethyl but ketone * naphthalene benzoyl peroxide etryichoride natural gas butane evs etner ritrobenzene Zbutanone (MEK] ety formate __ptrochlorobenzene 2butoryetnercl ethylenediamine ritroetnane Dug acetate ‘etry dichloride nitrogtycerin bury alcoho! cethylene oxide nitometnane ‘camphor formaldenyde _rivotoluene atbon monoxide furfuryaiconelazone carbon terachioride fasoline pentane chiowacewacetyde flycolmonoetyi 2pentanone chiowbenzere ether perchioroetnylene cehlorotore heptane petroleum Leniow-nzceropaneherechlowethane dshiate nloropicrin| hexane pheryfetner chloroprene Zhewanone propane cumene hherone ropargy! alcoho! cyclohexane Iyckogen propylene oxide Gxlohexanct hydrogen bromide propyne elopentaciene hydrogen chloe steam oor hyorogen cyanige stbine diacetone acohol —chydrogen sulide sul dioxide diazomethane soar alcoho! diborane ‘sobuty alcohol tevanitromethane 1,1 dichiorcetmane sopropyfalcoho! toluene 12 Gichlorcetnane ketone Lid ichicroetnane ethyiamine Le gas 1k2wichieroetnane iethyiamino ethanol methane tichioroetrylene ‘isobuyl Ketone methyl acetylene wkchloronaphiralene dimethylamine —— methylal 1.23 vichloropropane ‘dimetryiarine methy{ alcoho! —_introtoluene ‘imethyformamice methylamine turpentine i methyl amy! xylene imetrytnyeraxine _ ketone. “From amcor ex ano SEAL COWEN RTRROED WN FERAON which can contaminate the ar within enclosures; therefore, some consideration must be given to ventilating the working areas ith elsion proof equipment. Lol exist 93 tems have several inherent advantages as compared with general ventilation for removal of atmospheric contami- tants They permit amoral far po bebe hey read throughout the work area, provide economy of air flow and involve les heat loss. Operations where local ‘exhaust systems are impractical include situations where the44. / NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING OVERVIEW contaminant is usually a solvett vapor, Local exhausts may be unsuitable because there are a multitude of sources of vapor, or the source may be extensive, or the amount of ductwork to connect all the necessary hoods may be too costly or impractical ‘The basie purpose of volatile solvents used in industrial cleaning operations is to dissolve or loosen contamination such as grease, dirt and other impurities so as to facilitate their removal. The solvent may tend to evaporate into the atmosphere: This evaporation of volatile constituents leaves behid some physical changed substance, whch meat be removed from test surfaces. Thus, the use of solvents in these processes involves polluting the air with vapor. The aim of the safety engineer is to keep this vapor concentra tion aslo’ as pose, certainly below the toe lant local exhaust systems ‘are inadequate, such widely dis- tributed solent vapors can sometimes be controlled by diluting the general room atmosphere with outdoor air fast enough to keep the concentration oftoxie vapor inthe air of the working space within safe limits . ese eee Control of Hazards of Flammable Liquids and Vapors Flammable Liquids and Vapors Flammable liquids are usually subdivided into classes. As defined by the National Fire Protection Association, a flammable liquid is any liquid having a flash point below 60 °C (140 °F) and having a vapor pressure not exceeding 275 kPa (40 bin absolute) t 38 °C (100 °F). ‘Combustible liguids are those with flash points in the fange of 69 93 (4040200). Athough they do not Ignite as easily as flammable liquids, they can ignite under certain cumstances and se mit be bused wanton, ‘The more common flammable and combustible liquids are various hydrocarbons, alcohols and theie byproducts. They are chemical combinations of hydrogen and carbon; the combination may also contain oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur and other elements Flammable liquids vaporize and form flammable mix- tures when in open containers, when leaks or spills occur, or when heated. The degree of danger is determined largely by the following factors: 1. the flash point ofthe liquid; 2, the concentration of vapors in the air (whether the Yaporairmiture is inthe flammable range ont) 3 the possibility of a source of ignition at or above a temperature sufficient to cause the mixture to burst into flame. Precautions in Handling and Use of Flammable Liquids In the handling and use of fazmmable liquids, esposise of large liquid surfaces to air should be prevented. Its not the liquids themselves that buen or explode but rather the vaporair mistre formed when liquics evaporate There fore, flammable liquids should be handled and stored in closed containers. Low flash liquids in use should be cov. ered or enclosed to avoid evaporation into the atmosphere. Heath ues the ids should be endosed wherove fe ble. When the fluid i exposed to air fora specific oper it should agin be covered or enclosed as sbon as pole The flash point ofa liquid is the lowest temperature at which it gives off enough vapor to form flammable mintures with air and to produce a flame when a source of ignition is brought close to the surface. Other properties are fictors in deterinining the hazards of flammable liquids, but the fash point the principal factor. The relative hazard increases 1s the flash point is lowcred. The significance of this property becores more apparent when liquids of diferent fish points are compare ee Corttrol of Electrical and Lighting Hazards Hazards of Static Electricity with Flammable Materials Static electricity is an accumulation of motionless charges generated by the contact and separation of dssimi lar materials. For example, stati electricity is generated when a fluid ows through a pipe or from an orifice into a vessel and may set up high voltages. The principal hazards crested by state electric are thore of fire and explosion caused by spark discharges occurring in the presence of fammable or explosive vapors, gases, or dust. A spark betieen two bois occurs hen there sno good cet fective path between them. Hence, grounding and bonding of flammable liquid containers is necessary to pre- vent static electricity from causing a spark. Bonding and Grounding to Prevent Sparks A point of great danger from a static spark isthe place where a flammable vapor may be presen nthe ais, sgh as at the outlet ofa flammable liquid fil pipe or a delivery hose nozae. Statie spark ignition sources are prevented by bord. ing or grounding or both so they have the same static voltage ‘or potential ‘The terms bowling and grounding often hve been used interchangeably because of poor understanding ofthe dis- tinct fanttions indeated, Bonding is done to eliminate a o 4 348. / NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING OveRVIEW PART 3 HALOGEN TRACER GA AND LEAK DETECTORS Halogen Vapor Tracer Gases and Detectors Leak testing with halogen vapor tracer gases uses lek detectors that respond to most gaseous compounds that contain halogers such as chlorine, fluorine, bromine, or iodine. The elen.ental halogen gases are not ‘ommonly used a5 tracers since they are toe and pial halogen vapor detectors do act respond sensitively to these elemental ‘ses. Preferaed halogen tracer gases are nontoxic chernied compounds such asthe common refrigerant gases and other leak testing trcers. For example, Refiigerant12 (com, monly designs ed. simply. as R12) is" dichlovodiflon romethane. In addition to being a refrigerant, this gus is ay excellent halogen tracer gas since itis inert, nontoxe guid at moderate pressures and realy available in convenient sinall and large containers. The ouly problem withthe tracers that it contains chlorfluorearbons (CFCs) that may harm the ears ozone layer. This refigerint i no longer rain gh Ur ted Stes for hs eon If a closed component, pipe, vessel or sytem is pressur- ized with one if the halogen incr ges with eens of a halogen gis with airor nitrogen, a hal gen vapor leak detector can Fe used to locate leas andor mover te rate of leakage. Three types of halogen tak sensors or detectors use! in halogen leak testing are (1) the halide torch, (2) the heated anode halogen detector and (Q) the YON system under Sem essure, might be equally Coney “The energy Tower Pry pressurized gus ora egal the product of Reparison, 1g of gasoline conta approsmately +4 MJ, Soave to blow up a tank) When pressurizing & ste 2 Sresure regulator fited with» Safey overpressure release to ated, so tata pressure im excess the ext pressure can never be appbed 10% ‘vessel or system sed. vesels can fail by exes due to the nny sored in ror nonlanmable Be fused to pressu ener Sins uring leak testing, Tm STE that are eae ie sete leak testing, implosion (Aen collapse) failures can result from, ‘aBoaphere) pressures applied am estes not designed for suc loan ‘Where faminable stress are ose in ea testing 8 resence of aif OF ese lent combustion oF POT emical reactions OnBeh. e These hazards must be foresees ‘and carefully a Oto ensure safety during ea Tioposion isthe collapse of 8 Bresso ‘boundary oF the swale Ba containment vessel oF uct shen evacuated imerepheric or higher external Press ase under wae space conlitons where the will ever be that ae evacu glass a rest of imposions ence o ness they should happen to collide 8 safety shiek oF sis pieces coming fam the OPPOSE ‘rection, The hazard Bs Pinel injury by Mying sess become particularly ses oF pee capacity ofthe gs Yes “exceeds about 30 L Gri). Kor this reason, all seats ‘ell jars should be Tin some ype of afer bled ‘Dery shies should be used on Saall thin wall vessels and glans bel jars under all cog Conditions ifn smplo- and gpSe dest ecuse the Pr aiferential sion hazgumospre pressure (100K) and a (erode) vac bemepresure (10 KPa oF 100 Pa) is ‘essentially equal to ae pirie pressure (100 KPa}, 8 tional inrease esse dierent egg he contained absolute Bressure is farther sere om 300 Pa to 1 Pa. The major essa anoapherie pressure is thus exerted upon the bell Biron thin val sytem whee Feugh evacuation takes ple Jao Uo in pessre erence nu from further ‘oan obtain a high AEN a, small. Thus, tis amd rouse el josafety shields Torany but the most mmodete asus sateny Procedures 2nd problems of Code Pressure Proof Testing of Systems fore Leak Testing Before lea testing large stems me ire proof test: sngtoGetermine their capil SSitiatand lab test pres ing Ber For example, the ASME Boller and Pressure sacle species that all vessels should be hydrostatic proof lest all sat iy lowable working peessure Th jpoeumatic prot maimgy be performed by pressurlg, eth gas to a high ressup whl all personnel a sornoved from the test 762. The rage ithe proof test made with asorair pres se system bursts during esting considerable sag ean result. Because wate Scatvely incompres®- damn pressure (as compared ty gases), the ene rele hen De system bursts Unde Se equal gas pres: less Ua Tye ther hand frost SOF ‘performed Teiece Thal testing with gaseous EST small Leaks will be- ing ter Therefore, if at al possible, come ¢f pares testing should not hs formed pon test ves hydro tes where the allowable lala: rate is Tess than Ws Paws! (10% seem?) : ' Precautions in Selecting sites for Leak Testing Majo factors determining size, sha and ype of build= ingh an strctres to be wed Teak testing of compo ing g need to be investigated. Catastrophes resulting, i Tage lost of ie and heavy proper’ “Damage often axe du large Jo te planning stage consent High hazard to nade operations shoud be located ‘difference in potential between objects. The purpose of erred eninte a eifferene In potent between fn object and ground. Bonding and gr tively applied only to conductive bodies. The hunnan body i a conductive body which may differ in potential from ground or other bodies, so that it may also serve ssa source ‘of spark ignition. ‘Although bonding will eliminate a difference in potential between the objects that are bonded, it wil not eliminate a diference in potential between thes objets and the eth ose one of the objects possesses an adequate conductive path to earth, Therefore, bonding wil not eliminate the JRatic charge, but will only equalize the potential between the objects bonded. Control of Electrical Power Supply Hazards Electricity as a source of power is, in some ways, less hazardous than steam or other energy sources. However, fire to take stable precautions in ts we crests con tions that are certain to result in bodily harm or prope dlonage or Both: Although there hive been recent tee in the control of electrical hazards, industry still has many injures and fatalities from preventable causes. Machine tools ean, with minimum expense and diffinlty, be arranged for maxinnum safety and efficiency. There are, however, er- tain hazards in the installation, maintenance and wse of eee tric wiring and equ atrol of most ofthese hazards is neither dificult nor expensive, but ignoring or neglecting thai my leo serous aatent ‘ Sees eee Safety Precautions with Leak Testing Tracer Gases ! Tracer Gas Hazards in Leak Testing i “Tracer gas safety aspects such as flammability, asphysi son or apes philogial elects aswell athe posbiiy of pressure vessel explosions must be considered. As long as the nondestructive test engineer and the leak test tecinilan are aware of these considerations from the star, i s possi- ble to leak test a vessel with minimum inconvenience oF danger. Hazard of Asphyxiation in Pools of Stratified Tracer Gases Most tracer gases are not toxic. However, if a question exists about toxicity of any particular gas, a competent authority should be consulted to assure. personnel safety. None of the tracer gases such as helium, argon, ron or nitrogen will support human lif. Ifa tracer gas replaces oxy- {gen in a test vessel, hood, or enclosing chamber (or collects LEAK TESTING 7 45 TABLE 8. Selection guide for personnel protection indicators for toxic gases and vapors accumulating in leak testing areas Warning Toxic concentration Color Substance (parts per milion)* _Change ‘Ammonia 15 brown to white Carbon mononide 50 white to black ‘Chierine 2 white 1 yellow Hygrazine 5 write 1 yellow Hydrogen suiide 5 white to Brown Nitrogen dioxide 1 white 1 yellow zone on +_wihite to brown DATA APPAY AsO TO AREA CONTAMINATION MONTORS. ‘FROM AMETICAN GAS AND CHEMICAL REPRINTED WITH PERMSSION, in the test area within building enclosures), test personnel (and others) cannot enter it without proper respiratory equipment. In such eases, proper respiratory equipment cnt of aga mskuhich onan sown on gen spp ‘The oxygen required for breathing might be rensoved from a test area or chamber accidentally. For example, if one ofthe halogenated hydrocarbons is used as a tracer gas, will stagnate and settle to the lowest area in the system. am operator is attempting to use a detector probe in this ost the mace Ut aetes into Tow areas may eventually displace enough of the air to produce asphyxiation. In this type of situation, i is necessary to provide adequate ventila- tion. However, this ventilation must be performed carefully. Ifthe tracer gas is dispersed or blown away too rapaly from the locations where i i escaping from the system under ts eon by detects prote may beome lel or ipssible. For better understanding of the safety aspects, the fol- lowing data are presented for several tracer gases that may bbe used. In adaltion, information is given on the availabilty ‘of personnel protection indicators and area contamination monitor high can provide vaming indstions of danger ‘us accumulations of toxic gases or vapors. See Table 8 for ‘olor changes for various gases and vapors. Safety Precautions in Pressure and Vacuum Leak Testing Safety Considerations in Leak Testing ‘When a pressure ofa vacuum vessel is fabricated, some seans of testing must be used to predict safe vessel perfor- mance. Its sometimes necessary to exceed the designed ‘operating conditions during inital pressure testing Thiseb Eee ww wees VERT bobs we em PART 4 REFERENCE LEAKS Terminology Applicable to Reference, Calibrated or Standard Leaks Pysieleas table for checking eal detec perfor. a ae Naa test sensitivity are a ital Compre of mance er tation for leak testing, The terns referrace, eal: ‘ies have been used in the past t0 a ates, To many people, use of the identi ation, implies the esistence of 4 Wr scented senda “those atthe National Institute of Standards and (NIST). NIST did not issue ref Standart dard leaks before 1951, although an efor We Teak standards, so that a solution in some form may’ be some fore that ll ealibations be directly traceable to tons reg tated by NIST, Commercially aalsble ref Srence leaks ean be traced to NIST. ace Tek es, accuracy in Yeakage mewsurement snot prime importance. Baer, most practic See require pete ipo leakage ave not be exceeded Teneed {hat some Pbled that no Teakge inthe tested 674 grote than tn ‘lobe mai feskage This rear proach to leakage specication requires 0 Eipitrary standard. However, “Frany doubt exits, one 8 setae the leakage ofthis arbitrary Ses shysical only ree bya sientfty factor to ensure est rere meet the practical leakage requirement: see Se reece Classification of Common Types of Calibrated or Standard Physical Leaks Calibrated pial Jeaks are designed to deliver gas at 2 Pst common use of such leaks i in the Know ae ak sonst of leak detectors, For Gre measurement a callbrated leaks are used to estab emaciated senitiity and response time forthe test Sy confi Sector setup. Setup must be the same for oe ee og te text. Calibrated leaks are use > © Ui as the speed of vacuum pumgs and to calrase Pe sure ce iad physical leak makes feasible the et ST alage rate requirements for speciice: fr call- Gans. Tealso provides a uniform reference st Better at different locations where products FIGURE 7. Categories of artifical physical leaks Eommonly spoken of as reference, calibration or standard leaks i aus neo wma RD ME Se (abe ne E are inspected. This ensures more uniform agreement of all tests. brated leaks may be divided into two distin! cole: ages (1) reserve als which conta hi op Supply and @) i sservol® leaks to which tracer gas i Sup eatin. Figure 7 sbows a casiieaion of ania piel veaks used for reference, calibration, or leaks. stondard| wa type and size range ofthe calibrated ea selected should pe comparable to the leakage te and mode ‘of flow inthe stem being leak tested. odes of Gas Flow through Leaks For each type of lak tet, t i esential that the fost For eres basic understanding the types Now peht occur within a lak. Difereot basi relate leak- ht ocr “sre difference crs the lek the range of rte Resure invoked and the nature of the Eseons ‘he leak. Three basic types of Bs are knownas: 1, wscous flow, which tpl occurs in leaks lesing weSGapheri or higher pressure under pressure fest ing conditions; 9, mers, which usually occurs in Teals under ‘vacuum testing conditions; an a. rational fl, which occurs der test condivons transttate between vacuum and pressures higher than atmospheric pressure.50 / NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING OVERVIEW PART 5 a PRESSURE CHANGE TESTS FOR MEASURING LEAKAGE RATES Functions of Pressurizing Gases in Leak Testing Atmospheri air and nitrogen are often used as pressur- izing fluids in leak testing and leakage measurements. Their fal pressure server to crate pressure diferent across pressure barriers or walls. This pressure differential, n turn, causes the presuzng sto flo, by various mbchansms through leaks in the containment walls. Leaks are the physi cal holes or passageways that may exist in wall materials, wel of mchanal seals of jis, The Hid Ua lows through the leak pasmgeways constitutes leakage. The rate of leskage In tur fe ben sea measure ofthe size ofthe leak. In general, the higher the differential pressure, the greater the rate of lealage. With higher rates of leakage, the ‘of leak detection and leakage measurement is ereased. lve ates witha or other gs resus above atmospheric pressure (J00 kPa) respond to leakage by pres- Sure changes within sed stems) or require illo of gas to maintain constant pressure conditions. These pressure changes or rates of fluid flow canbe used to determine (1) f leaks are present or (2) the rites of leakage, when internal volumes, Hid temperate and ether vale are known ‘orcan be measured accurteh: The physical properties and characteristics ofthe pressurizing fluids must be known and the effects of fluid reactions to various test conditions must be calculated in order to make quantitative measurements of leakage rates by these elfects. Pressurizing gases should obey the Ideal Gas Laws. Insome cases, the effects of water ‘vapor and other gaseous materials that do not obey the Gen- cal Gas Laws must be determined and their effects sub- tracted from the pressure messurements. Conversion of Pressure Measurements to Systeme Internationale d'Unites (SI Units) ‘The past few decades have seen many changes in the units used to describe pressure levels. The Systeme Intemna- tlonale d Unites (SI units) espresses pressure in pascal (Pa). Table 9 provides multiphing factors for converting pressure values between other units and ST units. It includes conver- sions between SI and the prior metre units such as kg-may-, millimeters of mereury (mim Hg) or torr, and micrometers of mean milton: Ali ted sre conversions batvee St and English units such as pounds per square inch (Ibn), Inches of mereuy in and atmospheres (tm). Compressibility of Gaseous and Liquid Fluids Gases are frequently regarded as compressible and liq: vids as incompressible. Strictly speaking, all fluids are cont- pressibleto some extent. Although air is usually treated as a compressible uid, there are some cases of flow in which the pressure and density changes are so small that the air may be assumed to be incompressible, Examples include the flow of air in ventilating systems and the flow of air around aireraft at low speeds. Liguids lke oil and water may be considered as incompressible in many eases; in other ‘cases, the compressibility of such liquids is important. For Instance, common experience shows that sound waves travel through water and other liquids; such pressure waves Aepend upon the compressibility or elasticity of the liquid. Pressure Change Tests for Measuring Leakage Rates in Pressurized Systems ‘Operating Principles of Pressure Change Leakage Rate Testing Leakage rate testing by measurement of pressure changes in closed volumes requires that the system under test be maintained at a pressure other than ambient atmo- spheric pressure. Pressure change leak tests can be made with either an evacuated or a pressurized test system. The leakage rate Q is equal to the measured pressure change AP multiplied by the test systems internal volume V and oTABLE 9. Conversion factors for pressure values expressed in SI and in prior systems of units Convert from Te ‘Multiply by pal Dyin? 7.4508 x 107) ‘amosphere (760 mmHg) 9.8692 10? tor (rm Hg} 7.5008 x 10° mito 1.0003 x 107 inches mercury 2.9530 104 Ban? —_pascal 6.8948 10° ‘mosphere (760 mmHo} 6 8046% 107 tom (rm Ha) 5.171510! riibar 618966 10! inches mercury 2.0360 ‘mosphere pascal 1.01325 % 10° yin? 1.4696 x 10! torr re Hg) 7.60% 108 ritoar 10135 x10 Inches meray 2.9921 x 10! tori Ha) pascal 13352" 108 Bein? 1.9337 x 102 atmosphere (760 mmH}_1.3158x 10 rmitoar 13336 Inches mercury 3.9368 10% bar pascal T99TER TOT rin? 1.4500 102 _amosphere (760 mm Hg) 9.8666% 10 torr (rm Ho} 7.4986 % 10! inches mercury 2.9522 «10 inches mercury pascal 33864 «10° Ign? Sonex ig ‘auinospiere (760 ti Hg)” 5.34271 tore (rem Ha) 254x 10" rritioar 3.3873 10! divided by the time interval At required for the change in spon prewar tooseun ws shown by Ba. 1: ap enve (Eq) Where: Q = leakage rate in pascal cubic meter per second (Pam?) \ V = enclosed sytem voblime in eubie meters (m?); ‘AP = pressure change P, - P: during leak test in Pas and ‘t= time interval fy during leak test in seconds (5). LEAK TESTING / 51 ‘The pressure change leak testing procedure is used pri- ly for leakage measurement in large systems. However, ith minor modifications, the pressure change technique sn be used to measure leakage rates on test systems of any sjze. This procedure is used only for measurement of leak- and is not well suited for location of individual leaks. fowever, a leak may be localized to a closed off portion of a tem under test by pressure change test techniques. sitivity of Pressurized Mode Leakage Tests by ssure Change Techniques The sensitivity of leakage measurement during leak test- of pressurized systems with the pressure change tech- ue isd pon. the minimum detectable tude of pressure variation. State pressure is measured ‘tart at intervals and atthe end ofthe leak testing "The sensitivity of ths state leakage measurement ly dependent upon the time duration of the test and senstnty and accuracy of the pressure measuring ents. In the absence of uncontrolled temperature changes or severe outgassing effects, longer time intervals teen intl and final messurements permit more sens measurement of pressure changes. “The accuracy of measurement of leakage rates in the red mode of presse drop lek eng depends {on how precisely the test volume Vs calculated and pon bw aceurtely the changes in pressure and temperature se mean. he age ate measured pr tage of total enclosed fluid (mass) lost per unt of te, recson tn caleulating the enclosed volume may not reauired. When using propery calibrated pressure mes- suring lnstruments inte pressrbsd mode, the sccuracy of idalage measurement by the! pressure drop method can often be traced tothe National Instute of Standards and Technology * Sources of Error in Pressurized Mode Leakage Tests by Pressure Change Techniques ‘The test procedure forthe pressurized mode of leakage aeasurement consist of filing the test system with gas and ‘bsering any pressure decrease, The fundamental relaton- Shipisgvenin Eq, 1 Two large soures of eror exits inthis technique. The wlume of the test system is dificult to cal- tulate fora large or complex system; however, it could be ‘measured by the adltonal leakage technique, which sso known asa cerficatin text ora proof text in practice. (This techniques not recommended for small volume systems Such as gasket interspaces because the measurement tech- gue may Lecome a major source of error) An additonal Inbwn lea is added to the system under test. The system volun ste eae fo te efi of te ana Tealage upon the observed rte of pressure decrens, The secontl sguce of enor inherent in the pressure change52 / NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING OVERVIEW technique exists-when température vations daring the test oyele tend to vary the pressure inthe system, This erie Gun be corrected by measrng stem temperature daring the leak test Pressure Change Tests for Measuring Leakage in Evacuated Systems Introduction to Pressure Measurements in Evacuated Systems By popular usage, atmospheric pressure is taken as the upper limit of vacuum. Any pres las standard atmospheri pressure (100 kPa) is some fuga On Earth, vacuum pressure can be anything between shor: fats 2er0 pressure and the barometer reading atthe partion, location and time, Earlier, the vacuum presssre wes ters of mercy below atmo. measured in inches or millim spheric pressure. A vacuuin of 720 o 740 min Hg was cons sidered fobe ally good vacusns Sr using Slits tis {ame vacuum level would be expressed as an absolute pros sure of 3to 6 KPa (3 to 6 percent of norinal sea level cena. spheric pressure of 100 kPa). Meaning of Absolute Pressure and Gage Pressure jin Vacuum Systems AS suggested earlier, the concept ofa vacuum is related to the pressure exerted by the earth's atmosphere. Atmospheric Dressure indicates the weight of a coluinn of atmosphite ane per unit of sectional area measured at a particule alltade above sea level With increasing altitude, pressure decrees until at some indefinitely great height above the earths sor, face where only empty space exists), the pressure approaches absolute zero. An enclosure is said to Ue wnrles vacuum if its internal pressure i less than that ofthe sur rounding atmosphere. Because of atmospheric pressure changes due to ‘meteorological factors and altitude, the numerical value assigned to gage pressure in vacucm is referred to pressure under standard conditions at seu level (an bese Dressure of 101 kPa). As vacuums International System, of Units (SI Units) for Vacuum Pressures : The decision has been made to convert to International ‘System (S1) units, but the details of such prefered rent have not et been worked out for vacuum technology The SI tnt for pressure is the pascal (Pa), which is gic hore as the unit of pressure in vacua. Many processes require medium levels of vacuum of the order of Olek 1 Fa. However, for many applications such as high altitude simulation chambers, pressures much lower thars0.1 Pasa required. Subsnultples of pascal, the millipascal (mPa) ant iicrppascal (Pa), are used to describe pressures in this of hard vacua to avoid use of negative eqponents o- Powers often. The previously used units of millimeters of Imercury (mm Hg) or of torr must be mltipigd by 133 equal the pressure in pascals. The prior unit Inown e's Imlerdmeter of mercury pressure (um Hg) is equal to pres, sure pf 139 mPa. Because the pressure of the storCheal phere Aisle 1.0010" Pao 10 Ki fl hat perfect eacunm would have a (negative) gage Dressiro of (~) 101 kPa because the gage press noe jum i referved tothe stadard atmospherie pressure at aoa level ‘The ast few decades have seen many changes in the Units sed to describe pressure levels in vcua Early ines tigators described their vacuum pressure in terms of wal, limetefs of mercury, where the atmospheric pressure at standard conditions was taken a5 760 mat Hg Hua voesuse bressules were later described in ters of mierometons of mercuty (a micrometer is one millioth of a meter of men cury) Effects|of Weld Joint Design on Leak Testing of Evacuated Vessels or Pressure vessels to be evacuated during leak testing {und vessels designed for vacuum operation), the weld joint design gnd preparation should avoid trapped vohunios me tunweldéd faying surface areas that will be exposed to toe ide of the joint. Both form crevices that may hold foreign inater that ean outgis during evacuat olten impossible, joint design and weld crevices ig Proce- flres mist elininate such tops. Welding should be por formed from the side ofthe joint that will be evacuteed heneves practical. The under bead often contains uno, thle micfoporosiy too stall to affect most strength end toughness properties ofthe welded structure, Hostever it Gabosed th the vacuum, these vids could act as trapped val umes. Leakage from this source can be ivoided by at lent Nelding the cover (or seal) pass from the side of the pros, sure boundary that wil be evacuated. Figure 83° shows examples of preferred joint designs for systems that wll be Figure 8b shows undesirable joint noe s% dae ®LEAK TESTING / 53 FIGURE 6. Examples of weld joint designs for welded vessels (preferred designs have no crevices oF FIGURE 6. open to evacuated side of pressure Boundary: undesirable joints trap contamination and Weetr Gases, which may outgas during evacuation or leak testing with sensitive mass spectrometer or racer Gaseam leak detectors}: (a) preferred designs of welded joints for evacuated vessels: fb) undesirable designs for welded joints in vessels to be evacuated >54 / NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING OVERVIEW PART 6 .- = LEAK TESTING OF VACUUM SYSTEMS The Nature of Vacuum Definition of a Vacuum The word eacuum is derived from the Greek word meaning empty. In practice, use is made of some type of vessel (vacuum enclosure, chamber, or container) to contain vacuum. When the enclosure is closed to the surrounding atmosphere and air or gas is removed by some pumping ‘means, a vacuum is obtained. Various degrees of vacuum can be obtained, depending on how much ai is removed from the enclosure. Common terms such as partial vacuum, rough cocuum high tacuum and ultrahigh acum se wsed to describe degrees of vacuum. A vacuum is any pressure below the prevailing atmospheric pressure. Practically speaking, avacuum such thatthe containing vessel is empty, ice, free ofall matter (molecules), is never obtained. If this were possible, the vacuum would be called a perfect or absolute vacuum, Applications of Vacuum Environments Vacuum is used to reduce the interaction of gases or air with solids and to provide control over electrons and ions by reducing the probability of olson with molecules ofa ‘Vacuum pumps are used by industry and laboratories to ere~ ate a vacuum environment for these operations. Most gases react with solids to cause effects such as exidation, which it ay be neeny to eid. Ina vacuum envionment, te necessary operation may be performed so that undesirable effets are either reduced or completely eliinated. For Seams ness mos of he as emoved om a ina lescent light bulb, oxygen in its atmosphere will react wi the hot tungsten filament, causing it to bum out prems- turely. An electron tube could not operate at atmospheric pressure. Electron flow would be impeded by collision with tir molecules due to the extremely small mean free path. In addition, elements within the tube may react with the ai Other examples can be cited where vacuum is necessary to produce desired results that could be unattainable in any ‘The use of vacuum is required in many industries and products. In addition to light bulbs and electron tubes, vacuum is employed in magnetrons, cathode ray tubes, semiconductor dvr, solu cells plating metals and plas tics, thin film deposition, lifting objects, plasma physics, exogens, metalurgid procesing eecton bea oad: ing, brazing, distillation, organic chemistry, packaging, mass spectrometry, space simulation and leak detection. Many other creas find application for vicuum equipment. Changes in Pressure Units Used for Vacuum Measurements ‘The presently preferred St unit for pressure isthe pascal (Pa). The standard atmospheric pressure at sea level and 0°Ciis equal to 101.325 kPa, Earlier units used for pressure in vacuum relate to atmospheric pressure indicated by the height (ocaly 76 ra) ofthe mercury barometer column at sea level and 0 °C. The unit known as the torr is defined 4s 1/760th ofthe pressure ofthe mercury column The torr was named in honor ofan Italian physicist, Evangelista Tor cell (1608-47) who was the inventor of the mercury barom- eter, The torr is almost identical to the millimeter of mercury (mm Hg), since there are 752.96 tor in a standard atmosphere, The difference between the two units amounts to so lite that torr and millimeter of mercury have been used interchangeably inthe pas. Variation of Atmospheric Pressure with Altitude ‘The mercury barometer isa device for measuring atmo- spheric presnure. As the altitude increases, the presure lecreases because fewer gas molecules press on any surface. A knowledge of how the pressure changes with altitude is very important in connection with various space studies ‘Table 10 shows the relationship between pressure and ati- tude in the earths atmosphere. Specifying Gas Flow Rates ‘The flow rate of liquids is expressed simply as volume uatsperntin cases persed Me howeee the flow rate of gases is considered, itis necessary to know not oly the volume of gas but its pressure and temperate at well. A cubic meter volume of gas at 100 kPa pressure and a temperature of 20 °C (68 °F) wil contain ten times as many molecules a acubie meter volume of gas at 10 kPa and 20 °C (68°F). Only a complete statement of volume, displacement rate, gas pressure and temperature can accurately describe the total quantity of gas that flows per unit of time. In both bids and gases, it is mass flow tha sof interest. For liquids ‘constant density, the mass rate of flow is directly propor- tional to volume flow rate. With gases, density varies both ‘with temperature and with pressure, Thus, for a given gus, volume displacement rate, pressure and temperature must be known to define the mass flow rate. j areoe® IMI HH ane 0 ot eteeevee bosoecdwaaes renee ¥ boviva TABLE 10. Change in atmospheric pressure with altitude* ‘Anttade Pressure kitometers, (miles) pascal Telnet) (oP, 1.01325 % 10 (14.70) T fos «8. 99x10" (13.08). > ize 795 10t (11.53) $ Ban S40x tot 7.83) 10622) 2.65x! B84) 2 (asa) 553x10 (0.80) So: BLO 798 (1.157105) 180, (6218) 32x 107.4104) Joo? (12436 BSKIS (1-23 10% S00 giogs} © «3x 107 (4.35% 10"") 1900 (62179) 75x 10% {1.088% 10-7) younce us. STANDARD ATHOSPHERE 1976, NOAA ST 761562, 3 ie STANOARD. © Jeruner ANTE. Stow ener. Concepts of Gas Quantity and Pumping Speed From the gas laws, itis known that the product PV of pressure P and volume Vis proportional to the number of Prefecules in a sample of gas. In static systems, the PV prod- wae fs constant at a given temperature. This product PV is gate quant ‘of gas. Common units of gas quantity snclude: pascal cubic meter (Pa-m®); ra cat mereury ters (uh Hig) or torters (orbs 3, micrometer of mercury liters (yin Hg-L); ‘L, atmospherie cubic centimeter (cr of volume at Standard sea level atmospherie pressure or std cm); and ‘5, milbar liter (mbar). “The preferred ST unit of gas quantity is pascal cuble meter Te steady flow, the same quantity of gas (number of molecules) tbat enters one end of a tube must leave atthe ‘Tuher end, even though there may be different volumes of gas tering nd leaving per unit time. Ifthe FV products uted srs mesure of the amount of gas lowing through a tube, ‘ay be dane with a minimum of complication, "The volumetric pumping speed S isthe time rate of vol ‘ume displacement, as given by Eq. 2: Volumetric pumping Ss x (Eq) LEAK TESTING / 55 “Typical units of pumping speed S would be cubic meter per second (it?) or eubie fet per second (5); Conis- Pele with SI?! and its submultiples (such as dvs Ls") are used in the Nondestructive Testing Handbook. Concepts of Throughput and Leakage Rate Tn vacuum practice, the preferred description ofthe rate ‘of flow of gas is commonly called throughput. Throughput it the quantity of gas, or a measure of the total mumber of molecules ata specified temperature, passing an open sec- tion of the vacuum ‘unt time. Leakage rate is @ similar measure ofthe total number of molecules ata spect- fed temperature psig though ‘a leak per unit time. Q isthe symbol commonly used for throughput of gas in unit time. Throughput Q can be expressed by Eq, 3: = & (eames) (4.3) By combining Eq, 2 and , the produet of pumping speed S tnd gas pressure P can be equated to throughput by Eq. 4: Qs xP (ems) Eq) ‘Equation 4 is the universal raionship on which vacuum imping throughput calculations are based. eak Testing of Vacuum Systems ith Mass Spectrometer Leak [Detector Techniques IMass Spectrometer Leak Detectors on High scum Systems “The mass spectrometer leak detector (MSLD) provides ltmost ideal leak detection characteristics, including very high sensitivity and a basically rapid response. Well engi- it and highly developed versions ofthe mass spectrom er edk detector are commercially available, Two brosd ategoris are avaiable, the helium mass spectrome'er leak Seieer and the residual gas analyzer. The helium mass Spectrometer Teak detector (usualy referred to simply 5 2 Pitan lak detector) is adjusted to respond only to helium gs atomic mss = "8. The residual gas analyzer (RGA), on (oar hand, ean easly be adjusted to respond to any gas weet wade mass range. The residual gas analyzer is wnat primarl to determine composition of ga in vacuum56 / NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING Overview stem. However, oi small qstenisitcan readily be used as a jeak detector with any gas in its mass range. Since the hela leak detector isa special purpose instrument, its nore sail, more convenient and wall mare senna ge So Getection than the residual gas anshzer Although seca tepes of mass spectrometer are used in these device the simple magnetic analyzer is most common by fas Be choosing the suitable magnetic field strength and acceleration voltage, the mass spectrometer can be tured to any mass of gaseous particle. Hence, any gas could ke used a5 tracer gas for leak detection. Helis has hace chosen for the following reasons. It is present in the ater spheze at a concentiation of about Bett in 200,000 G bse). Thus, at Teaks cause very litte helium bow ground in the detector. Helium is inert ane ely val ble in most countries. Because itis the lightest ga erearg hdrogen, helium dfn and molecule hese the highest available with a nonhazardous gis, These grant erties are ighiy desirable ma tracer gas, ae Sensitivity of Helium Mass Spectrometer Leak Detectors ‘The electrical output signal from a helium leak detector '§ proportional to the partial pressure of helium in the tog Sourch of the spectrometer, By maintaining a kxown eon. stant pumping Speed in the santa ed abnee hela leak the proportionally contnt Eye sate ined: A single ge fort) hum maser leak detector ean detect partial pressures of about InP G0" ore Te mininon ddeceble ake es defined to be that leakge rate that produces am uta ig. ice as lage asa oe signal present tice oe The minimum detectable leauge ate can be eh either for air or belim. The hess cage ee Seed the ai leakage rate. Fora single stage instrument the nan um detectable leakage rate for alr is anon AXIO" Poms! 7x 10° sd ems), Fora two stage hela nas specuonet lakdector comely able the manufatrer clans tha the nine eae leakage rate for ar is 5 x 10 Pam?s (5 x 10! al gm’ or 4 10" tor, In order tacheve such high Senatvtes consistent the helm ak deren carfilly maintained and used. I's good pee ee the senstity witha elated san! Rok eek use (or atthe beginning ofeach peal con) oe ak the instrument or best sess Ths an bed ott and easily and isa guarantee against the lost time and fe, tation tha can rel from ‘owing wang sa peratng detector¥ ee STS THO SI SSH HT HIELO e qu PART 7 LEAK TESTING / 57 BUBBLE LEAK TESTING _ Introduction to Bubble Techniques Principles of Bubble Testing for Leaks In leak testing by the bubble method, a gas pressure dif fe ree ed ares a pressure Douay tobe tested. A test liquid is then placed in contact with the lower pressure side of the pressure boundary. (This sequence pre ents the entry and clogging of leaks by the test liquid.) Gas gh the pressure, boundary can then, be ‘observation of bubbles formed in the detection ‘eit points of leakage through the pressure 1. This method immediate indications of the, etece and Heaton of ree leas G08 to 1G Pas), Somewhat longer inspection time peri ‘may be needed for detection of ral feats (O° to 10 Pam®.s") whose bubble indications form slows. ‘In bubble tests, the probing mediun isthe gas that flows through the leak due to the pressure differential The test {ndeation is the formation of visible bubbles in the detec tion liquid at the ext point ofthe leak. Rate of bubble for. (nation size of bubbles formed and rate of growth in size of, Jaividval bubbles provide means for estimating the size of Teaks (the rate of gus flow through leaks). 2 > Classification of Bubbie Methods of Leak Testing by Use of Test Liquids Bubble techniques for detecting or locating leaks can be lived into three major classifications related to the method of using the test lqu 1. In the liquid immersion technique, the pressurized test objector system is submerged in the test liquid, Bubbles then fornia the ext point of gus leakage and tend to rise toward the surface of the immersion bath, 2. Inthe liquid film application technique, a thin aver of test liquld i lowe! over the low pressure surface of the test object. An example ofthis solution film leak test isthe well known soap bubble technique used by plumbers to detect gas leaks, Films of detection liquid fan be readily applied to many components and struc tures that cannot be conveniently immersed in a ‘detection liquid. For detection of smal leaks, this liq~ tld should form a tha, continuous, wetted film cover- {ng all areas to be examined. ‘The foam application techni af age leat in hich the applied gud forms thick suds or foam, When large leak are encountered, the rapid escape of gas blows a hole through the foam blanket, revealing the leak location. bubble test liquids ‘in immersion leak tests Ft te low |. water treated with a liquid wetting agent to reduce suis ten and boy of babble ‘ssons fontain sold wetting agents ae also very ef feetvein smal pemeerakeeiah ethylene glyco (technical grade) undiluted; tnineral oil with which degreasing of test specimens following immersion leak tests may be necessary (if ‘mineral sil having a kinematic viscosity of 97.7 x 10% to ALL x 10 m®s" (37.7 to 41,1 centistoke) at 25°C. (Ge FFris used a the test iqud, twill meet material requirements of ‘MIL-STD-202 Method 112A or its Successor mineral ols the most suitable test liquid for the vacuum te ‘of immersion bubble testing); 4, fluorocarbons of glycerine (uorocarbons are not ree- omen snes tea oe cs for nuclear reais lycerine i a elatiely poor detection liq- apples ry to bubble erssions) and : 5, licone oil having Knematic viscosity of 20 x 10 SEEN eo eamustkes) at 25 °C (TT °F). This liquid ial meet the requirements of MIL-STD-202 Meth- ‘od 112A or its successor for electronic com ts. Howe cone lao note mak test. ‘ag f pats tobe subsequently punted orn ve OP without spell cleaning processes "8 Bubble Testing by Liquid Film Application Technique Technique of Liquid Film Application (Solution Film) Bubble Testing for Leaks ‘The liquid fl application technique of leak testing ‘bubble emission can be used for any test specimen on wi 2 pressure differential can be ereated across the (wall) area58 / NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING OVERVIEW to be examined. An example ofthis technique is the applic tion ofeak tes solutions to pressurized pipe line joint This test also known asa solution fl test, is most useful on pips ing systems, pressure vessels, tank, spheres, compressors, pumps, or other large apparatus with which the inversion technique i impractil Test liquids applied te ton Pressure side of the test objec area to be examined so that ints are completely covered with film of bubble forming liquid. The surface area is then examined for bubbles in the solution film In no case should the test pressure exceed the specified maximum allowable working pressure for which the test object as been designed unless anahsis demonstrates thet higher pressures will not damage or endanger test personnel ‘The area to be inspected should be positioned where possi: Dlesoas toallow test quid tlie on the surface without dup. Ping off Where necessary it allable to postion the text Surface so that inspection liquid flows off the test area, pro: ‘ed that continuous fl remains oye the tt ae Alposition testing may be performed on large pressure ves, sels, weldments, tanks, spheres, compressors: pumps and other large apparatus. When one or more bubbles originate, £2, or release from a single point on the test object sur. ace, this bubble formation shouldbe interpreted as leakage, The point at which bubbles form should be interpreted the origin of leakage (the exit point of a physical lenk): Uses alls any component that does not show evidence of leakage is evaluated as acceptable. Leakage is cause for rejection of the test part except a specially petted by the test specs iflcations. Where the leak is repairable in accordance with specifications, the component may be repaired and rein- spected in accordance with the original leak testing accep. tance procedures. After testing, any liquid or gas which vs detrimental tothe test object should be thoroughly removed. Selection and Application of Bubble Forming Solution Films ‘The bubble forming solution used with the liquid appli- cation method of bubble emission leak testing should pro. duce a film that does not break away from the area te be tested. The solution film should produce bubbles that do ‘ot break rapidly due to air deying or low surface tension, Ordinary household soap or detergents should not be used as substitutes for specified bubble testing solutions for ert- cal applications. The number of bubbles contained in the solution during application should be minimized to reduce the problem of discriminating between leakage bubbles and bubbles caused by the solution. Im principle: a bubble will form oly when there ie ealage preont Ne gg ond be used which is detrimental tothe component being tested (or other components in a system, ee Bubble Testing by the Vacuum Box Technique Vacium box bubble lek testing provides for the detec- tion of through-thickness discontinuities in welds and pres. sure boundaries of systems containing air at atmospheric It is used during construction to test pressure welds of incomplete systems that cannot be pres. It is also used to test pressure boundary welds that sible for leak testing when the entire system is ed. tay also be used to ereatea presse fen increasing the sensitivity of penetrant leak testing ie. Typical discontinuities detectable by this fre through-thickness cracks, pores and lack of bubble forming solution is applied to the surface mined. A vacuum boc with a viewing window large feugh fo sew the complete area and to ‘Mow suse to dnter the box for proper examination is placed over a et ese erent pressure 28ge is placed in the vacuum box system to verily the Fequired pressure differential under test. The surface area visible through the vacuum box window is then viewed for exidence of through thickness discontinuities by the forma. tion of bybbles on the surface. Through-thickness diseont nuities a indicated by the formation ofa continuous chain of bubbl¢s in the film solution. Through-thickness indica. tions arelusually considered to be unacceptable and such welds shquld be repaired and retested. The formation of single small bubbles may or may not be considered relevant, ing upon the type of test object and its intended "y ® & fn iii rir i 1 = rere iy | fara t ane Ee a2 i" | | |+ ATTECTVUCTEEES Vii ve Fe bee PART 8 LEAK TESTING / 59 HELIUM MASS SPECTROMETER LEAK TESTING Basic Techniques for Leak Detection with Helium Tracer Gas ‘Alltechaiques of leak detection using a mass spectrome- ter leak detector ental passage of a tracer gus through a pre- rom one side to the other side of a pressure Boundary and subsequent detection of tracer, gus oo Per pressure sie. Figures to 13 show some ypcal base do ethcts for leak testing with helium tracer gases. However, Tee each practical application, there ts usully one helium ey esting technique that gives optimum results. Factors to tes eee dered when selecting helium Teak tést techniques include: 1. size, shape and locaton of the equipment to be ‘The basic techniques for helium leak detection are a5 follows. locations. ‘ In the helium tracer probe method of Fig, 10, the leak detector is connected to the {nternal volume of an evacuated test object (such as a esl or ping ato) wi ae So probe is inoved over the external surface to detect tested: 12, choice between pressure, vacuum or both for [ind determine the specific locations of leaks testing: ‘3, maximum leakage rate specified or that ean be tolerated: 4 dager of stoma leak testing operation required: 5. number of pars or complet ofthe systema Be Sf'standard leak at same speed and distance a5 Gidd'in scanning surface of system being leak tested) FIGURE 9. Hellum leak testing of pressurized Vessel or system with sampling probe eu cen PORE | ‘S6TeM, cers omowat onuscvorl mcwousaae nae ron OY FONT INSTRUMENTS, REPRINTED WITH PERMESION,60 / NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING OVERVIEW 3. When vacuum leak testing by the hood method as shown in Fig. 1, the mass spectrometer leak setox {or is connected to the evicusted interior ofthe ss. tem under test. The test object or system is they Placed under a hood or within a chamber conta lium gas or an air helium mixture usually at a spheric pressure, This method can be used to deren, Imine the total leakage rate ofthe system, Howeres {Gannot be used to determine the specific locations of _ leaks. "In the bell jar test method of Fig. 12, sealed com; Rents filed with helium ora gas misture containing helium are placed in an evactated testing chamber The mass, spectrometer connected to this vaewnn chamber detects helium leaking from any part of the surfaces of the sealed test objects in the vacuum chamber. This test does not permit location of leake on the test object surfaces, 5. Inthe accumulation method of leak testing of Fig. 1, leaking helium tracer gas is allowed to collect or 4 riod of time before being sampled by the leak Sete This technique, also employed in parts per million testing, can be adapted to several sffertee leak testing situations. The accumulation ‘method does not usually permit leak location. However be fcaling Off stall surface areas and accumulating tracer gas within the sealed volume, areas of leakage can be localized FIGURE 11. Hood method of leak testing of evacuated components inserted into hoot or envelope containing heiiun atmosphere IGURE 12. Leak testing of sealed component imernally pressurized with helium tracer gas apd enclosed in a bell jar roe ven ave ruse AUCH "FROM OU PONT WsTRUMENTS. REPRIVTEO WITH PERMISSION, & In the dynannic method of leak testing of smalls tems, the vacuum pumping system i throttled eo feduce the pumping speed so that greater helio, {acer gas concentrations are attained in the mas spectrometer detector. The dynamie method aise Bermits detection of variation in leakage flow rates Calibration of micrograms per gram helium accumulation 0 fmangement for detecting known leakage from helium standard leak with sniffer probee e LEAK TESTING / 61 4 ’ ‘ ae PART 9 ACOUSTIC LEAK TESTING abcbs t eee same terminology may be applied to fuid leaks on or above GSE OEG OSS oS CES VIA vé leave d ah Principles of Acoustic Leak Testing Principles of Acoustic Leak Detection ‘Acoustic emission test techniques can be applied to locate leaks in pressurized systems. Fluid leaks generate sound waves when the fluid flow through the leis aecom- panied by turbulence, cavitation, oF high-velocity flow. hese sonic disturbances can be transmitted through the medium of the pressurizing fluid, through the containment Structure, or through the atmosphere surrounding the leak jocation. Airborne vibrations can be detected at a distance from their source with directional microphones or acoustic probes. Leak detection and location from a distance through Tir oF other fluids involves remote scanning of suspected Teak areas with a directional probe and coordinating diree- tion of the source of the characteristic hissing sound of a Jeak with the relative sound intensity. Certain precautions ust be observed if the sound source or leak location isto be reliably determined, These involve (1) avoidance of sound path blocks or sound absorbing material that create sound shadows between the leak and the acoustic sensor “and (2) recognition of possible sound reflectors such as fla, hard surfaces which provide sound echoes from dlrections ther than that ofthe original eak source... Classification of Fluid Leaks in Terms of Their Acoustic Emissions Leaks may be classified as internal or external to the structure, but in either case they are undesired events. ‘Leake may be classified further as acoustically passive or active leaks. Active leaks emit sound generated by turbulent flow. Passive leaks are those that emit no acoustic ‘elated to leakage flow. Passive leaks can sometimes be detected with an artificial internal sound source trans | ritting signals through the path to an external detector. However, leak detection upon the sensi- tivity and selectivity of the vibration m instru- ments. For example, a leaking heart valve may be defined as am internal leak within the human body. It would be ident- fed as an acoustically active leak ifthe doctors able to hear the leakage flow with his stethoscope. However, if the {detection ofthis leakis limited tothe use of tracer chemistry and ‘and it cannot be detected with the stetho~ scope the ‘may be classified as acoustically passioe. The mechanical structures. Spectral Characteristics of Sounds Generated by Fiuid Leakage From observation of various spectra of sounds generated by fluid flow, both within boundaries and from orifices, ti ‘evident that vibration frequencies around 40 kflz are most easily excited, Similar measurements of spectra of sounds generated by ature both on nd nd beneath the water, Show spectra between 30 and 100 kElz. The acoustics gener- ated by leaks may have a 3g mechanism composed of a form of a Gulton whistle or Helmoltz resonator, in ‘which ease the sound may be confined to one or afew spec- tral lines. In other cases, the leak acoustics may be excep onal breadbanded thoughout the spect ‘below ke, Factors influencing Detectabilty of Leaks by ‘Acoustic Emission “The ability to detect leaks acoustically depends upon the physical mechanisms of fui flow in the leak, the sensitivity [End selectnity of the detection instruments and to what ‘degree the leaks isolated from the detection sensor. A con- ‘duit may pass a liquid internally without an apparent leak- age of lig, but a coupling may allow as or any hs resent, to penetrate into the fluid through a leak orifice in fhe coupling, Such leaks are frequently described as viscos- ity dependent leaks. The high velocity, low pressure liquid flow creates a condition that permits a low velocity, high pressure gas tobe dravm into the lek orifice, Under these Penalitions itis unlikely that acoustic sensors would detect the locaton ofthe Howere under ome conions tltrasonie detectors may detect the presence of gas entra ment in the Liquid from the resulting covttion or tb Tence noise. Instrumentation for Ultrasonic Detection of Leaks ‘The components of the basic instrumentation used for ultrasonie detection of leaks are analogous, in many ways, to those of standard radio receivers used as direction finders.62 / NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING OVERVIEW With the aisbome signal ultrasonic detector, itis usually necessary to in the cretion soni receiver toward the source of high frequency sound from the leak to. a ‘max- imum signal intensity. This operation is quite analogous to thao ning ara iecton fe eeing ane such a direction as to intercept the strongest signal froin the broadeas station o other signal source. The airborne ultrasonic detector or contact probe receives high frequency ultrasonic mechanical vibrations generated by leaks and converts these lea signals to high Frequeney electrical oscillations, These electrical signals are ‘hen amplified a their high ultrasonic frequency rage of 35 to 45 kHz, which results in an amplitude modulated signal ‘th en orcas frequen ner 10 Kf This sage corresponds to the radiofrequency amplifier stage of the comeronal amplitude module radio reeeher The amplifier high frequeney input signal i then mixed with a fefoeny cede an nent ocilacre pone difterencefrequeney signal in the audifrequeney ange This stage corresponds to the quite similar function of the ‘conventional radio receiver (omitting the intermediate fre= dqueney amplifier state sometimes used in radio receivers) Finall, the audiofrequeney signal for both radio receiver and ultrasonie leak detector is amplified and reproduced on ‘loudspeaker or by headphones. This audible leak signal is interpreted by human listeners as the peal sounds of hiss ing leaks, vibrating objects or voice signals, asthe ease may be. In other words, the typical ultrasonie leak detector cnly slightly different from the typical radio receiver, in that the orignal frequeney range rather than in the conventional ampli cast Frequeney range (550 to 1400 iH). Techniques of Leakage Monitoring with Multiple Acoustic Emission Sensors ‘Acoustic Emission Leakage Monitoring of Large Structures and Pipelines A pesal application of multiple acoustic emision sen s0°3 is monitoring of structures, large vessels and pipelines for leaks that emit sound because of trbulont kage through leak holes and passageways. Acoustic emission sig- nals are produced by a complex acoustic stresswave interfa cial coupling between the metal pressure containment and the fluid escaping through the leaks. The leak signatures, i.e, the leakage signal Amplitudes and frequency spectra, depend on the type of gas or liquid escaping through the opening, the vate of leakage, the differential pressure driving fluid through the leak, the leak (hole) size and many ther factors. The acoustic leak signals have broad bands of frequency generation and are usually enriched by many dif ferent modes of aouste propagation shin te allo the leaking structures. Within the metal walls, the ultrasonic transmission modes typically include longitudinal waves, shear (transverse) waves. Rayleigh waves, Lamb waves, interfacial waves and peshaps others. Multiple contact sens. ing transducers can be attached (or eoupled by metillc extension rods) to the metal walls to provide a leakage moni- toring system that may be temporarily emplaced of perma. sey aed to detet the occurence an Toeaton of ints of turbulent leakage, Automatic equipment, 23 well as Empl portable test equipment, can be are to analy ie leakage signals and locate the points where leakage occurs. Factors influencing Feasibility of Acoustic Emission Leakage Monitoring For applications of acoustic emission leakage monitoring to lang structures indus ates, portant ‘optimize the monitoring stem to allow detection of small leaks that may be located at considerable distances, e.., 100 i (330 ft) or more, from the acoustic emission sensors. ‘This signal transmission efficieney factor becomes particu: ly ngotant when acoustic’ emision, montring x applied to buried pipeline. Holes must be dug at approy Ee intenal to all acess for hstalation of conbet to s0t8 of for installation of acoustic waveguides to transmit signals to the ground surface above the pipeline. The effec- tiveness of acoustic emission leak detection and monitoring systems is dependent upon the following factors: 1. the amplitude ofthe leakage signal; 2. the amplitude of environmental acoustie background noise; 3. the efficiency of transmission ofthe acoustic leakage signal through the structure to surface mounted scot emiion sensors and 4. the efficiency of the signal processing instrument in detecting. identifying and lisplaying the, presence and nature of leakage signals. ‘The first three factors listed above depend critically ‘upon configuration ofthe structures under test, their oper- ating conditions and environmental noise and vibration con- ditions, which are fixed and cannot be readily changed for purposes of utilizing acoustic emission leakage monitoring stems. | Selection of Frequency Response of Acoustic Emission Monitors The frequency response setting ofthe leakage monitor is 4 extcal variable whose value can be selected by the test personnel for each specific leakage monitoring application. ‘This frequency parameter is quite important since the leak L L bLEAK TESTING / 63 WR] piping with pressure to 15:2 MPa (2,200 Ibn) PTET vole two-phase flow. The characteristics of ‘nd the simultaneous generation of acoustic signals tremely complex and difficult to model. Relatively sic)- signal amplitude, the environmental noise amplitude and the acouai emisiontasmision efciency fom lak to enaing detectors do vary considerably as the test frequency gnats aod ete Ischanged. The ampiode of he leakage si fesauesgy content (which sus roa-band ate impor” gle two;pas fo models that appear atleast qualitatively cee Greiderations in selecting the monitor response fre~ iene been developed by Henry® and by Collec® The Ciueney characteris. Relatively strong leakage sgnals podels pred shaw Pte increases asthe temperature of fluid decreases. An increase inflow with decreasing tem: ture was, fit observed experimentally for 2 inter- ular stress-corrsion eral (IGSCO) leak Figure Ld shows an inerease in the acoustic signa! when Tate is increased at constant temperature. Here, the coustic root-mean-square (rms) signal increases with flow, is expected. Pree quencies that vary from a few kilohertz to as high as ‘800 Kis on some oceasions. Environmental noise oval decrease rapidly at higher frequencies. The ef ‘Geny of scoustc transmission within te structures almost ‘ars Increases with decreasing frequency. Conversely, the seouatic signal attenuation (weakening per unit of signal travel distance) becomes greater as the signal frequency reveases. The monitor frequency response band should be iMreted to optimize the leakage signal and minimize the sanctus ambient noise sigs eta eke signal-tornolse ratio and permit discriminavon ole For constant floiv rates, the acoustic signal decreases of various sles and distances om the sensor lesions. ath hd temperature However the lec snot severe near BWR operating temperatures. Acoustic Characteristics of Leaks** ‘Asa result ofthe high temperature (-289 °C [-540 °F) and pressure (-7.6MPa [-1,100Ibrin4) of water in boling ane eactor (BRI) piping (or pressurized water reactor FIGURE 15. Leak flow rate versus transducer signal In the 300 to 400 kHz bandwidth from leaking Intergranular stress corrosion cracking, thermal and mechanical fatigue cracks, valve FIGURE 14. Field induced intergranular stress Corrosion crack at 268 to 269 °C (514 to 516 °F), with transducer on waveguide 1m {40 in.) from leak: (a) acoustic root mean square signal; (b) water flow rate sae all » a2 20 oop 0 ORE oo, eo fy to WATER FLOW RATE 1 10? cube decimeter per second gallons per minute) SEVER TIT IVT T ii E64 / NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING OVERVIEW Figure 15 presents the dita on transducer signal ampli- tude nthe 260-40 Lite band fora uanedocerwaveguede placed 1 m (3 ft) from the leak, Fluid temperature was 274 °C (535 °F); the pressure was 7-4 MPa (1.070 Iby-in-2) Flow rates though the leuk were measured by mend of & turbine Now meter The data were nomnalzed > at results obtained fiom the vous experiment (uth the tame electronics and couse senor could be compared Acoustic signals from leaks with flow rates ranging from O40 598 em? (0002 to 85 garmin") have Been see Ixzed. Leaks from intergranular stress corrosion cracks, dhermal and mechanical fatigue emacks, valves and Manges have been studied. The dita presented in Fig IS compere these leak sourees. The general sae of led cam beset, mated from the rms signa in the 300 to 400 kHz range ifthe distance to the leak is known. Further, for the same slow rate, if the flow rate is less than 0.032 Ls! (05 gal min), the vale and flange have smaller signal amplitudes than those due to intergranular stress corrosion eracking. ‘sini esl as fon or Eigen lv {intergranular stress-corrosion cracks. This result supports the argvment that tft for water How rts les an 63.emfs"!(1 gala, intergranular stress-corrosion eck leaks may be distinguished from other leaks by comparing the ratios of acoustic signal intensity in low frequency (100 0 200 kHz) and high frequeney (300 to 400 ki) svindons. ‘The actual ratio of signals will depend on the system andthe data must be corrected for frequency dependence of the attenuation, For the Argonne National Laboratory (ANL) ystem, with the acoustic emission sensor on a waveguide, the ratio of rms (100 to-200 kHa)/rms (300 to 400 kHz} is <3 for an intergranular stress corrosion erack and 22 for other Teak types with the signals corrected to a distance of 1 m (GB) rom the leak source, fed het f ae haheti e $3oe vba tz ere, eae ett ‘ as Veer PART 10 LEAK TESTING / 65 LEAK TESTING OF STORAGE TANKS Detection of External Leaks in Underground Storage Tanks® Underground storage ystems comprised of tank, piping an sR components that contin petroleum hydro: a sof er paalie) or other hazardous materials repre- cane Fada source of environmental contamination, oUt Rem design instalation, operation aod mainte. Prope ih a eak detection program, can minimize nance long wT effects of leaking underground storage ping, Devices capable of detecting petoleum sae ee lat fom underground storge tank (UST pane wed side an underground storage ak 9 systems can Mo ever t an underground storage tank te etalk tank underground sora ak stem be oa ene detect losses with lig level sen- Teal detect St anderground storage tank detection 55- tne mere the reece fa a oP phase Te Sfctbons. Est detection of gud phe, or vnoy set pctrleunfiroarbons allows leaking wnderpretn hase Pec ates or components to be removed Fm Storage ta Sed of replaced, the.eby minimizing both sence and 1 Prpairment, financial lability and ecqpomic Tos of product sof pret extemal petoleum hydrocarbon leak and ren adton devices have not been extensively used reas dete are used primary in conjunction with new nig dong nk tins, Hower, mee andere tnd release detection stems can be Seite testing fies, Bo, ing nde te age tank elites are potently at renter round sort ge itis extremely important that leak and of failure du jon devices be applied to these installations. ease detection Terous commercially avallable extemal Jealt nad release detection devices designed exclusively for wide Nie with underground storage tank petroleum ‘stems: however, there are no established Botformance speciation or procedures fr assessing the Pepebies of these devices, The United States Environ. capstal Protection Agency (EA has been implementing an “islerground storage tank program and doing research on GMernal and internal Teak detection devices for under- Storage tanks. The Environmental Protection vs Eovironmental Monitoring Systems Laboratory ne been participating in research on externa leak detection + devices. One aspect of the current Epona Foes tion Agency (EPA) program isto easily perform: benchmark test procedures that can be sed to aust dhe Péxformance of extemal petroleum hydrocarbon Tak end Telease detectors. test results for external etectors in actual field use may differ from performance ‘measured by these benchmark test. Leak Testing of Aboveground Storage Tanks with Double Flat Bottoms® Leak Location Test Techniques To comply with the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) reedations and many state, county and loeal agency regulon some und orgs tank (AST one sve made design anc testing (LT) requirement Sheer thelr aboveground storage tank fat bottom con: Strucfion specifications. Leak location techniques include 1, vacuum box bubble testing using soap solution, Teitmercial leak detector solution, linseed oll, or ater stable soln: ‘aeuum bos liquid penetrant testing: ‘aeutm box penetrant developer testing, Teena tracer gas with ammonia sensitive pain; ‘Gmmonia tracer gas with ammonia sensitive tape, Getector probe (eniffer tracer testing using R-12 oF $9 halogen rich tracer with a halogen diode leak detector; etector probe (sniffer) tracer testing ust gene Fracer with an electron capture bi (cniffer) tracer testing using helium im mass spectrometer leak detector. paeer SF halo- ge Teak Disadvantages of Leak Location Test Methods {With the exception ofthe tracer gas tests all ofthe sted teak location tests have been used for many years to one Hegre or another on these structures. However, no leak Hearn test enables the test technician to determine the ~ 366 / NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING OVERVIEW total leakage rate for atest system, Consequently, when a leak location testis completed, there cannok be total cont dence that all unacceptable leais were detected Quantitative (Volumetric) Test Techniques Purchasers may specify aboveground storage tanks with 4 double at baton design and quanta Lak og eae niques. Quantitative leak test techniques are intended to assure purchasers that all unacceptable leaks have been detected and repaired. These test techniques include (1 pressure rise measurement; (2) pressive loss measure, ‘ment; and (3) constant pressure mass flow measurement, Applicable Design Standards For many years the API 650, Standard for Welded Steel Tanks for Oil Storage has required either aa sir pressure test or a 13.8 kPa gage (2Iby.in*) pressure differential viewer box test Soap film, linseed oil, or other suitable leak detector solution is specified for leak testing all botiom lap or butt welds and the shell to bottom comer weld ofthis design of aboveground storage tanks. Similarly, the API 620, Stow, dard for Design and Construction of Large, Welded, Low-Pressure Storage Tanks requires a 20.1 KPa guge (9 Torin) vacuum box solution film test of all jonts between flat bottom plates of aboveground storage tanks of this design, In May 1992 Appendix I on Underground Leak Detec- tion and Subgrade Protection was issued as an addendusn to ‘API.650. It contains eross sections of typical arrangements for leak detection at the tank perimeter on double flat bet, tom or flexible membrane liner designs. It refers to API Recommended Practice 651 for guidelines on the use of cathodic protection methods. Italo refers to API Recon mended Practice 652 on the use of linings to prevent inter. nal bottom corrosion. ther a vacuum box solution film test ora tracer gas est of ll lat bottom weld joints. It require a vacuum bet solution ilm test ora light diese ol test ofthe shellto-bottom cor. ier weld joint. No pressure differential is listed inthis stan. lard for the vacuum box test. Item C231 of the “Tank Dut-of Ser ice Inspection Checklist” (Table C-2) in API Pel sates “Vacuum test the botom lp welds." API 515, Standard on Inspection of Atmospheric and ow Pressure Stooge Tans tobe week one guideline the Storage Tank Inspector Certification rogram. It will be based on the API 653 standard, Double Bottom Designs (One practice to attempt to achieve quantitative bottom Jeak testing results when constricting new orreconsteveting existing aboveground storage tanks with flat bottoms Is specify a design that requires the installation of two bottoms The function ofthe inner bottom is to contain the stored oduct with no unacceptable or objectionable leakage, A encion ofthe ter bet sould fag test system which could either be. 1. prfesuriaed witha wacer gis o avon lw presure Koja som quanta dic probe eee 2 prasurtaed toa ver ow prese rs net Presure less measurement test, 4 patflly evacuated for a quantitative pressure rse Imegsurement tes and 4 prefsurizd ta ver-low specie pressure and held at tb presnure forthe pune of esa surfinent quantitate test, Anothe function ofthe outer bottom could be to use it 48 a eatch/basin to. monitor for inservice leakage from the ner bottgm. This function may be in adition fo its use for antitatve leak test ort maybe its primary function, Comparative Test Sensitivities of Leak Location Techniques Vacwun| box bubble testing (VBBT) under feld conde ons a froduce an adequate test sensty Sf 106 oy 10" Pom Gott OS ad cake Oe With extra fare 10° Pass! (10+ std em?!) range leaks age: ook detected under feld conditions, but to detect this smaller, less common leakage requires the expenditure of addtional tine and mone This i nt a highiyechevead test method and thus requires a minimal amount of operator training, It also can be performed during construction of the aboveground storage tank, saving time on the schedule because it dées not require a closed test system that is to be pressurized. For these reasons this isthe test method that bas been ost commonly used. by contractors bulding shoveground storage tanks. For tat reason tis the tet teche nique against which all others listed below are compared. wap i Bx Fenn! ting (VBP) of btm lap or butt welds is performed by applying liquid penetrant le tet sfc mri setae te pe time has elapsed, applying the developer and then applying a Aen presuremth the vcwun tax The eee of vewum bx bubble testing tat normally only used in situations where very small leakage is known to exist but hes escaped detection by the normal vacuum box test technique o; liquid penetrant test method used independently of exch other. Under field conditions the achievable sensitivity of Wie rrr eee nnene i" Trei) : = ahs test method isin the rnge of 1010 105 Parn?s}(109 _miturethrovghout the et tam ond he coe speed =) this text method Mrocever compared vacuum boxbub- andthe distance the snileris el from the test surface dur- y arene, R costs considerably more and requires more Ing scanning (sifng) -. ble fest faferperence to determine when the stuaon When performing» nanan (semiquantitative at 7 warrants this approach. best) detestor probe (sniffer) test ofthe flat bottom of an ‘ rans iS SPPONE ae developer texting (VBDT) is a aboveground storage tank, the amount of DS that can t= special leak test technique that is ‘normally only used forlap be {either single or double bottom) is limited to : SPT putt welds in single bottoms. It is applied when le sigh igher tan th woh of he bation big re bap aod ute welds ne tne tank vate hydro) test and tf. This limitation i the ballooning of ve ‘bottom when ' has been tee al vacua bor tet would be inef- the pressure exceeds the weight ofthe Dok t feet beens of he possibly of voter lying apnint the Ao ample, 64 mm (0.25 In) thick steel weighs ~*~ fective becattc tank bottom in the area ofthe Teak. Ifo about 049 kPa (102 Ib) ‘Thus, for a 6.4 mm (0.25 in.) underside of wrk then use the vacoum boxto pull mls- {hick teel bottom the bofom wo ort balloon when the sana eugh the developer indicating the leakarea.Forthis pressure reaches 102/82 (0.49 kPa (0.0708 Ibi). This fest method the developer is applied to the suspected area : he same a6 (0.0708) 27.7 in, H,Olbe?.in* = 51 mm {est metho Thgsed to ar. Its tien visually inspected after (2.95 in.) HO pressure. Alowg St additional 13, mm Or aes dens has elapsed (maybe overnight) for signs (0.5 in.) H,O pressure for some ane ‘of bottom balloon- 4 number c bleed ou inte the developer indcatng the area fng, the maximum test ‘of 64 mam (25 in.) HO ofthe Teak, If no indications are found, the vacuum box is als 25/277 3 0.69 kPa (0.1 Ibein-*). tse to pil molt through the developer, Vndicating the | ‘The reduction in differential pressure from 101 KPa joo Teak aren: This test technique is normally used to detect 14.7 lbp, oF 1 atm) to only 0.69 kPa (0.1 Ibein-*) pres- {gots leakage but asthe capability under production cond reduces the attainable test sensitivity of viscous or tran d gps eas ut ha ecntor to detect leakage as small sition lw by an apposite Fos oS 2 sn ot Putas (10 std em?) range, This to requires |, Dilutionof leakage tracer gas by surrounding ar at leak 1 the 10" Fae in order to determine the best enue of farther reduces tx sen 9 ‘additional factor of at 7 action for the various situations that develop. ty ‘attainable would be further Armonia serie ple or Pe (AMT or ; once based on a tracer an ditmenia senaihJags mature under the bottom can gas mtr of en percent by whee, Tor bottoms, i. aa sat sonstiy that enables the detection of leaks ‘hed by flowing the tracer under the bot period of time or injecting it through coupling at ‘With leakage as small as the 10~! to 10% Pa?s! (10° to the bottom. The shortcoming is that the > TO! std ens’) range. However, itis rarely used because of : dhe Ievards to human life that ammonia presents tg those aisture snot known. For inner ™ {oing the testing, Te also costs considerably more to form . tained uniformly between the doing the testing peri testmethod. Likewise, leakage botoms by evaating the space foweect the bottoms to a than the cau Bor bebee ot very common andfor thet presture of 10 (4 + O41) = 9 ot 1 = 1.38 ed see doesnot justif the additional cost to detect. It is also Foe kPa 1 lbein-*] in round numbers) below atmosphere . reason doesnot Jetiarre. and requires adaitional safety before backing and pressurizing with the tracer gas to ap traning and more erence, |64 mm (2.5 in.) HO pressure. Magen diode director probe (nfer) texting (HDLT) | If the epee evacuated to 9.6 kPa (1.4 Ibrin.) 7 wh sfligerant B12 or R223 the tracer gas was used but below atnowphens efor presurng then the oom veh efiigerant Bs orese in the presse ettainable under ofthe tracer gus woul nt mown snd the mixture would P theres no a et sensitivity over that which attain- only be OLOCOOVI48. = DO PES ‘by volume and the 2. able by vacuum box testing, The reasons for the second item | 1 sensitivity attainable bbe reduced by a factor of are given in the following paragraphs. 1000.68 = 147 instead ofa factor of ten. For this discussion, ‘Uiforental pressure, were _aten percent mixture is assumed all test parameters, such 38 7; equal, any ofthe tracer gs Teak location Teepe or this leak location test method performed under 4 cua ayo tne Er ilagy tan te ober lee eons eb oP sensi J capable of detec, Seach as vacuum box testing, ammo- it from the maximum, reais attainable lest sensitivity techn est methods Sowerer sch ant iheae wou be by aftr apposite 2200010) = 32,000 a ne Sen Pe crgters are not the same foreach method. oF 2.21 sae th erg wed in aldonwinsoument The mau Tea attainable under : sey Ser be ole) ety ey tee mt eter afnogen ode or electon cap Second iferentaltet pesurtinperenige byl Seen detector probe (sir) test performed us dent on eae of tacer gus, the uniformity ofthat tracer gas ture leak de Pre at aiferenal pressure of68 / NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING OVERVIEW about 100 kPa gage (15 Ibn) with a scanning speed of 127 mmert (05 tn!) and a siler probe eee taice of 3 mm (0135 in.) is on the order of 5.x 10 Pam?s-"(5 x 10" std ems" Based on these values, the estimated test sensitivity for this test methiod when performed onthe bottom welds of an aboveground flat bottom storage tank would be about (8 % 107) (2.3% 108) = 1x 10? sid emés™ This fs.approximately the same test sensitnity a5 the ‘mort economical vacuuin bos bubble test technique bit costs considerably more to perfor. It also requires much ot techn taingand experience, partly those performing or witnessing this method of testing are to lnderstand the actual test sensithiy that is being obtained, ‘The test sensitivity for this test method can be inereused by increasing the percent of the tracer gas misture and by attaching the detector probe (sniffer! toa pod or bax placed ‘over a section of test area and wating for tracer gs leakage from potential leaks to accumulate. The test sensitivity increase is greater for smaller boxes andor longer aceuimie lation times, but both of these factors mapidly increase test costs, Test sensitivities inthe range of 10° to 10 Pans (10 to 10° std cm®s*) can be achieved, but at consider- able cost inerease. Electron capture detector probe (suffer) testing (ECL) sig sul heard (SF) the racer gu has cone into greater usa se of the environmental impact of IdroMuorocarbons and hloolsrocbons proce i refrigerant R-12 and R-2. This method as approximately the same limitations for instrument sensitivity, tet pressure under flat bottoms, scanning speed and probe to surface dis. tance as the halogen diode detector probe test method dis. cussed earlier, "Thus, the estimated achievable test sensitivity is in the range of 10° to 10-1 Pasm?-s (10- to 10° std cms!) when detector probe (sniffer) leak testin the bottoms of aboveground storage tanks by this methods Again, test sensitivities canbe increased tothe range of 105 0 10° Pasm?.s"!(10~ or 10% std ems!) by the accumulae tion technique, but at a considerable increase in cost Helium mass spectrometer detector probe (sniffer) test- Jing (MSx) using helium as the tracer gas. Again, 2s with the halogen diode detector probe or the electron capture detec- tor probe, when using the helium mass spectrometer (HMS) inthe detector probe (sniffer) test mode, the attain. able test sensitivity when testing an aboveground storage tank bottom isin the range of 10° to 10+ Pema lo 10° std ems"). Because a helium mass spectrometer is a high vacuum instrument, this detector probe (snlfer) pres. sure test isthe test technique for which itis least sulted and has the poorest sensitivity. Ove wlanlage of using a helium mass spectrometer with a pumped detector probe connected to a permeation membrane accumulation chamber is the very long probe hhose, up to 60 m (200 ft), that may be used with ng less in test sensitivity, Response time is faster than with a conven: tonal lor poe’ butte ler pc the one te response time. This allows the operator to place the ielium mass spectrometer at one location near ai entry hoe an scan welds of the entire bottom from that one location, The probe hose isso small as to be virtually weightless, whereas a balogen diode or electron capture instrument which ‘weighs several pounds must be carried with the probe, A disadvantage is the added technical taining and expert cence needed to perform helium mass spectrometer detector probe leak testing versus that needed to perform halogen ‘Giode or electron capture detector probe leak testing Another disadvantage of the helium mass spectrometer is the greater cost. Depending on the degree of sophistcs. tion ofthe medel purchased the cost oF the helign anes spectrometer und associated equipment may cost anywhere from three to six times more than the best halogen diode or electron capture instruments Regardless of which leak location test technique is used to test the lap welds in the bottoms, the welds outsce the tank shell between the inner and outer bottoms on double bottom designs must be leak location tested by some method if « quantitative leak test ofthis system is required by the purchaser speciation. The fastest and the most ‘economical test method is bubble pressure tes, ‘Table 11 is a comparison of the aboveground storage tank flat bottom leak loeation test techniques discussed eee Comparison of Quantitative Leak Testing Techniques Pressure rise measurement is one ofthe quantitative leak test techniques that has appeared quite frequently in many shoud so in date Baton dep pec tions. After required preliminary leak testing, the speeifiens tions normally’ requite that the space between the double bottoms be partially evacuated to some pressure below atmosphere and held at that pressure fora defined period of time without any inerease in the pressure (loss of facut), A typical requirement isto evacuate to a negative pressure (raetun) of 96 IP (142 tins? a lone eon 13 nm Hg [20 Ha) blo atmosphere anda for Sh without any loss (degradation) ofthe vacuum. Another ty ‘al requirement is to evacuate to 68 kPa (9.8 Ibeins2, ako {508 min Hg {20 in. Hg) below atmosphere and hold for 24h ‘without any loss ofthe vacuum. The basic pressure rise relationship is Q = APV/Ae When Q = leakage rate in mass flow units of atm ect or std em®s!, V = volume ofthe test system in cubic feet, AP- change ia ‘pressure in inches of mercury, At = chan; time in hours, then Q = APV/SA%, to give results arm's" instead of fin. Hg-h.LEAK TESTING 7 69 7 y ABLE 11. Comparison of teak testing techniaues for abovegrdund flat bottom storage tanks 4 “caxiensiivay Appronimate rang } est Teennique wt Sener etaive cost [hours equipment 5 Yoav Dox BUDD TOF 103 1 z am ox 276 s08 Vacuum box mpenevart 1072010" 1s 3 Yee box penta 2nd : : geveoper vacuum vox penerane developer 10" 0s rd vacuum Done pancertape 10710 10" 2 Lrseeceed ume arora Pa c lagen code o eran capa 10710 10 3005 st012 vaca fas leak detector and ! Seponted equipment Mass specorety toto 108 srs | 281040 wast gs eakcetector 2nd ‘Seated equipment As an example, if an nd storage tank were ' sod in 00 fin diameter and the grating Spar, between 305 a ed outer batoms were 18 mm (0 1) and the ng occupied 20 percent ofthat spect, the volume of at apace would be approximately V = (Gor mosyle = 4 m8 (262.16). ae Fame were evanated toa pegtive AEE Py, soe Cees) of 95 KPa (142 lovin?) and held for 8b. sure (reweuturm gage reading ha snereased 25 01 Hg {aL in. Hig) in that ime, does this inc 1 real leaage (Q) = (0.11262)(98)) = 860 mF ws 0 eae aT ange nthe system vue due 0 a of ge Hat membranes to change she en emer: change with a Se sean because the pressure chan monthe gage’ listed aa ay of 0.33 percent of rs we uss appreximatey te ste seeurney for such gages {ven performing a quantitative pressure se melee, et FE bottom at sboeeonnd SOC iment ttf essre erste cringe ate SS Sak raprrent sage? When test can be ed or contin repeat any ero This ay Of TY Nk Bros averaB tus result, ut in any even thme and money i the If the conclusion is the owompoth of these areas the leas can bs Sepaired, the hold test reran and the results will most ikely repaired: the St po leis are detected i ether of es be satiety Mave tobe assured thatthe leas) were 2 the outer bottom. ee eebeuverr-~- ae Preslure loss measurament is a quantitative lek 8 rr ould not be specie’ fora double borer system pth te tankcempty. This ‘because of the very small ferential flat membrane bot- ‘am (2.5 t0 tom. sible to interpret. lero nterre que is specie, it should include the requirement that ahead of water amut be tank during reavieetank contain 9.1 m (128) of water S00 TE the tat te funtion under te outer ott, benveen the bottoms could th (1 A) morg pressure than the (eat in'a pressure of 10(0499) 5 383 ‘Fahout significant ballooning of Would also virtually eliminate tery "Seeause the water would be a large re as a variable for heat sink that the te Potton 2, an indieation oak of en indication of toe between bottoms would be Indicave of the source ofthe leakage. ottoms itative technique that ral de- measurement is & rs but has sever ified by weer than only several score {itreters mereury (a few rater Hap) of water presure A sade inches Meigue isthat the mass ow, tas foe tne specie pressure level ane ‘anticipated po- chase age rate range that might bave tbe ‘measured.70 / NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING OVERVIEW REFERENCES MeRae, T. "Remote Sensing Technique for Leak ‘Testing of Components and Svstems.” Materials Evaluation. Vol 47, Xo. 11. Columbus, OH: Ameri, ‘an Society for Nondestructive Testing (November 1989): p 1,308-1,312 Waterstrat, C, “The Need to Tiain Leak Testing Personnel.” Materials Ecaluation. Vol. 7, No, It Columbus, OH: American Society for Nondestruc. tive Testing (November 1959): p 1263-1 265 Kupperman, DS. R. Carlson, R. Lanham and W. Brewer. “Characterization of Acoustic Signals fom Leaking Intergranular Stress Corson Cracks" Materials Eealuation, Vol. 47, No. 11. Columbus, OH: American Society for Nondestructive Testing (November 1989): p 1.297-1,300 Kupperman, D.S...D. Prine and T. Mathieson pletion of cous Lak Detatan Teena for the Detection and Location of Leaks in Light Water Reactors. US Nuclear Regulatory Comms sion Report NUREGICR-SI34, Argonne National Laboratory Report ANL-S8-21. 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