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Energy Methods: External Work Done
Energy Methods: External Work Done
(Chapter 14)
2. Conservation of Energy
3. Impact Loading
5. Castiglianos Theorem
axial load P. Let the deformation of end B be 1. When the bar is deformed by axial load,
it tends to store energy internally throughout its volume. The externally applied load P,
acting on the bar, does work on the bar dependent on the displacement 1 at its end B,
where the load is applied. Let this external work done by the load be designated as ue.
Applied force P
A
P
B
1
P End displacement
1
d
1
1
ue
0
Fd External work done
Since the force versus the end displacement relationship is linear, F at any displacement
can be represented by
1
1 1 k2 k21 P 1
ue 0
Fd
0
kd
2
2
2
, since P k 1 (A)
0
The external work done on the bar by P increases from zero to the maximum as the load P
increases from 0 to P (in a linear manner). Therefore the total work done can be
represented by the average magnitude of externally applied force (viz., P/2), multiplied
Let an additional load P be applied to the bar after the load P has caused an end
extension of 1 at B. Considering the deformation of the end B of the bar due to the
application of an additional load P at B, let the additional deformation of the bar be equal
to .
Applied force
Area = P1
A F I E
Area = P
L P
G H
J
P Area = P
B
1
P
O C End displacement
D
P 1
Area = P1
1
The total external work done u e ( P P )( 1 )
2
1 1 1 1
P 1 P P 1 P
2 2 2 2
Considering S OEF and OED, Area of Figure GHIF = Area of Figure CDJH
i.e., P 1 P
1 1 1
ue P 1 ( P P 1 ) P
2 2 2
1 1 1
P 1 ( P P ) P
2 2 2
1 1
P 1 P P
2 2
Additional work
done by P as the
bar deforms by
an additional
Hence when a bar (having a load P acting on it) is subjected to an additional load P, then
the work done by (the already acting) P due to the incremental deformation (caused by
3
Work done due to an end moment
M1
A
B
Let a moment M be applied to end B of the beam AB. Let the rotation at end B be 1 due
to M. Since M and gradually increase from zero to 1 (following earlier formulations for
Moment
M1 1
U e external work Md
0
1
M 1 1
2
1
________________________________________________________________________
T1
4
Torque
T1
1
ue
0
Td
1
T11
2
The internal strain energy stored in the material is dependent on the amount of stresses
z
z
Complementary
z strain energy
Stress
dz
dy dx
y Strain
dz
dx energy
z
dy Strain
x
w is the z
displacement P
Z
5
The internal strain energy Ui stored within the body is given by
1
z dxdy z d z
V
2
1
2 V
z z (dxdydz ) dw
z
dz
1
2 V
z z dv dw z dz
1 z2
2 V 2 E
dV since z z
E
H G
zydz
zy
E F
yz
zy
D C y
dz
dx
A dy B
x
zy dydx zy dz
1
U i du i
2
Average force on distance moved
top face, i.e.,
EFGH
[Force on other faces do not do any work since motion of face ABCD is zero]
6
1
2
xy zy dxdydz
1
xy zy dv
2v
1 xy xy
2
dv since xy
2v G G
M
M
x y
2
My
2 I
Ui dV dxdydz
v
2E V
2E
L
M2 I - can be constant or varying
0 2 EI 2 dx A y dA
2
L L
M 2I M 2 dx
0 2 EI 2 dx 0 2 EI
N 2
N
2
A
Ui dV dV
V
2E 2E
7
2 2 2
N dV N ( Adx ) N dx
2 2
V L L
2A E 2A E 2 AE
z
x
2
2 1 VQ
Ui V 2G dV V 2G It dAdx
V2
L
Q2
A t 2 dA dx
0 2GI 2
V2
L
A Q2
2
dA dx
0
2GA I A t 2
L
f sV 2 dx
0
2GA
, where f s form factor for shear.
[See pages 11 and 12 for additional details concerning the form factor fs]
L
T
8
2 1 T
Ui V 2G dV V 2G J dV
L
T2
2
dA dx
0 2GJ 2
L
T 2J T2
0 2GJ 2 dx 2GJ dx
yz
xz
yx
xy y 2
x
Fig. 14-5 1
strain energy in a body when it is subjected to a general state of stress, Figure shown
above. The strain energies associated with each of the normal and shear stress
components can be obtained from Eqs. I and II. Since energy is a scalar, the strain energy
1 1 1 1 1 1
U i x x y y z z xy xy yz yz xz xz (I)
V
2 2 2 2 2 2
The strains can be eliminated by using the generalized form of Hooks law given by
Equations given in Chapter 10. After substituting and combining terms, we have
9
Ui
1
x2 x2 z2 x y y z x z
1 2
xy yz2 xz2 dV
V
2E E 2G
(II)
where,
x
1
E
x y z
1
y y z x
E
z z x y
E
1
xy
xy
G
yz
yz
G
xz zx xz
G
E
G
2(1 )
If only the principal stresses 1 , 2 , 3 act on the element, as shown in the earlier figure,
Ui
1
12 22 32 1 2 2 3 1 3 dV (14 14)
V
2 E E
Recall that we used this equation in Sec. 10.7 as a basis for developing the maximum-
distortion-energy theory.
________________________________________________________________________
Internal strain energy stored in the structure due to the applied load =
10
_____________________________________________________________
1 V 2 ( x) Q 2 ( x, y )
L
Ur
2 0 G ( x ) I 2 ( x) A t 2 ( y )
dA dx (1)
To simplify this expression for Ur , let us define a new cross-sectional properties f s, called
A( x) Q 2 ( x, y )
I 2 ( x ) A t 2 ( y )
f s ( x) dA (2)
(The form factor is a dimensionless number that depends only on the shape of the cross
section, so it rarely actually varies with x). Combining Eqs. 1 and 2 we get the following
L
1 f sV 2 dx
Ur (3)
2 0 GA
The form factor for shear must be evaluated for each shape of cross section. For
example, for a rectangular cross section of width b and height h, the expression
2
b h 2
Q y
2 4
was obtained in example Problem 6.14 (Chapter 6). Therefore, from Eq. 2 we get
2
bh h/2 1 b h2 6
fs 2 h / 2 b 2 y 2 bdy
(4)
1
bh 3
2 4 5
12
11
The form factor for other cross-sectional shapes is determined in a similar manner.
Several of these are listed in Table A, given below. The approximation for an I-section or
box section is based on assuming that the shear force is uniformly distributed over the
Section fs
Rectangle 6/5
Circle 10/9
Thin tube 2
W
h
t
st
Plastic impact
max
12
Loaded member vibrates till equilibrium is established.
Assumptions:
1. At impact, all kinetic energy of striking mass is entirely transferred to the structure. It
1 1 W 2
U mvi2 v
2 2 g
This means that the striking mass should not bounce off the structure and retain
2. No energy is lost in the form of heat, sound or permanent deformation of the striking
mass.
m vi
vi = velocity of impact
2 2 2
V
x x x
U dV dV
i vol vol
2E 2E 2E
1 2
U mv
e 2 i
Equating Ui = Ue
13
2
1
Vol
1 2
x
mv ,
2 E 2 i
2 2
mv E mv E
i i
x
Vol AL
E
, E ,
x x x
L L
2 2
mv E mv L
L L
i i
x
E E AL EA
W (m = W/g)
h
Velocity = vi (just
before impact)
max max W
W
Static deflection of spring st
k
14
1 1 1
U e U i W (h ) Fe k k 2
2 2 2
1 2W 2Wh
i.e., k 2 W Wh 0 2 0
2 k k
i.e., 2 2 st 2h st 0
2h
st st2 2h st st 1 1 - -I
st
1 1W 2
Wh mvi2 vi
2 2 g
v i2
h (II)
2g
v2
st 1 1 i (III)
g st
Ue Ui
1
W (h ) Pimpact
2
15
P L3
impact
48 EI
48 EI
Pimpact
L3
1 48 EI
W (h )
2 L3
24EI 2
L3
24 EI 2
W Wh 0
L3
WL3 WL3
i.e., 2 h 0
24 EI 24 EI
WL3
Let st
48 EI
2 2 st 2 st h 0
st st2 2h st
h
st 1 1 2
st
M impact c Pimpact L c
max
I 4 I
48EI Lc
L3 4 I
Work-energy method, of equating the external work to internal strain energy, has the
disadvantage that normally only the deflection (or deformation) caused by a single force
16
can be obtained. The method of virtual work provides a general procedure to determine
the deflections and slopes (or rotations) at any point in the structure (which can be a truss,
To develop the virtual work method in a general manner, let us consider a body or
a structure of arbitrary shape (later this body will be made to represent a specific truss,
Let us assume that we want to determine the deflection of a point A, along the line AB,
caused by a number of actual (or real) forces P1, P2 and P3 acting on the body, as shown in
Figure (b). To find at A, along AB, due to the applied loads (P1, P2 and P3), using the
(Internal virtual
force)
u
L
P
u O
A
B
1 17
(unit virtual
force)
Figure (a)
Step 1: Place a virtual force (here we use a unit virtual force) on the body at point A in
the same direction AB, along which the deflection is to be found. The term virtual force is
used to indicate that the force is an imaginary one and does not exist as part of the real
forces. This unit force, however, causes internal virtual forces throughout the body. A
typical virtual force (acting on a representative element of the body) is shown in Figure
(a).
P2
P1
dL u
L
P
u O
A
B
1
P3 (unit virtual
force)
Figure b
Step 2: Next place the real forces, P1, P2 and P3 on the body [Figure (b)]. These forces
cause the point A to deform by an amount along the line AB, while the representative
element, of length L, now deforms by an amount dL. As these deformations occur within
the body, the external unit virtual force (already acting on the body before P 1, P2 and P3
are applied) moves through the displacement ; similarly the internal virtual force u
18
acting on the element (before P1, P2 and P3 are applied) moves through the displacement
Step 3: The external virtual unit force, moving through displacement , performs
external virtual work given as (1) times (), on the body. Similarly, the internal virtual
force u, moving through displacement dL, performs internal virtual work given as (u)
times (dL). Since the external virtual work is equal to the internal virtual work done on all
elements making up the body, we express the virtual work equation as:
Virtual forces
1 (u dL) (A)
Real
deformations
The summation sign, in Eqn. (A), indicates that all the internal virtual work in the whole
body must be included. Eqn. (A) gives the deflection along the line of action of unit
virtual force. A positive value for indicates that the deflection is in the same direction as
In writing down Eqn. (A), one has to remember that the full values of the virtual
forces (unit force at A, and all the internal forces, u i) were already acting on the body
when the real forces were applied (viz. P1, P2 and P3). Therefore, no one-half appears in
In a similar manner, the rotation (or slope) at a point in a body can be determined by
applying a virtual unit moment or couple (instead of a unit force) at the point where the
19
P2
(Internal virtual
force)
P1
u
dL u
L L
P P
u O u O
A A
B
1
(Virtual unit P3
moment)
(a) Virtual unit moment applied (b) Real forces P1, P2 and P3 applied
Virtual unit
moment Virtual internal forces
1 u m dL (B)
Real deformation
Real slope
Specific Structures
Trusses
20
If ui represents the internal forces developed in the members, due to an applied
unit load (at the point where the deformation is to obtained) in the required
u i Pi Li
1 (C)
Ai Ei
where
dL T L
Also
n
1 u i i Ti Li (D)
i 1
Temperature
change
n
1 u i Li (E)
i 1
where
by a fabrication error.
Beams
For loads acting on a beam subjected to bending moments alone, the deformation
21
1 mMdx (F)
EI
where m is the bending moment in the member when a unit load is applied on the
structure at the specified point in the specified direction. For a general loading on the
beam, generating axial, shear, bending and torsional forces/moments in the beam
f s vV
1 nN dx mM dx dx
tT
dx (G)
AE EI GA GJ
where n is the axial force generated in the beam when a unit load is applied on the beam
in the required direction; similarly m, v and t are the bending moment, shear force and
D
C
B
A
1
Unit virtual load is applied in the direction in which the deflection is required, say at B in
the vertical direction. Let uAB, uBC, uCA and uCD be the internal forces generated when
the unit load is applied at B.
D F1
C
B F2
A
F3
22
Let PAB, PBC, PCA and PCD be the internal forces generated in the truss members due to the
given loads F1, F2 and F3 acting on the beam. Then the vertical deflection at B is obtained
as,
n
u i Pi Li
v B (H)
i 1 Ai E i
A B C
L L/2
Let us say that it is required to find the vertical deflection at C due to the given loads.
(i) Apply a unit vertical load (virtual) at C in the vertical direction and find the
(ii) Then apply the given loads on the beam (say P 1, P2 and P3) and compute the
P1
P2 P3
A C
B
L L/2
mMdx
vC EI
(I)
23
Castiglianos Theorem
respectively.
P1 P2
B1 B2
v2
v1
P1 =
B2
B1
v21
v11
+
P1 P2
v22
v12
v1 v11 v12
v 2 v 21 v 22
If f 11 P1 v11 ,
where f11 = deflection at B1 due to a unit load at B1
and f 21 P1 v 21 with f21 = deflection at B2 due to a unit load at B1
and
v 22 f 22 P2 , with f22 = deflection at B2 due to a unit load at B2 &
v12 f 12 P2 , with f12 = deflection at B1 due to a unit load at B2.
24
Then
v1 v11 v12
f 11 P1 f 12 P2 (I)
Similarly,
v 2 v 21 v 22
f 21 P1 f 22 P2 (II)
Now we reverse the order the application of loads P 1 and P2, viz., applying P2 at B2 first
and then applying P1 at B1,
P1 P2
B1 B2
v2
v1
= P2
B1 B2
v22
v12
25
+
v11 P1 P2 v21
v1 v12 v11 f 12 P2 f11 P1
Similarly,
v 2 v 22 v 21 f 22 P2 f 21 P1
Ui =
1 1
P2 v 22 P2 v 21 P1v11
2 2
1 1
P2 f 22 P2 P2 f 21 P1 P1 f 11 P1
2 2
1 1
f 22 P22 f 21 P1 P2 f 11 P12 (IV)
2 2
Considering equation (III) and (IV), and equating them, it can be shown that
1 1
Ui f 11 P12 f 22 P22 f 12 P1 P2
2 2
1 1
f 22 P22 f 21 P1 P2 f 11 P12
2 2
B1 B2
f21
26
B1 B2
f12 f22
Deflection at B2 due to a unit load at P1 is equal to the deflection at B1 due to a unit load
at P2.
Similarly the energy Ui can be express in terms of spring stiffnesses k11, k12 (or k21), & k22
and deflections v1 and v2; then it can be shown that
U i
P1
v1
U i
P2
v 2
This is Castiglianos second theorem. When rotations are to be determined,
v
i
M i
27