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Review of Calculus: Content
Review of Calculus: Content
2. Review of Calculus
Content
Functions
Algebraic functions
Transcedental functions
Differentiation
Integration
Complex Numbers
Lecturer: I.Popescu 1
Review of Mathematics
Linear Functions x y
Consider this set of 0 5
ordered pairs 1 8
2 11
If we plot the points 3 14
and join them we 4 17
see they lie in a
line
Lecturer: I.Popescu 2
Review of Mathematics
Linear function
Functions are linear if any change or
increment in the independent variable
causes a proportional change or
increment in the dependent variable.
The general form of a linear function is:
y=f(x)=mx+b
m is called slope
b is called intercept
Exercises
Consider y defined as a function of x by
the equation: Ax+By+C=0. If A, B and C
are constants
constants, show that the graph of y
is a straight line. What happens when
B=0?
Lecturer: I.Popescu 3
Review of Mathematics
Polynomial functions
A polynomial function in x is a function that
can be written in the form
P ( x) = an x n + an 1x n 1 + L + a2 x 2 + a1x + a0 .
Note:
N t n is
i a positive
iti iinteger
t and
d th
the ai s
are
real numbers.
Zeros of a polynomial
The number c is a zero (or root) of a
polynomial function P if P(c) = 0.
Another way to say this is a zero (or
root) is a solution to the equation
P(x) = 0.
Graphically, a real zero (root) is an x-
intercept (a place where the graph
crosses the x-axis).
Lecturer: I.Popescu 4
Review of Mathematics
Lecturer: I.Popescu 5
Review of Mathematics
Polynomial Properties
Consider now what happens when x
gets very large negative or positive?
ll d end
Called
C d behavior
b h i
Also long-run behavior
Basically the leading term anxn takes
over
Compare
f(x) = x3 with g(x) = x3 + x2
Lecturer: I.Popescu 6
Review of Mathematics
Quadratic Functions
A quadratic function is a polynomial
function of degree 2.
Its form is ax2 + bx + c, where a 0
And has two roots such as
ax2 + bx + c=a(x-x1)(x-x2)
Similarly a polynomial of degree n has n
rootst
Rational functions
A rational function R is a function that
can be written as
P( x )
R( x ) =
Q( x)
Lecturer: I.Popescu 7
Review of Mathematics
Asymptotes
If f(x) or f(x) - as x a from
the right or the left, we say that the line
x = a is a vertical asymptote of the
graph of f(x).
Vertical asymptotes will occur at points
where Q(x) = 0, but P(x) 0.
The line y = b is a horizontal asymptote
to the graph of f(x) if f(x) b as x
or x - .
Slant asymptotes
A slant (or oblique) asymptote is
another type of end behavior for rational
functions Instead of the ends
functions.
approaching a horizontal line, the ends
approach a slanted line.
Slant asymptotes occur when the
degree
g of the numerator is exactly
y one
larger than the degree of the
denominator.
Lecturer: I.Popescu 8
Review of Mathematics
2
x +1 x +1
y= y2 =
x 1 x 1
1 x2 + 1
y3 = y4 =
(x 1) 2
x2 1
Lecturer: I.Popescu 9
Review of Mathematics
x +1
y=
x 1
3
2
1
-1 1 2
Lecturer: I.Popescu 10
Review of Mathematics
Trigonometric functions
Right angle triangle method
opposite
e
adjacent
adjacent
opposite
Trigonometric functions
Right angle triangle method
opposite. side
(length = b)
adjacent side (length = a)
sin() = (opposite side)/hypotenuse
side)/h poten se =b/c
b/c
cos() = (adjacent side)/hypotenuse =a/c
tan() = (opposite side)/(adjacent side)=b/a
Lecturer: I.Popescu 11
Review of Mathematics
1 ( )
(y,z) An
A alternative
lt ti scale l for
f
measuring an angle
Units = radians
0.5 x
One full cycle around the
0
circle is 2 radians
-1.5 -1 -0.5 0.5 1 1.5
05
-0.5
sin(x) = z
-1
cos(x) = y
-1.5
Exercise
1.5
Mark each point
1
on the circle
cos = 0
0.5
where cos(x) =0
-1.5
Lecturer: I.Popescu 12
Review of Mathematics
Exercise
1.5
1 Highlight those
sections of the
sin(x)
0.5 >0 circle where sin(x)
>0
0
-1.5 -1 -0.5 0.5 1
1.5
-0.5
-1
-1.5
Exercise
1.5
-0.5
-1
-1.5
Lecturer: I.Popescu 13
Review of Mathematics
Exercise
1.5
1
Place an X
X wherever cos(x) =
0.5
sin(x)
0
-1.5 -1 -0.5 0.5 1 1.5
-0.5
X
-1
-1.5
2 radians = 360o
- /2 radians = -90o
sin( /2 radians)=
sin(90o)
7/26/2010 Review of Mathematics 28
Lecturer: I.Popescu 14
Review of Mathematics
NOTE:
7/26/2010
= 3.14159Review of Mathematics 29
Graphs-trigonometric functions
Sine function
Simple, regular wave Y = cos(x) Y = sin(x)
Bounded above &
below
Cosine function
Looks exactly like sine,
except for a shift.
Lecturer: I.Popescu 15
Review of Mathematics
Graphs-trigonometric functions
Y= tan(X) Y = cot(X)
tan(x) = sin(x)/cos(x)
cot(x)
t( ) = cos(x)/sin(x)
( )/ i ( )
= 1/tan(x)
Periodic function-general
+P/4 y=Asin(w(x-))+C
y baseli
A ne
P
basepoi C
nt
x
Lecturer: I.Popescu 16
Review of Mathematics
Basic relations
sin( ) = sin cos sin cos
cos( ) = cos cos m sin sin
Exercise
Draw the graphs of following functions
x+sinx
(1/x) + sinx
xsinx
(Sinx)/x
tan2x
Lecturer: I.Popescu 17
Review of Mathematics
Exponential functions
Exponential
functions
decrease if 0 < a < 1
increase if a > 1.
As x
ax 0 if 0 < a < 1
ax if a > 1.
As x
ax if 0 < a < 1
ax 0 if a > 1.
Lecturer: I.Popescu 18
Review of Mathematics
e x e x
sinh( x) =
2
e x + e x
cosh( x) =
2
e x e x
tanh( x) =
e x + e x
Hyperbolic Functions
Lecturer: I.Popescu 19
Review of Mathematics
Inverse function
Idea: An inverse function takes the output of the
original function and tells from what input it
resulted.
Note that this really says that the roles of x and y are
reversed.
We use the notation f-1(x) for the inverse of f(x).
1
Note that f 1(x) does NOT mean
f ( x)
Lecturer: I.Popescu 20
Review of Mathematics
Differentiation
Differential calculus
Definition: The mathematics
of the variation of a function
with respect to changes in
independent variables.
Two branches of calculus,
differential and integral,
developed roughly
simultaneously and Leibniz
apparently independently by
Sir Isaac Newton and
Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz
in the 1660s and 1670s
7/26/2010 Review of Mathematics 42
Lecturer: I.Popescu 21
Review of Mathematics
Slope computation
We can calculate the
slope of a line given two
pointschange
p : in y y y y
slope = = 2 1
=
change in x x2 x1 x
Lecturer: I.Popescu 22
Review of Mathematics
Slope computation
We can calculate the
slope of a line given two
pointschange
p : in y y y y
slope = = 2 1
=
change in x x2 x1 x
Lecturer: I.Popescu 23
Review of Mathematics
f(xo
)
xo +h x
xo
7/26/2010 Review of Mathematics 47
Lecturer: I.Popescu 24
Review of Mathematics
y(x) = 3
y 3
1
The slope of the line
equals y/x
20
0
x
y(x) = 3x + 1
x1 x2 15
y 3 3
= = 0.
x x2 x1
10
Y
3
y=3
5
x=1
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
X
y y (x = 3) y (x = 2) [3 * (3) + 1] [3 * (2) + 1] 10 7
= = = =3
x 32 32 1
Lecturer: I.Popescu 25
Review of Mathematics
Getting Started
Lets start simple.
Consider the function y(x)
= 3 shown in the figure to 5
the right
right. If you were asked
How does this function
4
y(x) = 3
change with x? or y 3
change as a function of 1
constant value of 3 x1 x2
y=3
y y (x = 3) y (x = 2) [3 * (3) + 1] [3 * (2) + 1] 10 7
= = = =3 x=1
x 32 32 1 5
Lecturer: I.Popescu 26
Review of Mathematics
Derivatives
Notations
y
dy/dx
df/dx
d/dx (f)
f(x)
D (f)
Lecturer: I.Popescu 27
Review of Mathematics
Derivatives(tangent lines)-Exercise
Compute the derivative (the slope of the tangent
line), at the point (1,1) of the graph of the function
x2 applying the definition
Exercises
Use the definition of the derivatives to find f ' ( x )
1 f ( x) =
1
x2
.
1 1
f ( x + h) = = 2
( x + h) 2
x + 2 x ( h) + ( h) 2
f ( x + h) f ( x )
f ' ( x ) = lim
h0 h
Lecturer: I.Popescu 28
Review of Mathematics
dy 1 dy1
If y=1/y
1/ 1 =
dx y12 dx
dz dz dy
If y=y(x) and z=z(y) =
dx dy dx
2
Also d y can be defined.
2
dx
dy d2y
What does =0 and 2 > 0 at point P
dx dx
imply?
7/26/2010 Review of Mathematics 58
Lecturer: I.Popescu 29
Review of Mathematics
Derivatives at Endpoints
One-side limits
Lecturer: I.Popescu 30
Review of Mathematics
Derivatives for
Lecturer: I.Popescu 31
Review of Mathematics
curve is
curve rising
i
is (concav
falling e up)
(conca
ve y =
down) f(x)
slope is slope
l
negative is
positiv
e
7/26/2010 Review of Mathematics 63
Lecturer: I.Popescu 32
Review of Mathematics
Exercises
Prove that:
d x 1 x2 d 1 x2 4x
2
= ; =
d 1+ x 1+ x
dx 2
(
2
) 2
ddx 1 + x 1 + x 2 ( )
2
Lecturer: I.Popescu 33
Review of Mathematics
Exercises
Find the intervals of concave up and concave down
and inflection points of the function f (x) = x4 4x3 +
10
Lecturer: I.Popescu 34
Review of Mathematics
d d
(sin x ) = cos x (cos x ) = sin x
dx dx
d d
(tan x ) = sec 2 x (cot x ) = csc 2 x
dx dx
d d
(sec x ) = sec x tan x (csc x ) = csc x cot x
dx dx
Exercises
Find the derivatives of
cos m x cos x m
sin m x sin x m
cos(sin x) sin(cos x)
arcsin(1 x 2 )
Lecturer: I.Popescu 35
Review of Mathematics
Derivatives for
Function Approximation
Lecturer: I.Popescu 36
Review of Mathematics
Approximating Functions
It is often desirable to approximate functions
with simpler functions.
We assume that the function f has
derivatives of all orders everywhere in its
domain of definition.
Approximating Functions
It is often desirable to approximate functions
with simpler functions.
These simpler functions are typically
functions whose values can be easily
computed and whose behavior is well
understood. That allows one to study the
properties of complicated functions using
such approximations.
pp
We assume that the function f is has
derivatives of all orders everywhere in its
domain of definition.
Lecturer: I.Popescu 37
Review of Mathematics
Approximating Functions
Definition :The Taylor polynomial of degree n
for a given function f at a point a is a
polynomial P of degree n such that :
P(k) (a)=f (k)(a) for k=0,1,,n.
This means that the value of the polynomial P
and all of its derivatives up to the order n
agree with those of the function f at the point
x=a.
x a.
Note: Observe that the defining conditions for
the Taylor polynomial have to do with the
behavior of the polynomial at one point only.
7/26/2010 Review of Mathematics 75
Taylor Polynomials at x = a
Assume the function f has all derivatives at the
point x=a.
Taylor
y polynomial
p y of degree
g n at x=a is ( n )
f ' (a ) f ' ' (a) f (a )
f ( x) = f (a) + ( x a) + ( x a ) 2 + ... + ( x a)n
1! 2! n!
f ' (a ) f ' ' (a ) 2
f ( a + h) = f ( a ) + h+ h +.
1! 2!
f ( n 1) ( a ) n 1 f ( n ) (a ) n
.. + h + h
( n 1)! n!
If h becomes smaller and smaller
f (a + h) f ( a ) + hf ' (a )
Note: This is a generalization of the mean value
theorem
7/26/2010 Review of Mathematics 76
Lecturer: I.Popescu 38
Review of Mathematics
Lecturer: I.Popescu 39
Review of Mathematics
These series
1 1
(1) k x 2 k +1 expansions
sin( x) = x x 3 + x 5 ... =
3! 5! k = 0 ( 2 k + 1)!
are valid for
all x.
1 2 1 3 1
ex = 1+ x + x + x + ... = x k
2! 3! k = 0 k!
This
p ( p 1) 2 p ( p 1)( p 2) 3 series
(1 + x) p = 1 + px + x + x + ... expansio
2! 3!
n is valid
for
1<x<1.
7/26/2010 Review of Mathematics 79
Lecturer: I.Popescu 40
Review of Mathematics
Exercise
2
Find Taylor series at x = 0 for the function e-x
Fi d Taylor
Find T l series
i at x = 0 for
f the
h function
f i 1/(1+x)
1/(1 )
1 2 1 3 zn
e = 1 + z + z + z + ... =
z
2! 3! k = 0 n!
One gets
1 4 1 6
(1) n x 2 n
ex = 1 x 2 x x + ... =
2
2! 3! n =0 n!
Lecturer: I.Popescu 41
Review of Mathematics
1 (1 + x ) 1
n
an =
n! x n x =0
0 (1 + x ) 1 1
= [(1 + x ) ]0 = 1
x
0
0
(1 + x )
1
2
= [ 1(1 + x ) ]0 = 1
x 0
2 3
x ( (1 + x ) ) = [ 1( 2)(1 + 2 x ) ]0 = 2
0
3 4
x ( 1( 2)(1 + x ) ) = [ 1( 2)( 3)(1 + x ) ]0 = 6
0
7/26/2010 Review of Mathematics 83
x x
dx'
d x 2 x3
ln(1 + x) =
1 + x' 0
= dx'(1 x'+ x' x' ...) ln(1 + x) = x + ...
2 3
0
2 3
Lecturer: I.Popescu 42
Review of Mathematics
Integration
Old problem
Given a function, find its derivative
function derivative
Inverse problem
Given the derivative, find the function.
Find a function that has a derivative y = 3x2
We note this as 3x 2 dx
7/26/2010 Review of Mathematics 86
Lecturer: I.Popescu 43
Review of Mathematics
f ( x)dx = F ( x) + C
Fundamental theorem of Calculus
Example:
x n +1
x dx = n + 1 + C ; n 1
n
Lecturer: I.Popescu 44
Review of Mathematics
Integration rules
k f ( x)dx = k f ( x)dx
( f ( x) + g ( x))dx = f ( x)dx + f ( x)dx
dx
1+ x 2
= arctan x
dx
1 x2
= arcsin x
Integration by
part f ' (x) F ( x)dx = f ( x) F ( X ) f ( x) F ' ( x)dx
Definition of log x
From
Calculus: x n +1
x dx = n + 1 + C; n 1
n
Lecturer: I.Popescu 45
Review of Mathematics
Exercises
(3x 5 x 2 + x 2) dx
4
1.
x +1
2. x dx
d
(3x 2) 2 dx
4
3.
1
4. 1 x 2
dx
x
5. 1 x 2
dx
6. x 1 x 2 dx
7/26/2010 Review of Mathematics 91
(3x
4
5 x 2 + x 2) dx = 3x 4 dx 5x 2 dx + xdx 2dx
3 x dx 5 x dx + xdx 2 d x = 3 x 5 5 x 3 + 1 x 2 2 x + C
4 2
5 3 2
Check by differentiating
1 1 3 1
x +1 x +1
2
dx = dx = ( x 2 + x 2 )dx = x 2 + 2 x 2 + C
x 1 5
x2
x5 x3
4 2
(3 x 2) dx = (9 x 12 x + 4)dx = 9
2 2 12 + 4 x + C
5 3
9 5
x 4 x3 + 4 x + C
5
7/26/2010 Review of Mathematics 92
Lecturer: I.Popescu 46
Review of Mathematics
1 x 2 dx
1
1 x2
1 1 1
1
dx = dx = + dx =
(1 x)(1 + x) 2(1 x ) 2(1 + x )
1 1 1 1
= dx + dx
2 1 x 2 1+ x
1 1
= ln(1 x ) + ln(1 + x )
2 2
1 1+ x
= ln
2 1 x
7/26/2010 Review of Mathematics 94
Lecturer: I.Popescu 47
Review of Mathematics
d
sec xdx = tan x + C
2
(tan x ) = sec 2 x
dx
d
csc xdx = cot x + C
2
(cot x ) = csc 2 x
dx
d
dx
(sec x ) = sec x tan x sec x tan xdx = sec x + C
d
dx
(csc x ) = csc x cot x csc x cot xdx = csc x + C
7/26/2010 Review of Mathematics 95
Lecturer: I.Popescu 48
Review of Mathematics
Integrals for
Finding Areas
Lecturer: I.Popescu 49
Review of Mathematics
f ( x ) dx = f ( x ) dx
f ( x)dx = 0
a a a
a a
kf ( x)dx = k f ( x)dx
b b
a a a
b c b
Integrals for
Computing averages
Lecturer: I.Popescu 50
Review of Mathematics
Area
The curve of with rectangles from finer
partitions of [a, b]. Finer partitions create more
4
rectangles with shorter
f (ck ) xkbases.
bases
k =1
Lecturer: I.Popescu 51
Review of Mathematics
b
1
Average =
ba a
f ( x )dx
Lecturer: I.Popescu 52