JOURNAL OF RENEWABLE AND SUSTAINABLE ENERGY 5 , 0 6 3 1 3 4 (2 0 1 3 )

E n e r g y c o n s u m p tio n a n d g r e e n h o u s e g a s e m is s io n s
o f b io d ie s e l p r o d u c tio n fr o m r a p e s e e d in Ir a n
M o h a m m a d A li R a ja e ifa r,1 ,a )
B a r a t G h o b a d ia n , 2 M o h a m m a d D a v o u d H e id a r i, 1
a n d E b r a h im F a y y a z i2
1
D e p a r tm e n t o f A g r ic u ltu r a l M a c h in e r y E n g in e e r in g , F a c u lty o f A g r ic u ltu r a l E n g in e e r in g
a n d T e c h n o lo g y , C o lle g e o f A g r ic u ltu r e & N a tu r a l R e s o u r c e s , U n iv e r s ity o f T e h r a n , K a r a j,
Ira n
2
D e p a r tm e n t o f M e c h a n ic a l E n g in e e r in g , T a r b ia t M o d a r e s U n iv e r s ity , J a la l a le A h m a d
h ig h w a y , T e h ra n , Ira n
(R e c e iv e d 7 A u g u s t 2 0 1 3 ; ac c e p te d 6 D e c e mb er 2 0 1 3 ; p u b lish e d o n lin e 2 3 D e c e mb er 2 0 1 3 )

Th e is s u e o f s e arch in g alte rn a tiv es fo r d ies e l fu e l in tran s p o rt s ecto r th a t is o n e o f

th e larg e s t d ie se l fu el c o n s u min g s e cto rs in ea ch c o u n try h as b ec o me mo re
attra ctiv e n o w a d a y s . In th is s tu d y , th e e n erg y c o n s u m p tio n an d C O 2 e m is s io n s o f
b io d ie se l p ro d u ctio n fro m ra p es ee d a s an a ltern ativ e fo r d ies e l fu e l in tra n s p o rt
s ec to r w a s a s s es s ed in te rm s o f th re e m a in s tag e s in clu d in g ag ric u ltu ra l cro p
p ro d u c tio n , tran sp o rt, a n d in d u s tria l c o n v ers io n . T h e re s u lts rev ea le d th at th e to ta l
f o s s il e n e r g y in p u t c o s t w a s c a lc u la te d a s 2 8 1 2 2 .1 6 M J h a 1 a n d th e r e n e w a b le
en erg y o u tp u t c o n ten t (b io d ies e l a s th e n al o u tco me) w as e s tima te d as
3 1 8 0 2 .0 6 M J h a 1 . T h e n e t e n e r g y r e tu r n s a n d th e f o s s il e n e r g y r a tio w e r e
c a lc u la te d a s 3 6 7 9 .9 M J h a 1 a n d 1 .1 3 , r e s p e c tiv e ly . I t s h o w s r a p e s e e d c o u ld b e a
s u ita b le en erg y c ro p fo r b io d ie se l p ro d u ctio n . C O 2 e mis s io n s a s s es s me n t s h o w e d
th a t th e to tal g re en h o u s e g as e mis s io n s o v er b io d ies e l p ro d u c tio n life c y cle w ere
1 0 5 4 .9 8 k g CO 2 e q h a 1 a n d th e ag ric u ltu ral c ro p p ro d u ctio n s tag e ran k s th e rst.
In o rd er to e s ta b lis h e n e rg y c ro p s c u ltiv a tio n s u ch a s ra p e s e ed a n d a c h ie v e th e
s u sta in ab le d e v e lo p men t, me te o ro lo g ic al an d w a te r s o u rc e av aila b ility d ata c o llec ted
an d a n a ly zed fo r a ll th e 3 1 p ro v in c e s in Iran to g e n e rate a m ap o f reg io n s c ap ab le o f
rap es e ed c u ltiv atio n . T h e res u lts re v e aled th a t 2 4 p ro v in c e s am o n g 3 1 p ro v in c e s
h a v e a g r e a t p o te n tia l f o r r a p e s e e d c u ltiv a tio n . V C 2 0 1 3 A IP P u b lis h in g L L C .
[ h ttp ://d x .d o i.o r g /1 0 .1 0 6 3 /1 .4 8 5 4 5 9 6 ]

N O M E N C L A T U R E
NER n et en erg y retu rn
FER fo s s il e n e rg y ratio
GHG g reen h o u se g as
IEA in te rn a tio n al en e rg y a g e n c y
GDP g ro ss d o mestic p ro d u ct
UNFCCC U n ite d N a tio n s fra me w o rk co n v e n tio n o n c lim ate ch a n g e

I. IN T R O D U C T IO N
No wad ay s, th e s u s tain a b le rea lis tic d ev e lo p m en t an d g ro wth is o n e wh ich d o es n o t h a v e
ad v e rs e effects o n en v iro n men t an d s h o u ld n o t d estro y th e n a tu r a l r e s o u r c e s .1 I n o rd e r to s u c-
ceed in th e s u s tain ab le d ev e lo p m en t a n d re d u ce g ree n h o u se g ases (GHGs) p ro d u ced b y fo s sil
fu els , a d ev elo p in g tre n d fo r u s in g re n e w a b le e n e rg ies in stead o f n o n -ren ewab le en erg ies s h o u ld
b eco me an imp o rta n t p ar t o f th e en e rg y p o lic y fo r e ach co u n try . Th ere are s o m e a lte rn a tiv es

a)
A u th o r to wh o m c o rre s p o n d e n c e s h o u ld b e ad d ressed . Electro n ic m ail: M o h a m a d _ r a ja e i@ u t.a c .ir . T e l.:
9 9 8 -2 6 -3 2 8 0 1 0 1 1 . Fax : 9 8 -2 6 -3 2 8 0 8 1 3 8

1 9 4 1 -7 0 1 2 /2 0 1 3 /5 ( 6 )/0 6 3 1 3 4 /1 3 /$ 3 0 .0 0 5 , 0 6 3 1 3 4 -1 C 2 0 1 3 A I P P u b lis h in g L L C
V
0 6 3 1 3 4 -2 R a j a e i f a r et al. J . R e n e w a b le S u s t a in a b le E n e r g y 5 , 0 6 3 1 3 4 ( 2 0 1 3 )

s u c h as b io d ies e l, b io eth a n o l, ele ctricity , h y d ro g e n , a n d n a tu ra l g as c o n s id e re d as a lte rn ativ e

ch o ice s fo r red u c in g th e tra n s p o rt s e c to rs d ep en d en c y o n p e tro le u m a n d to d ec rea s e its en v i-
r o n m e n t a l i m p a c t s .2 ,3 B e t w e e n 2 0 0 5 a n d 2 0 1 0 , t h e g l o b a l p r o d u c t io n o f b io f u e l s ( b i o e th a n o l
an d b io d ie s e l) h as g ro w n fro m 5 8 5 th o u s a n d b arre ls to 1 5 1 9 th o u s an d b a rre ls p er d a y a n d 7 1
th o u s a n d b a rrels to 3 3 5 th o u s a n d b a rre ls p er d ay fo r b io e th a n o l a n d b io d ie s e l, res p e c tiv e ly .4
Th e a n n u a l wo rld p ro d u ctio n o f b io fu els in 2 0 1 1 in c rea s e d 0 .7 % (c o m p a re d to 2 0 1 0 ) w h ile th is
in c r e a s e w a s 3 .4 % f o r a n n u a l b io f u e l p r o d u c tio n f o r A s ia n c o u n tr ie s .5 T h is in c r e a s e in p r o d u c -
tio n o f b io fu e ls s h o w s a n ew p e rs p ec tiv e o f d iffere n t c o u n trie s a c ro s s th e w o rld , es p e c ia lly th e
As ia n o n es . S ev e ral s tu d ie s w ere c arrie d o u t b y s c ien tis ts a b o u t th e p o s s ib ility o f b io fu els p ro -
d u c tio n in A s ian c o u n trie s . B a rn w al a n d S h arma s tu d ie d th e p ro s p ec ts o f b io d ies el p ro d u ctio n
fr o m v e g e ta b le o ils in I n d ia in 2 0 0 5 .6 P a lm o il p o te n tia l a s a s o u r c e o f b io f u e ls in M a la y s ia
wa s in v e s tig ate d b y La m e t a l.7 In 2 0 0 8 , H u e t a l. s tu d ied life cy c le e n erg y , e n v iro n m en t, a n d
e c o n o m ic a s s e s s m e n t o f s o y b e a n - b a s e d b io d ie s e l a s a n a lte r n a tiv e a u to m o tiv e f u e l in C h in a .8 I n
a s tu d y c o n d u c ted b y P h a lan , th e s o cia l a n d en v ir o n m e n ta l im p ac ts o f b io fu e ls in A s ia w e re
as s e s s e d an d th e res u lts rev e ale d th a t b io fu els will fo rm a s m a ll b u t s ig n i ca n t s h a re o f A s ias
e n e r g y s u p p ly in th e n e x t d e c a d e s .9 T h e p o s s ib ility o f b io d ie s e l a n d b io e th a n o l p r o d u c tio n in
d iffe re n t co u n tries o f A s ia w a s s tu d ie d b y o th er res e a rc h ers (R e fs . 1 0 1 3 ) a n d th e re s u lts in d i-
ca ted th a t s e v e ra l c o u n trie s in A s ia h ad d iffere n t p lan ts to p ro d u ce b io fu els in o rd e r to a ch ie v e
s u s ta in a b le d e v elo p me n t a n d in c re as e e n e rg y s ec u rity . O n e o f th e s e c o u n tries , w h ic h h a s d iffe r-
e n t p o te n tia l p la n ts to p r o d u c e b io f u e ls is I r a n . I n a r e c e n t r e s e a r c h b y G h o b a d ia n ,1 4 liq u id b io -
fu e ls p o ten tial in Ira n (w h ich is m ain ly p ro d u c ed a s e th a n o l a n d b io d ie s e l) an d its o u tlo o k w as
in v e s tig a te d . T h e re s u lts s h o w ed th at th e re a re m an y re g io n s in Iran , w h ic h h a v e a s u b s ta n tial
p o te n tia l f o r o il p r o d u c tio n a s b io d ie s e l f e e d s to c k s . S a e d d in A r d e b ili e t a l. in v e s tig a te d th e
b io d ies e l p ro d u c tio n p o te n tia l fro m o il s e ed s su ch a s ra p es ee d (ca n o la cu ltiv a r), c o tto n , s o y -
b e a n , c o rn , s e a s em , s u n o w e r, o liv e, s a f o w e r, alm o n d , c o c o n u t, w a ln u t, an d h a ze ln u t in Ira n
an d th e re s u lts re v e a le d th at c an o la (B r a s s ic a n a p u s L.) w ith th e p o te n tia l o f 1 4 2 7 5 6 to n s o f
b io d ie s e l p r o d u c tio n p e r y e a r c a n b e o n e o f th e s u ita b le p la n ts f o r b io d ie s e l p r o d u c tio n .1 5
B io d ies e l a s a s u b s titu te fo r d ies e l fu e l (in b le n d s o r in its n ea t fo rm) h a s s ev e ral ad v a n -
ta g es a n d co n s e q u e n tly c a n s u p p o rt a n u m b er o f s tra teg ie s fo r a d d re s s in g n a tio n a l is s u e s (red u c -
in g n a tio n a l c o n c e r n s a b o u t e c o n o m y , e n v ir o n m e n t, e tc .) s u c h a s r e d u c in g d e p e n d e n c e o n
fo re ig n p e tro leu m , lev e rag in g lim ite d s u p p lie s o f fo s s il fu els , d imin is h in g G H G e mis s io n s ,
r e d u c i n g a ir p o l lu t i o n a n d r e l a t e d p u b l i c h e a l t h r i s k s , a n d im p r o v in g t h e d o m e s t i c e c o n o m y .1 6
Ex te n s iv e in v es tig atio n s h a v e b ee n em erg e d fo r en e rg y p e rfo rm a n c e s o f b io d ie s el. T h e rs t
co m p re h e n s iv e a s s e s s me n t o f e n e rg y fo r b io d ies e l p ro d u c tio n fro m s o y b ea n o il in th e U n ite d
S ta te s w a s c o m p le te d b y S h e e h a n e t a l. in 1 9 9 8 .1 6 T h e y c h a r a c te r iz e d a ll e n e r g y in p u ts f o r s o y -
b e a n b io d ie s e l p ro d u c tio n p ro c e s s a s a life c y cle a s s e s s me n t in c lu d in g s ix s u b s y s tem s : fe e d s to c k
p ro d u c tio n , fe e d s to c k tra n s p o rta tio n (s o y b ea n an d s o y b e an o il), s o y b ea n cru s h in g , s o y b ea n p ro c -
es s in g with b io d ies e l co n v ers io n , b io d ie s el d is trib u tio n , an d b io d ie s el u s ag e in e n g in e s . Th e ir
re s u lts in d ic a te d th a t th e f o s s il e n e r g y r a tio ( F E R ) o f b io d ie s e l is e q u a l to 3 .2 . I n o th e r w o r d s ,
b io d ie s e l y ie ld s 3 .2 u n its o f e n e r g y f o r e v e r y u n it o f f o s s il e n e r g y c o n s u m e d o v e r its lif e c y c le .
In a n o th e r s tu d y , an an a ly s is o f th e e n e rg y c o n s u m ed a n d th e u s e fu l e n erg y p ro d u c ed b y
ra p e s ee d o il fo r b io d ie s e l p ro d u c tio n w as ca rried o u t b y R ic h ard s an d th e re s u lts s h o w e d th a t
1 .5 to n s o f b io d ie s e l w ith e n erg y c o n te n t o f 5 4 3 4 6 MJ w a s p ro d u c ed fo rm th e y ie ld o f 1 h a
ra p e s ee d .1 7 S in ce fo s s il e n e rg y co n s u mp tio n o f 3 0 5 0 5 M J w a s re p o rte d fo r th e in d u s tria l s ta g es
in c lu d in g a g r ic u ltu ra l cro p p ro d u ctio n , p a c k in g , tra n s p o rta tio n , a n d p ro c es s in g ; th e F ER o f b io -
d ie s e l w a s c a lc u la te d a s 1 .8 . I n a s im ila r w o r k , V e n tu r i a n d V e n tu r i in v e s tig a te d th e e n e r g y
in p u t an d o u tp u t o f th re e en e rg y cro p c h ain s in Eu ro p e s u ch a s ra p e s e ed -b a s ed b io d ies e l a n d
th e ratio o f b io d ies e l e n e rg y o u tp u t to its e n erg y in p u t w a s es tim ate d as ra n g in g fro m 0 .7 to 1 .0
fo r th is c ro p .1 8 J an u lis c a lcu late d th e e n erg y ratio o f ra p e s e ed o il m eth y l e s ter in L ith u a n ia fo r
th re e s ta g e s in clu d in g ra p es e e d p ro d u ctio n , o il p re s s in g a n d tra n s e s te ri ca tio n , a n d (fo r a ra p e -
s e e d y ie ld o f 3 .0 to n s h a 1 ) th e F E R w a s e s tim a te d a s 1 .2 .1 9 B e s id e e n e r g y s u p p ly is s u e in b io -
d ie s el p ro d u c tio n s y s te m s , th e G H G e mis s io n s are a ls o critic a l. G H G e m is s io n s e s tim atio n h as
b e e n c o n s id e red b y s e v e ra l a u th o rs in b io d ies el p ro d u ctio n s y s tem s . W o o d an d Co rley c alc u -
la ted G H G e m is s io n s fo r b io d ies el fro m p a lm o il in M ala y s ia an d fo u n d th a t a g ric u ltu ra l c ro p
0 6 3 1 3 4 -3 R a j a e i f a r et al. J . R e n e w a b le S u s t a in a b le E n e r g y 5 , 0 6 3 1 3 4 ( 2 0 1 3 )

p ro d u c tio n s ta g e in b io d ies e l p ro d u ctio n h ad th e m o s t in u en c e o n e n v iro n m en t w ith

1 9 2 0 .8 5 k g C O 2 e q h a 1 y r 1 .2 0 I n a s tu d y c o n d u c te d b y Y u s o f f a n d H a n s e n , a lif e c y c le a s s e s s -
me n t o f p a lm o il in M ala y s ia2 1 w a s in v e s tig a te d an d th e re s u lts rev e a le d th a t to ta l G H G
e m is s io n s f o r b io d ie s e l f r o m p a lm o il w a s 2 4 9 6 .4 5 k g C O 2 e q h a 1 y r 1 a n d a g r ic u ltu ra l c r o p
p ro d u c tio n s ta g e h ad th e m o s t in u e n c e o n e n v iro n me n t. R e s u lts o f s imilar s tu d ie s o n G H G
em is s io n s a ls o in d ica ted th a t a g ricu ltu ra l cro p p ro d u c tio n s tag e ra n k s th e rs t in G H G e m is -
s io n s (C O 2 e q h a 1 y r 1 ).2 2 2 5
S in c e th e re is n o s imilar in v es tig atio n o n th is ca s e in Ira n , th is p a p er a ime d to as s e s s th e
en e rg y co n s u m p tio n a n d C O 2 em is s io n s o f rap es ee d -b as e d b io d ies el a s a n a lte rn ativ e en e rg y in
Ira n . M o re o v er, to ac h ie v e s u s ta in a b le d ev e lo p men t, a m a p w as g e n e ra te d to s h o w th e p o te n tia l
o f ra p es e e d c u ltiv a tio n a cro s s th e c o u n try as a b io e n e rg y c ro p .
A lth o u g h Ira n h a s th e s e c o n d larg e s t o il re serv e s in th e M id d le E a s t a n d th e s e c o n d la rg es t
n a tu ral g a s res e rv es in th e w o rld , p rim a ry e n e rg y d e ma n d in Ira n is e s tim a te d to b e in cre as e d a t
an av e ra g e a n n u a l rate o f 2 .6 % b etw e e n 2 0 0 3 an d 2 0 3 0 , d o wn fro m a ro u n d 5 % o v e r th e p a s t
d e c ad e s 1 5 a n d th is in cre a s in g tre n d , m ak e s Ira n a s a m ajo r fo s s il fu e l imp o rter in th e fu tu re .
Th e in creas in g d e man d o f en erg y is m ain ly d u e to in o rd in ate co n s u mp tio n o f g as o lin e an d d ies el
fu els in th e tran s p o rt secto r th a t fo rces Iran to imp o rt mo re fu els in th e fu tu re. A cco rd in g to th e
IE A (I n te rn a tio n a l E n e r g y A g e n c y ) s ta tis tic s , Ir an s d ie s e l fu e l a n d g a s o lin e c o n s u m p tio n in th e
tr a n s p o r t s e c to r w a s 1 9 5 7 5 a n d 2 3 1 1 5 1 0 6 l, r e s p e c tiv e ly , in 2 0 0 9 .2 6 I r a n s tr a n s p o r t s e c to r
relies almo s t e x clu s iv ely o n p etro le u m a s a s o u rce o f en erg y d u e to th e h ig h lev e l o f d eman d fo r
g aso lin e an d d iesel fu el. Th e p ro b lem can b e so lv ed w ith s o me v is io n a ry p lan s ab o u t ren ew ab le
e n e r g y u s a g e a n d in v e s tm e n ts o n e n e r g y d e m a n d r e g u l a tio n in th e f u tu r e d e c a d e s .2 7
A g ric u ltu re is co n s id e re d to b e o n e o f th e m o s t im p o rta n t s ec to rs o f Ira n s e co n o m y . T h is
s ec to r is re s p o n s ib le fo r 1 4 % o f Ira n g ro s s d o m es tic p ro d u ct (G D P ) a n d n ea rly 2 3 m illio n
(3 5 % ) o f p o p u latio n is o c cu p ied in th is s e c to r. Ag ricu ltu re s ec to r p lay s a v ita l ro le in a c h ie v in g
s elf-ef c ie n cy in ma jo r fo o d c ro p s an d en s u rin g fo o d s e cu rity fo r th e c o u n try s in c re a s ed p o p u -
la tio n .2 8 A s e d ib le o il p ro d u c tio n in Iran is h ig h ly d ep e n d s o n fo re ig n ed ib le o il (a b o u t 7 0 % in
2 0 1 2 )2 9 th e p rima ry p o licy o f th e g o v e rn me n t in a g ric u ltu re s ec to r allo ca tes to in c re a s e th e
le v el o f n atio n a l e d ib le o il p ro d u c tio n in o rd e r to d e cre as e th e h ig h a mo u n t o f e d ib le o il im p o rt
in th e co u n try . A cc o rd in g to th is p o lic y , lo n g -te rm p lan s w a s c o n s id ere d in o rd e r to cu ltiv a te
ed ib le o il c ro p s th ro u g h o u t th e c o u n try s u c h as o liv e c u ltiv atio n (Tu b a p ro g ram ), s o y b e an c u lti-
v a tio n , c a n o la cu ltiv a tio n , s u n o w er c u ltiv atio n , etc . In 2 0 1 0 , ca n o la h arv e s ted a rea in Iran w as
ab o u t 1 8 5 0 0 0 h a a n d it is e s tim ate d th a t th e h a rv es te d are a w ill in cre a s e to 6 6 0 0 0 0 h a p ro d u c-
tio n in 2 0 1 4 .2 9 C o n s id erin g th e fa c t th a t Iran is o n e o f th e U N F CC C (U n ited Na tio n s
F ra m ew o rk Co n v e n tio n o n C lim ate C h a n g e) mem b ers a n d w ith re g ard to its c o mm itm e n t to
Ky o to trea ty (w h ic h is s ig n e d an d ra ti e d o n 2 2 /0 8 /0 5 ),3 0 Iran c o mm itte d (as a d e v elo p in g
co u n try ) to red u c e its G H G e mis s io n s . Ba s e d o n K y o to p ro to c o l, em is s io n re d u ctio n ac tiv ities
s h o u ld n o t e n d a n g e r th e f o o d s e c u r ity , s o c ia l a n d e c o n o m ic d e v e lo p m e n t.3 1 T h e r e f o r e , th e b e s t
p o licy co u ld b e th e o n e w h ich p ro te cts fo o d s e cu rity b e s id es red u c in g G H G e m is s io n s . In o th e r
wo rd s , w ith e x te n s iv e o ils e e d s c u ltiv atio n th ro u g h o u t th e c o u n try (in p o ten tial reg io n s ) b o th
fo o d s ec u rity p rev e n tio n (th ro u g h e d ib le o il s u p p ly ) a n d G H G em is s io n s re d u c tio n (th ro u g h b io -
d ie s el p ro d u c tio n fro m a p a rt o f e d ib le o il p ro d u c tio n ) a re a tta in a b le .
B io d ies e l c an b e p ro d u ce d d o me s tica lly fro m a g ric u ltu ra l o ils a n d fro m wa s te o ils . With its
ab ility to b e u s ed d ire ctly in e x is tin g d ies e l e n g in e s , b io d ies e l c a n o ffe r th e imm ed ia te p o te n tia l
to re d u c e Iran s d e ma n d fo r p e tro le u m in th e tran s p o rt s ec to r in th e n e x t d e ca d e s . R e g ard les s o f
th e fa c t th at b io fu e ls c a n re g u la te th e d e ma n d o f fo s s il fu e l in Ira n , th ere is n o d o u b t th a t b io -
fu e ls p ro d u ctio n n ee d s mo re c o mp le te an d c o n cre te re s ea rc h to in v es tig ate th e o th e r e c o n o m ic
is s u e s r e la te d to b io f u e ls s p e c ia lly b io d ie s e l f o r th e I r a n ia n s itu a tio n .1 5

II. M A T E R IA L S A N D M E T H O D S
A . S tu d y fr a m e w o rk
In th is s tu d y , th e p ro d u ctio n o f b io d ies el fro m rap e s ee d w a s a s s e s s e d in th ree m a in s ta g es
in c lu d in g a g ric u ltu ra l cro p p ro d u c tio n , tra n s p o rta tio n , a n d in d u s tria l c o n v e rs io n (o il p re s s in g
0 6 3 1 3 4 -4 R a j a e i f a r et al. J . R e n e w a b le S u s t a in a b le E n e r g y 5 , 0 6 3 1 3 4 ( 2 0 1 3 )

an d tra n s es te ri ca tio n ), th e n th e p o te n tia l fo r cu ltiv a tio n o f th is c ro p w a s in v e s tig a te d an d a

ma p o f reg io n s ca p ab le o f ra p es ee d c u ltiv a tio n in Iran w a s g e n e rate d . S in ce th e p ro d u c tio n o f
b io d ies e l fro m ra p e s ee d in Iran is u n d e r s tu d y b y th e ac a d e m ic re s ea rch c e n te rs an d h as n o t
v a s tly e s tab lis h e d in p rac tic e , w e in v e s tig a ted ra p es e e d p ro d u ctio n a n d its o il ex tra ctio n in th e
ma in p ro d u ctio n re g io n o f Ira n an d s tu d ie d its b io d ie s e l co n v e rs io n in th e re s ea rc h c e n te rs .
Go le s tan p ro v in ce is th e m ain ce n te r o f o ils ee d p ro d u ctio n w ith th e s h a re o f 6 0 % fro m to ta l o il-
s e e d p r o d u c tio n in I r a n .2 9 T h is p r o v in c e is lo c a te d w ith in 3 6 a n d 3 8 n o rth la titu d e a n d 5 3
an d 5 6 e as t lo n g itu d e , in th e n o rth -e as t o f Iran . Th e m a jo r o ils ee d c ro p s c u ltiv ate d in th is
p ro v in ce are rap e s ee d (c an o la c u ltiv ar), s o y b e an a n d s u n o w er. A b o u t 4 0 % fro m th e to ta l h a r-
v e s te d la n d a r e a a n d 3 9 % f r o m th e to ta l r a p e s e e d p r o d u c tio n in I r a n is f r o m th is p r o v in c e .3 2

B . M e th o d o lo g y
In o rd er to a s s e s s th e b io fu e ls a s a s u itab le re p la c em en t fo r p etro leu m th e F ER w as c alc u -
l a t e d a s t h e f o l l o w i n g : 1 6 ,3 3

R en e w ab le E n e rg y O u tp u t
FER ; (1 )
Fo ssil En erg y In p u t

wh e re F ER is d e n ed a s th e ra tio o f th e en e rg y o u tp u t o f th e n al b io fu el p ro d u c t to th e fo s s il
en e rg y c o n s u m ed to p ro d u c e th e b io fu e l. Th e F ER a s d e n e d a b o v e o n ly in c lu d e s fo s s il en e rg y
in th e d e n o m in a to r .3 3
In b io d ie s el p ro d u c tio n fro m ra p e s e e d , a ll th re e s ta g e s a re b a s e d o n th e c o n s u mp tio n o f
s p e c i c re s o u rce s , s o th e rs t s te p in th is an a ly s is w a s to c o n v ert a ll o f th e in p u ts a n d o u tp u ts
in to th e ir e n e rg y e q u iv a len ts b y m u ltip ly in g th e q u a n tity o f e ac h in p u t b y th eir c o rres p o n d in g
em b o d ie d en e rg y e q u iv a len t. B as ic in fo rm atio n o n fo s s il e n erg y in p u ts are en tere d in to Ex c e l
s p re a d s h e e ts , S P S S 1 9 s p rea d s h ee ts th e n u s e d an in p u t-o u tp u t an a ly s is fo r all s tag e s . T h e s e c -
o n d s te p in th is an a ly s is w as to d e term in e th e a mo u n t o f C O 2 em is s io n s in b io d ies e l p ro d u c tio n
fro m rap e s e ed th ro u g h its life c y c le a n d to s p ecify wh ic h s ta g e h a s th e m o s t in u en c e o n e n v i-
ro n m en t. T h e n a l s te p in th is a n a ly s is w a s to c o lle ct a n d a n a ly z e me teo ro lo g ic al a n d w a ter
s o u rc e a v ailab ility d ata fo r a ll o f th e 3 1 p ro v in ce s in Iran in o rd e r to g e n era te a ma p o f re g io n s
s u ita b le fo r ra p es e e d cu ltiv a tio n .

C . D a ta c o lle c tio n
1. Agricultural crop production
En e rg y in p u t-o u tp u t d a ta fo r ra p es ee d (ca n o la c u ltiv ar) p ro d u c tio n w a s ad o p ted fro m
Mo u s a v i-A v v a l e t a l. an d th e n th e a m o u n t o f fo s s il en e rg y in p u ts w a s e x trac ted in o rd er to
c a lc u la te th e f o s s il e n e r g y c o n s u m p tio n f o r th is s ta g e ( T a b le I ) .3 2

2. Transportation
In th is s tu d y , farm y a rd m an u re an d c h em ic al b io c id es (H e rb ic id e s , F u n g icid es , a n d
In s e c tic id e s ) tra n s p o rta tio n to fa rms an d rap es ee d tra n s p o rta tio n to o il e x tra ctio n ma n u fac tu res
we re co n s id ere d . S in c e rap e s ee d o il e x trac tio n m an u fa ctu res an d b io d ie s e l p ro d u c tio n c en ters
s h o u ld b e n ex t to ea c h o th e r, th e re is n o tran sp o rta tio n c o n s id e red fo r ra p e s e ed o il fro m o il
ex trac tio n ma n u fa ctu res to b io d ies e l p ro d u c tio n c e n te rs . It s h o u ld b e n o ted th at th e en e rg y u s e d
fo r th e tra n s p o rta tio n o f ch e mic al fertiliz e rs to farm s w a s n o t c alc u la ted s e p ara tely b ec a u s e it
w a s c o n s i d e r e d in th e e n e r g y e q u iv a le n ts u s e d f o r a g r ic u ltu r a l c r o p p r o d u c tio n s ta g e .3 4
T h e d a ta u s e d in th e tr a n s p o r ta tio n w a s c o lle c te d b a s e d o n d ie s e l f u e l c o n s u m p tio n in th r e e
d is ta n c e s . A v e rag e d is ta n c e s fro m fa rmy a rd ma n u re p ro d u c tio n ce n ters to fa rms , av e rag e d is ta n -
ce s fro m c h e mic a l b io c id e s d is trib u tio n c e n te rs to farm s , an d a v era g e d is ta n ce s fro m farm s to
ra p e s ee d o il ex trac tio n m an u fa ctu re s . F arm y a rd m an u re , c h e m ic a l b io cid e s , a n d ra p e s e ed a re o f-
te n tra n s p o rte d b y tru c k s . Th e en e rg y e q u iv a len t fo r th is ty p e o f tran s p o rta tio n s y s te m is a b o u t
3 M J to n 1 k m 1 .3 4
0 6 3 1 3 4 -5 R a j a e i f a r et al. J . R e n e w a b le S u s t a in a b le E n e r g y 5 , 0 6 3 1 3 4 ( 2 0 1 3 )

TA B L E I . En e rg y c o s t o f a g ric u ltu ra l c ro p p r o d u c tio n sta g e p e r h e c ta re .

En erg y En erg y Pe rc e n ta g e
In p u ts U n it Q u a n tity So u rce eq u iv alen t U n it So u rce co st (MJ) (%)a

D ie s e l l 1 0 1 .4 8 3 2 4 7 .8 M J l 1
3 4 an d 3 5 4 8 5 0 .6 5 2 6 .2 5
1
Ele c tric ity k W h 1 9 5 .0 2 3 2 1 1 .9 3 MJ k W h 3 2 2 3 2 6 .5 7 1 2 .6 0
1
N itro g e n fe rtiliz e r (N ) k g 1 1 1 .4 1 3 2 7 8 .1 MJ k g 3 4 8 7 0 1 .3 8 4 7 .0 1
1
Ph o s p h o ru s fe rtiliz e r ( P2 O5 ) k g 5 0 .6 5 3 2 1 7 .4 MJ k g 3 4 8 8 1 .3 0 4 .8 0
1
Po ta s s iu m fe rtiliz e r ( K 2 O ) k g 1 3 .3 9 3 2 1 3 .7 MJ k g 3 4 1 8 3 .5 1 0 .9 9
1
Su lfu r fe rtiliz e r (S) k g 1 1 .5 0 3 2 1 .1 2 MJ k g 3 6 an d 3 7 1 2 .8 8 0 .0 6
1
H er b ic id e s k g 1 .2 8 3 2 2 3 8 MJ k g 3 8 3 0 3 .5 5 1 .6 4
1
Fu n g ic id e s k g 0 .8 8 3 2 2 1 6 MJ k g 3 8 an d 3 9 1 9 0 .4 1 1 .0 3
1
In s e c tic id e s k g 0 .4 3 3 2 1 0 1 .2 MJ k g 3 8 an d 3 9 4 3 .5 9 0 .2 6
1
Tra c to r h 3 .6 2 3 2 9 3 .6 1 MJ h 3 2 3 3 8 .9 4 1 .8 6
1
S e lf - p r o p e lle d c o m b in e h 5 .3 9 3 2 8 7 .6 3 MJ h 3 2 4 7 2 .6 5 2 .5 6
1
A g ric u ltu ra l m a c h in e ry h 2 .7 7 3 2 6 2 .7 MJ h 3 2 1 7 3 .6 8 0 .9 4
To ta l 1 8 4 7 9 .1 1 1 0 0

a
Pe rc e n ta g e fro m to ta l fo ss il e n e rg y in p u t.

3. Industrial conversion
Th e m a in c u rre n tly u s e d o il e x tra ctio n m e th o d s a c ro s s th e w o rld are p re s s in g a n d ex trac tio n
b y o rg a n ic s o lv e n ts . Th e s e m eth o d s a re p e rfo rme d a t a h ig h er ran g e tem p era tu re
(1 1 0 C 1 2 0 C) in co m p aris o n to co ld p re s s in g me th o d s (at m a x im u m 6 0 C ) a n d p ro d u c e
h ig h er a mo u n t o f o il. H o w ev e r, c o ld p res s in g me th o d s a re u s e d d u e to th eir les s e n e rg y req u ire -
me n t a n d le s s p h o s p h o lip id s in th e n a l o il, w h ich is d es ira b le in th e p ro d u ctio n o f th e b io d ie -
s el.1 9 In o rd e r to es tima te o il p re s s in g en e rg y co n s u mp tio n , e lec tric ity co n s u m p tio n in o il p res s -
in g an d c ru d e o il p u ri c a tio n w e re c alc u la ted .
Th e c o n v ers io n o f v e g e tab le o ils o r a n im al fats to b io d ie s e l c an b e c a rrie d o u t b y th e te c h -
n o lo g ie s th at a re c las s i e d as fo llo w s : d ire c t u s e a n d b le n d in g , m ic ro em u ls io n , p y ro ly s is , a n d
tra n s es te ri c atio n . Tra n s e s te ri c atio n rea ctio n o f v e g eta b le o ils a n d an im al fats w ith a lco h o l in
th e p res e n c e o f c ata ly s t is th e m o s t co m mo n tech n o lo g y u s e d to p ro d u ce m eth y l o r eth y l e s ter
n a m ed a s b io d ie s el.4 0 4 2 T h e fo u r ma jo r u s e d meth o d s o f th is rea c tio n a re c o n v en tio n a l (ca ta-
ly tic), s u p erc ritic al p ro c es s es , m icro w a v e , a n d u ltras o u n d s y s te ms .4 3 4 5 Ca taly s ts c a n b e c las s i-
ed a s a lk a li, a cid , an d e n z y m e.4 6 4 8 T ran s e s te ri c a tio n u s in g a lk a li c ata ly s t o r a lk a li-c a ta ly ze d
tra n s es te ri c atio n h a s b e en v as tly u s e d d u e to its fas te r re ac tio n tim e a n d its lo w e r c o s t. It is
re p o rte d th a t th e free fatty ac id c o n te n t in th e v e g e tab le o il s h o u ld b e les s th a n 1 % fo r a lk a li-
c a t a l y z e d t r a n s e s t e r i c a t i o n t o o c c u r .4 3 ,4 9 ,5 0
In th is s tu d y , tran s e s ter i c a tio n u s in g c o n v en tio n a l me th o d w ith re s p e ct to a lk ali-ca ta ly z e d
re a ctio n u s in g K O H a s c ata ly s t a n d me th a n o l as alc o h o l w a s co n s id ere d in o rd e r to c h a ra c terize
th e c o n v e rs io n p ro ce s s . F ig . 1 s h o w s th e s tep s o f a c o n v en tio n a l (a lk a li-c a ta ly z e d ) tra n s e s te ri -
ca tio n in a o w ch a rt.
A s s h o w n in F ig . 1 , m e th a n o l a n d p o tas s iu m h y d ro x id e a re m ix ed b e fo re th e re ac tio n , th en
th e mix tu re an d rap e s e e d o il a re p u m p e d in to a rea c to r in o rd e r to o b s e rv e tra n s es te ri c atio n
re a ctio n . A fter th e re ac tio n , th e mix tu re p ro d u cts are s en t to a d is tilla tio n c o lu m n in o rd er to
re c o v e r me th a n o l a n d re s to re it to th e re ac to r a g ain , th en b io d ies e l mix tu re a n d g ly ce rin m ix tu re
are s ep a rate d in th e s ep a ratio n p h a s e b y w ate r wa s h in g . F in a lly , b io d ies e l mix tu re is re n ed in
o rd e r to s e p ara te m eth a n o l a n d m e th y l es te r.

4. CO2 emission
G H G s a re th o s e th at a b s o rb in frare d ra d iatio n in th e a tmo s p h ere , trap h ea t a n d w a rm th e
s u rfa c e o f th e E arth . T h e th re e m ain G H G s are c arb o n d io x id e (CO 2 ), m eth a n e (CH 4 ), a n d
0 6 3 1 3 4 -6 R a j a e i f a r et al. J . R e n e w a b le S u s t a in a b le E n e r g y 5 , 0 6 3 1 3 4 ( 2 0 1 3 )

F IG . 1 . C o n v e n tio n a l ( alk ali-c a taly z e d ) tr a n s e s te ri c a tio n .

n itro u s o x id e (N 2 O ). O th er imp o rtan t G H G s a re w a te r v ap o r a n d m a n y h a lo c arb o n co m p o u n d s

an d th e ir em is s io n s are n o t m ain ly c o n s id e red .5 1 P ro d u c tio n o f th e s e g a s es a s a re s u lt o f h u m a n
ac tiv itie s in c re as e s th e n a tu ra l g re e n h o u s e e ffec t an d le ad to g lo b a l w a rmin g a n d o th er en v iro n -
me n ta l p o llu tio n .
In th is stu d y , th e amo u n t o f GHG emissio n s in each s ta g e o f b io d ies e l p ro d u c tio n c y c le
fro m rap eseed was calcu lated b ased o n Eq . (2 ) (Ref. 5 2 ) b y u sin g CO 2 emissio n co efcien ts,
X
E A iC i ; (2 )

w h e r e E i s th e t o t a l C O 2 e m i s s i o n s w h i c h i s c a lc u l a te d a s t h e s u m o f i n p u t f a c t o r s ( A i) p e r h e c -
ta r e m u lt i p li e d b y t h e i r c o r r e s p o n d i n g C O 2 e m i s s i o n c o n v e r s i o n c o e f c i e n t s ( C i) ( w h i c h a r e
s h o w n in T a b le II).

5. Map generation
Iran w ith a b o u t 1 6 4 8 0 0 0 k m 2 w id th a n d 3 1 p ro v in ce s is th e e ig h te en th la rg e s t c o u n try in
th e w o rld . It is lo c a te d in th e M id d le Ea s t b e tw e e n T u rk e y an d Ira q o n th e w e s t a n d
Afg h a n is ta n a n d P a k is ta n o n th e e as t. Ira n lie s b e tw e e n latitu d e s 2 4 a n d 4 0 N a n d lo n g itu d es
4 4 a n d 6 4 E an d h a s a v aria b le c lim ate , mo s tly arid a n d s e m i-arid w ith th e av e rag e te mp e ra-
tu re b e tw e e n 1 0 C 2 5 C in th e w in te r a n d 1 9 C 3 8 C in th e s u m me r.1 4 R o u g h ly o n e -th ird o f
Ira n s to ta l s u rfac e a rea is s u ited fo r fa rmla n d . In 2 0 1 0 , ra p es e e d (c an o la cu ltiv a r) h a rv e s ted
are a in Ira n w as ab o u t 1 8 5 0 0 0 h a w ith p ro d u ctio n o f 3 8 0 0 0 0 to n s 5 6 an d it is es tima ted th a t
th e h a r v e s te d a r e a w ill in c r e a s e to 6 6 0 0 0 0 h a w ith 1 5 8 1 0 0 0 to n s p r o d u c tio n in 2 0 1 4 ,2 9 s o
with a c o m p r eh e n s iv e a s s es s m e n t o f e co lo g ic a l in d ic e s a n d w a ter a v a ilab ility d a ta , we ca n s p e c -
ify th e reg io n s th a t are s u ita b le to c u ltiv a te th is c ro p .
In o rd e r to s p ec ify th e re g io n s th at h a v e th e p o ten tial fo r ra p e s e e d cu ltiv a tio n , m ete o ro lo g i-
ca l (an n u al p re cip ita tio n , h u mid ity , min imu m tem p era tu re , ma x im u m te m p e ra tu re , s u n s h in e
h o u rs ), a n d w ate r s o u rce a v aila b ility d a ta fo r a ll th e 3 1 p ro v in ce s w e re c o lle c te d fro m y e a r
2 0 0 0 2 0 0 5 ,5 7 th e n a ll o f th e m w e re a n a ly z e d w ith c o n s id e rin g e c o lo g ic a l in d ic e s to g e n e r a te a
map o f p o ten tial reg io n s.
0 6 3 1 3 4 -7 R a j a e i f a r et al. J . R e n e w a b le S u s t a in a b le E n e r g y 5 , 0 6 3 1 3 4 ( 2 0 1 3 )

TA B L E I I. G H G e m is s io n c o e f c ie n t o f in p u ts .

In p u ts U n it GH G c o e ffic ie n t (k g C O 2 e q u n it 1 ) Referen ce

Ma c h in e ry MJ 0 .0 7 1 5 3
D ie s e l fu e l l 2 .7 6 5 3
Ele c tric ity k W h 0 .7 8 5 4
C h e m ic a l fe rtiliz e rs
N itro g e n (N ) k g 1 .3 5 5
Ph o sp h o ru s (P2O5) k g 0 .2 5 5
Po ta s s iu m (K 2 O ) k g 0 .2 5 5
B io c id e 5 5
H er b ic id e k g 6 .3 5 5
Fu n g ic id e k g 3 .9 5 5
In s e c tic id e k g 5 .1 5 5
Me th a n o l Kg 0 .7 9 2 2
KOH k g 1 .2 0 2 2

III. R E S U L T S A N D D IS C U S S IO N
A . A g r ic u lt u r a l c r o p p r o d u c t io n d a t a a n a ly s is
Ta b le I s h o w s th e fo s s il in p u ts co n s u mp tio n a n d th e ir en e rg y c o s t in ra p e s ee d p ro d u ctio n
in Ira n . T h e to tal fo s s il e n e rg y c o n s u m p tio n fo r th is s ta g e w as 1 8 4 7 9 .1 1 M J h a 1 w h ile th is
q u a n tity is h ig h e r th an th a t o f M o u s a v i-A v v a l e t a l.3 2 re p o rted , d u e to h ig h e r e n erg y eq u iv ale n ts
co n s id ere d in th is s tu d y fo r th e ch e mic al fe rtilize rs . R e s u lts o f th is s ta g e re v ea led th at th e m a -
c h in e r y u s e d h o u r s w a s 1 1 .8 7 h h a 1 , m o s tly u s e d fo r h a r v e s tin g a n d tilla g e o p e r a tio n s .3 2 T h e
av e rag e d ies e l fu e l co n s u m p tio n fo r ag ricu ltu ra l o p e ra tio n s s u ch a s o p e ra tin g trac to rs , c o mb in e
h a r v e s te r s , a n d w a te r p u m p in g s y s te m s w a s 1 0 1 .4 8 l h a 1 .3 2 A g ric u ltu r a l c r o p p r o d u c tio n d a ta
an a ly s is re v ea led th at n itro g e n fe rtilize r h as th e g re ate s t s h are o f th e to tal ag ric u ltu ral fo s s il
e n e r g y in p u t w ith th e s h a r e o f 4 7 .0 1 % , d u e to its h e a v y u s a g e in f a r m s a n d h ig h e m b o d ie d
en e rg y in te n s itie s . S imilar res u lts w e re re p o rte d b y R a th k e e t a l.5 8 a n d Ts o u ts o s e t a l.59 A p a rt
fro m th e n itro g en fe rtiliz er en e rg y , th e s e co n d la rg e s t fo s s il en e rg y in p u t fo r a g ric u ltu ra l c ro p
p ro d u c tio n s ta g e w a s d ies el fu el c o n s u m p tio n with th e s h a re o f 2 6 .2 5 %.

B . T r a n s p o r ta tio n d a ta a n a ly s is
A s m e n tio n e d a b o v e , tra n s p o rta tio n o f fa rmy a rd ma n u re, c h e mic a l b io c id es , a n d ra p e s e ed
wa s ca lcu la te d in th is s tu d y . In th e s tu d ie d a rea , th e a v era g e d is ta n ce s b e tw ee n fa rm y a rd m a -
n u re ce n te rs an d farm s w a s 2 0 k m , b e tw ee n c h em ic a l b io c id e s d is trib u tio n c en te rs an d fa rms
wa s 5 0 k m a n d b e tw ee n farm s to th e o il e x tra ctio n m an u fa ctu re s w a s 1 0 0 k m . A cc o rd in g ly , fo s -
s il en e rg y co n s u mp tio n (th a t w a s o n ly d ies e l fu e l) fo r th is s ta g e w a s ca lcu la te d a s 7 4 3 .0 1 M J
h a 1 . Th e c o n trib u tio n o f farm y ard ma n u re, ch e mic al b io cid es , an d rap e s e ed tra n s p o rta tio n
fro m to ta l fo s s il en e rg y c o n s u m p tio n w e re 9 7 .4 3 M J h a 1 , 1 M J h a 1 , a n d 6 4 5 .5 8 M J h a 1 ,
resp ectiv ely .

C . In d u s tr ia l c o n v e r s io n d a ta a n a ly s is
En e rg y co n s u mp tio n o f o il p re s s in g v ia co ld p re s s in g m eth o d w as in v e s tig a te d d u e to its
wid e s p rea d a p p lic atio n in Iran . T a b le III s h o w s th e in p u ts c o n s u mp tio n an d th e ir en e rg y c o s t o f
in d u s tria l co n v e rs io n s tag e (o il p res s in g a n d tran s e s teri c atio n ) p er h e cta re ra p es e e d y ie ld .
A cc o rd in g to th e res u lts o f th is s tag e , th e to ta l fo s s il en e rg y co n s u m p tio n fo r th is s tag e w as
8 9 0 0 .0 4 M J h a 1 . A ls o to p r o d u c e 1 k g r a p e s e e d o il f o r b io d ie s e l p r o d u c tio n , 2 .6 M J o f e le c tr i-
c a l e n e r g y in o il p r e s s in g a n d 0 .1 4 M J in p u r i c a tio n w e r e u s e d . T h e s e e le c tr ic a l e n e r g y v a lu e s
are h ig h e r th an th a t o f re p o rte d b y J a n u lis 1 9 an d S h e eh an e t a l.1 6 d u e to th is fac t th a t a lmo s t a ll
0 6 3 1 3 4 -8 R a j a e i f a r et al. J . R e n e w a b le S u s t a in a b le E n e r g y 5 , 0 6 3 1 3 4 ( 2 0 1 3 )

TA B L E I II. En e rg y c o s t o f in d u s tria l c o n v e rs io n s ta g e p e r h ecta re ra p es e e d y ie ld .

In p u ts Un it Qu a n tity En e rg y in te n sity Un it So u rce En erg y co st (MJ)

1
O il p re s s in g e le c tric ity k W h 1 8 5 .6 1 1 .9 3 MJ k W h 3 4 an d 3 6 2 2 1 4 .2 1
1
C ru d e o il p u ric a tio n e le c tric ity k W h 9 .9 5 1 1 .9 3 MJ k W h 3 4 an d 3 6 1 1 8 .7 0
Tra n s e ste ric a tio n k W h
1
Ele c tric ity k W h 1 2 .5 3 1 1 .9 3 MJ k W h 3 4 an d 3 6 1 4 9 .4 8
1 1
Ma c h in e ry h 8 .6 8 8 MJ k g a 3 4 5 0 1 .3 3
1
A lc o h o l ( m e th a n o l) k g 1 6 7 .1 8 3 3 .6 7 MJ k g 6 0 5 6 2 8 .9 7
1
C a ta ly s t (K O H ) k g 1 4 .4 6 1 9 .8 7 MJ k g 1 6 2 8 7 .3 5
To ta l 8 9 0 0 .0 4

o f th e ele ctrica l e n erg y in Ira n is g e n e rate d fro m fo s s il fu el s o u rce s .6 1 Ira n s ele ctricity g rid is
h ig h ly d ep e n d en t o n fo s s il fu e ls , s o th at 9 5 % o f th e e lec tric a l e n erg y in Ira n is g e n e ra ted in
th e rma l p o w e r p lan ts u s in g fo s s il fu e ls s o u rce s. A ls o , ro u g h ly 1 0 % o f ele ctricity g e n e ra ted in
p o w e r p la n ts is w a s te d b y tr a n s m is s io n lin e s .2 7
I t is e s tim a te d th a t 8 4 3 .5 6 k g o f b io d ie s e l c a n b e p r o d u c e d f r o m 1 h a o f r a p e s e e d p r o d u c -
tio n in Iran , w ith c o n s id e rin g 2 1 5 1 .9 4 k g h a 1 ra p es ee d y ie ld 3 2 in Ira n ia n s farm , o il c o n ten t as
4 0 % ( R e f . 1 5 ) a n d c o n v e r s io n r a tio o f b io d ie s e l to r a p e s e e d o il a s 0 .9 8 . M o r e o v e r , 1 6 7 .1 8 k g
me th a n o l is re q u ire d fo r th e tra n s es te ri c a tio n re a ctio n , s o 0 .1 9 8 k g o f me th a n o l w a s u s e d fo r
1 k g b io d ie s e l p r o d u c e d . M e th a n o l c o n s u m p tio n w ith s h a r e o f 6 3 .3 % o f to ta l f o s s il e n e r g y in p u t
h a d th e h ig h e s t s h a r e in in d u s tr ia l c o n v e r s io n s ta g e f o llo w e d b y e le c tr ic it y w ith 2 7 .9 % s h a r e .
Th e (A ) h ig h a mo u n t o f m e th a n o l w a s c o n s u med in o rd e r to s h ift th e tran s e s ter i c a tio n e q u ilib -
riu m to th e p ro d u c ts s id e (b io d ies e l/g ly c ero l). Als o a la rg e a mo u n t o f ele ctrica l en e rg y w a s c o n -
s u m e d b y o il p re s s in g a n d tra n s es te ri ca tio n e q u ip m en t.
F ig . 2 s h o w s th e in te g ra ted en e rg y in p u ts an d o u tp u t o w s fo r b io d ies e l p ro d u c tio n fro m 1
h a o f r a p e s e e d c o n s is tin g o f a ll th e m a in f o s s il in p u ts th a t c a n b e u s e d in th e a c c o u n te d lif e
cy c le o f rap e s ee d -b as e d b io d ie s e l in Iran .
A cc o rd in g to F ig . 3 , a g ric u ltu ral c ro p p ro d u ctio n s ta g e w ith th e s h a re o f 6 5 .7 1 % o f to ta l
fo s s il e n erg y in p u t h a d th e h ig h es t s h are a mo n g th ree d iffe re n t s ta g es in th e e n erg y c o s t o f b io -
d ie s el p ro d u c tio n fro m ra p e s ee d , fo llo w ed b y in d u s tria l c o n v e rs io n s ta g e b y 3 3 .2 %. T h e lo w e s t
s h a re b e lo n g e d to tran s p o rtatio n s ta g e b y 2 .6 4 %. T h e to tal fo s s il e n e rg y in p u t c o s t w a s c alc u -
la te d a s 2 8 1 2 2 .1 6 M J h a 1 a n d th e r e n e w a b le e n e r g y o u tp u t c o n te n t ( b io d ie s e l a s th e n a l

FI G. 2 . T h e in te g ra te d e n e rg y in p u t an d o u tp u t o w s fo r b io d ie s e l p ro d u c tio n fro m 1 h a o f ra p e se e d .
0 6 3 1 3 4 -9 R a j a e i f a r et al. J . R e n e w a b le S u s t a in a b le E n e r g y 5 , 0 6 3 1 3 4 ( 2 0 1 3 )

F I G . 3 . E n e r g y c o s t c o n tr ib u tio n s f o r b io d ie s e l p r o d u c tio n .

o u tc o m e ) w a s e s tim a te d as 3 1 8 0 2 .0 6 M J h a 1 . S o th e F E R w a s ca lcu la ted a s 1 .1 3 th at is c lo s e

to th e r e s u lts o f J a n u lis .1 9 A ls o th e n e t e n e r g y r e tu r n ( N E R ) w a s p o s itiv e ( 3 6 7 9 .9 M J h a 1 ) .
Bo th F E R a n d N ER s h o w th a t ra p es ee d c o u ld b e a s u itab le e n erg y c ro p fo r b io d ie s e l
p ro d u c tio n .

D . C O 2 e m is s io n a n a ly s is
Th e res u lts o f GH G em is s io n s (th e a m o u n ts o f C O 2 e q ) fo r in p u ts in th e th re e m a in s ta g e s
are s h o wn in Ta b le IV . D ie s el fu e l h a d th e h ig h e s t e m is s io n in th e ag ricu ltu ra l c ro p p ro d u ctio n
s ta g e a n d th e tr a n s p o r t s ta g e w ith th e s h a r e o f 4 1 .6 % a n d 1 0 0 % , r e s p e c tiv e ly . E le c tr ic ity h a d
th e h ig h e s t e mis s io n in th e in d u s trial c o n v ers io n s ta g e w ith th e s h a re o f 4 6 .7 % a n d fo llo w e d b y
me th a n o l w ith 3 8 % . U s in g h ig h am o u n t o f d ie sel fu e l in th e ag ricu ltu ra l cro p p ro d u ctio n s ta g e
p r o d u c e d 2 8 0 .0 8 k g C O 2 e q h a 1 th a t w a s h ig h e r th a n s im ila r r e s e a r c h s tu d ie s o n v a r io u s c r o p

TA B L E I V . G re e n h o u s e g a s e m is s io n o f in p u ts in b io d ie se l p r o d u c tio n fro m ra p e se e d p e r h ec ta re in th e th re e m a in s ta g e s .

1
GHG emissio n (k g CO 2 eq h a )

A g r ic u ltu ra l c ro p T ra n sp o rta tio n In d u s trial

In p u ts p ro d u c tio n s tag e (%) stag e (%) c o n v e rs io n sta g e (%)

Ma c h in e ry 6 9 .9 5 1 0 .4 3 5 .5 9 1 0 .3
a
D ie s e l fu e l 2 8 0 .0 8 4 1 .6 3 4 .2 0 1 0 0
Ele c tric ity 1 5 2 .1 2 2 2 .6 1 6 2 .3 0 4 6 .7
C h e m ic a l fe rtiliz e rs
N itro g e n (N ) 1 4 4 .8 3 2 1 .5
Ph o sp h o ru s (P2O5) 1 0 .1 3 1 .5
Po ta s s iu m (K 2 O ) 2 .6 8 0 .4
B io c id e
H er b ic id e 8 .0 6 1 .2
Fu n g ic id e 3 .4 3 0 .5
In s e c tic id e 2 .1 9 0 .3
Me th a n o l 1 3 2 .0 7 3 8
KOH 1 7 .3 5 5
To ta l 6 7 3 .4 7 1 0 0 3 4 .2 0 1 0 0 3 4 7 .3 1 1 0 0

a 1 1
D ie s e l c o n su m p tio n in te n s ity fo r h ig h w a y ca lc u la te d a s 0 .0 5 l to n k m (Ref. 6 4 ).
0 6 3 1 3 4 -1 0 R a j a e i f a r et al. J . R e n e w a b le S u s t a in a b le E n e r g y 5 , 0 6 3 1 3 4 ( 2 0 1 3 )

1
F IG . 4 . Th e to ta l G H G (k g C O2 e q h a ) in th e th re e m a in s ta g e s o f b io d ie s e l p ro d u c tio n .

p r o d u c t i o n s .6 2 ,6 3 T h i s h i g h a m o u n t o f e m i s s i o n i s d u e t o u s i n g w o r n - o u t t r a c t o r s i n f a r m o p e r a -
tio n s a n d im p ro p e r ma tch in g o f ag ric u ltu ral ma ch in e ry a n d e q u ip me n t to tra cto rs . A p p ly in g
n e w an d p ro p er tra c to rs in fa rm s an d p ro p e r m atc h in g th e a g ricu ltu ra l m a ch in e ry a n d eq u ip me n t
to tra c to rs c an b e co n s id e re d as th e b en e c ial wa y s o f d e cre as in g th e am o u n t o f d ies e l fu e l c o n -
s u m p tio n a n d its en v iro n m e n ta l im p a cts .
T h e h ig h a m o u n t o f e le c tr ic ity u s e d in th e in d u s tria l c o n v e r s io n s ta g e p r o d u c e d 1 6 2 .3 0 k g
C O 2 e q h a 1 th a t w a s a ls o h ig h e r th a n s im ila r re s e a r c h s tu d ie s o n b io d ie s e l f r o m p a lm o il.2 0 2 5
Th e ma in re as o n o f th is h ig h am o u n t o f e m is s io n is d u e to th e h ig h er e lec tric al C O2 em is s io n
co e f cie n t u s ed fo r th is s tu d y in Ira n th a n o th er res e a rch s tu d ie s .2 0 2 5 Th e s ec o n d rea s o n is th a t
all o f th e eq u ip me n t in th e c o ld p re s s in g o il ex tra ctio n lin e s h as w o rk e d b y e lec tric al en e rg y
in s te ad o f n a tu ral g a s . U s in g ex trac tio n me th o d b y o rg a n ic s o lv e n ts an d u tiliz e th e e q u ip m e n t
th a t w o rk b y n a tu ra l g as a n d ele ctric ity c a n b e c o n s id e re d in o rd er to red u c e th e a mo u n t o f
ele ctrica l em is s io n s .
F ig . 4 s h o w s th e to ta l G H G (k g C O 2 eq h a 1 ) in th e th ree m ain s ta g es o f b io d ie s e l p ro d u c-
tio n f r o m r a p e s e e d in I r a n . T h e to ta l G H G e m is s io n s w e r e c a lc u la te d a s 1 0 5 4 .9 8 k g C O 2 e q
h a 1 th at w a s lo w er th a n th e me n tio n e d res ea rch s tu d ies .2 0 2 5 A g ric u ltu ral cro p p ro d u c tio n
s ta g e w ith 6 7 3 .4 7 k g C O 2 e q h a 1 h a d th e m o s t s h a r e in th e G H G e m is s io n s w ith th e s h a r e o f
(6 3 .8 4 % ) fo llo w e d b y in d u s tria l c o n v e rs io n s tag e w ith 3 4 7 .3 1 k g C O 2 e q h a 1 an d th e s h a re o f
(3 2 .9 2 % ). A s th e res u lts s h o w ed , th e A g ric u ltu ra l cro p p ro d u ctio n s ta g e ra n k s th e rs t in G H G
em is s io n s (C O 2 e q h a 1 y r 1 ), w h ich is ex p e cte d b a s ed o n th e o th er s im ila r re s e arc h s tu d ies
s u c h a s p a lm o il b io d ies e l in Ma lay s ia , p alm o il-d e riv ed m e th y l es te r in B raz il a n d C o lo m b ia ,
p a lm o il b io d ie s e l in Th a ila n d .2 0 2 5

E . M a p g e n e r a tio n
M ete o ro lo g ic a l a n d wa ter s o u rc e a v ailab ility d a ta in v e s tig a tio n s s h o w e d th a t 2 4 p ro v in c es
am o n g 3 1 p ro v in ce s in Ira n h a v e a g rea t p o ten tia l fo r ra p e s e ed c u ltiv a tio n . A m o n g th e s e 2 4
p r o v i n c e s , 8 p r o v i n c e s p r o d u c e 7 9 % o f t o t a l r a p e s e e d y i e l d , n o w . 1 5 ,2 9 T h e s e p r o v i n c e s a r e
Go le s tan , M az a n d a ran , a n d A rd e b il in th e n o rth latitu d e ; H a me d an , M ark a z i, an d L o res ta n in
th e c en te r a n d w e s t; F a rs a n d K h u ze s ta n in th e s o u th an d s o u th w e s t. Th e M ete o ro lo g ic a l a n d
wa te r s o u rc e a v ailab ility d a ta an a ly s is s h o w ed th at g ro w th in ra p es e e d cu ltiv a tio n fo r b io d ie s e l
p ro d u c tio n in te rm s o f s u s ta in a b le d e v elo p me n t ca n o cc u r th ro u g h a n in cre as e in a re a c u ltiv a-
tio n in th es e 8 p ro v in ce s an d th e o th er p ro v in ces th a t ra p es e e d p r o d u c tio n is n o t co m mo n b u t
h a v e a g rea t p o ten tial to c u ltiv ate . A ls o it is re co mm en d e d to c h an g e th e o ld irrig a tio n me th o d s
u s e d in th es e a re a s in o rd e r to p ro te c t w a te r res o u rc e s . F ig . 5 s h o w s th e ma p o f th e p ro v in c es
s u ita b le fo r ra p es e e d cu ltiv a tio n .
0 6 3 1 3 4 -1 1 R a j a e i f a r et al. J . R e n e w a b le S u s t a in a b le E n e r g y 5 , 0 6 3 1 3 4 ( 2 0 1 3 )

F IG . 5 . M a p o f th e (p ro v in c e s s u ita b le) fo r ra p e s e e d c u ltiv a tio n a c ro s s Ira n .

IV . C O N C L U S IO N S
In th is s tu d y in o rd e r to c alc u la te th e e n e rg y c o s t o f b io d ie s e l p ro d u ctio n a n d its C O 2 e m is -
s io n s fro m rap e s e e d in I r a n , th r e e m a in s ta g e s in c lu d in g a g r ic u ltu r a l c r o p p r o d u c tio n , tr a n s p o r -
ta tio n , an d in d u s trial c o n v e rs io n (o il p re s s in g a n d tran s e s ter i c a tio n ) w ere a s s es s e d in term s o f
life c y cle p ro c e s s o f b io d ies e l p ro d u c tio n an d th e fo llo w in g re s u lts a re d ra w n :

1 . T h e to ta l f o s s il e n e r g y c o n s u m p tio n w a s a b o u t 2 8 1 2 2 .1 6 M J h a 1 . A g r ic u ltu ra l c r o p p r o d u c -
tio n s ta g e h ad th e g rea tes t a mo u n t o f to ta l e n e rg y co s t w ith th e s h a re o f 6 5 .7 1 % a mo n g th re e
d iffe re n t s tag e s an d th e in d u s trial co n v ers io n s ta g e h as th e s e c o n d p la c e w ith th e s h a re o f
3 3 .2 % .
2 . In th e ag ricu ltu ral c ro p p r o d u c tio n s tag e , th e amo u n t o f n itro g en fe rtiliz er e n e rg y c o n s u mp tio n
w a s th e h ig h e s t. T h e s e co n d la rg e s t fo s s il en e rg y in p u t fo r th is s ta g e w a s d ie s e l fu el.
T ra n s p o rta tio n s ta g e o n ly co n s u m ed d ie s el fu e l an d th e h ig h e s t fu e l c o n s u m p tio n in th is s ta g e
b e lo n g e d to ra p es e e d tra n s p o rtatio n . F o r th e in d u s trial c o n v ers io n s ta g e, m e th a n o l an d ele ctric-
ity c o n s u m p tio n h ad th e h ig h es t s h are s fro m th e to ta l e n e rg y c o s t.
3 . T h e re n ew a b le e n erg y (b io d ie s el) o u tp u t w a s e s tim ate d as 3 1 8 0 2 .0 6 M J h a 1 . N ER a n d F E R
w e r e c a lc u la te d a s 3 6 7 9 .9 M J h a 1 a n d 1 .1 3 , r e s p e c tiv e ly . T h e s e v a lu e s f o r b io d ie s e l p r o d u c -
tio n fro m ra p e s ee d in Ira n w ere s a tis fa c to ry b u t w e re lo w er th a n th a t o f e s tima te d in e co n o m i-
c a lly d e v e lo p e d c o u n trie s d u e to th e lo we r rap e s ee d y ie ld p e r h ec tare in Iran ian s farm .
4 . CO 2 e m is s io n a n a ly s is s h o w e d th a t th e to tal GH G em is s io n o v er b io d ie s e l p ro d u ctio n life c y c le
w a s 1 0 5 4 .9 8 k g C O 2 e q h a 1 a n d th e a g r ic u ltu r a l c r o p p r o d u c tio n s ta g e r a n k s th e r s t in G H G
e m is s io n as ex p e cte d . D ie s el fu el h a d th e h ig h e s t e mis s io n in th e ag ric u ltu ral c ro p p ro d u ctio n
s ta g e a n d th e tran s p o rt s ta g e a n d e le c tric ity h ad th e h ig h e s t e m is s io n in th e in d u s trial co n v e r-
s io n s ta g e.
5 . S tu d ies o n m e te o ro lo g ic al a n d w a te r s o u rc e a v a ila b ility d a ta in Ira n p ro v in c e s s h o w e d th a t
ra p e s ee d h a s a g re a t p o te n tia l to b e cu ltiv a ted in Iran an d it ca n b e c u ltiv a te d in 2 4 p ro v in c es
amo n g 3 1 p ro v in ces.
0 6 3 1 3 4 -1 2 R a j a e i f a r et al. J . R e n e w a b le S u s t a in a b le E n e r g y 5 , 0 6 3 1 3 4 ( 2 0 1 3 )

6 . In o rd er to estab lish en erg y c ro p s cu ltiv a tio n s u ch a s rap e s e ed , in c re ase th e F ER an d d ecrease

th e d ifferen ce b etween en erg y b a la n c e o f rap es e e d -b a s ed b io d ie s e l in I ran a n d e c o n o m ic a lly
d e v e lo p e d co u n trie s , w id e s p r ead an d co mp reh en siv e p o licy -mak in g su c h as g iv in g s u b s id ie s ,
p ric e g u a ra n te ed , lo w e r ta x e s , o r e x e mp tio n s s h o u ld b e co n s id ere d b y th e Ira n ia n g o v e rn m e n t
in te rms o f s u s ta in a b le d ev e lo p m e n t o f re n e w ab le b io fu e ls .

1
A . H . G h o ra s h i a n d A . R ah im i, R e n e w a b le a n d n o n -re n e wa b le e n e rg y s ta tu s in Ira n : A rt o f k n o w -h o w a n d tec h n o lo g y -
g a p s , R e n e w a b le S u s ta in a b le E n e r g y R e v . 1 5 , 7 2 9 7 3 6 ( 2 0 1 1 ) .
2
G . N a ja , B . G h o b a d ia n , T. T a v a k o li, D . R . B u tts w o rth , T. Y u s a f, a n d M. Fa iz o lla h n e ja d , Pe rfo rm a n c e a n d e x h a u s t
e m is s io n s o f a g a s o lin e e n g in e w ith e th a n o l b le n d e d g a s o lin e f u e ls u s in g a r ti c ia l n e u r a l n e tw o r k , A p p l. E n e r g y 8 6 ,
6 3 0 6 3 9 (2 0 0 9 ).
3
B . G h o b ad ian , G . N a ja , H . R a h im i, a n d T. Y u s a f, F u tu re o f re n e w a b le e n e rg ies in Ir an , R e n e w a b le Su s ta in a b le
En erg y Rev . 1 3 , 6 8 9 6 9 5 (2 0 0 9 ).
4
A n o n y m o u s , U . S. En e rg y In f o rm a tio n A d m in is tra tio n , In tern a tio n a l En e rg y S ta tis tics , B io fu e ls Pro d u c tio n (2 0 1 2 ) a v a il-
a b le a t h ttp ://w w w .e ia .g o v /.
5
A n o n y m o u s , B P S ta tis tic a l R e v ie w o f W o r ld E n e r g y ( 2 0 1 2 ) a v a ila b le a t h ttp ://b p .c o m /s ta tis tic a lr e v ie w .
6
B . B a r n w a l a n d M . S h a r m a , P r o s p e c ts o f b io d ie s e l p r o d u c tio n f r o m v e g e ta b le o ils in I n d ia , R e n e w a b le S u s ta in a b le
En erg y Rev . 9 , 3 6 3 3 7 8 (2 0 0 5 ).
7
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3 9
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4 0
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4 3
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4 5
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5 2
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5 4
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5 7
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6 0
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