WY) ay Advanced Strength and Applied Elasticity Fourth Edition ANsEL C. UGURAL New Jersey Institute of Technology ‘SauL K. FENSTER New Jersey institute of Technology o wi I l PRENTICE HALL, Professional Technical Reference Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458, sworwpt.comteary of Congres: Cot puna. "Rit wrngh and ap eassiyAnel C Ugh St entered Toca biographical efeenes and ide, ‘gun oss see eebetamtersk 2 Bsakdgy Fenty Saul ML Ti "raatsu 205 enransect ingin-Peeaton Dots amass iris codetion soperiion Paty Denon (Fae Tiss Compostion (=) {Cover dg dst ty Voi (Rrciesor Gn Cece Bonus ‘aoaactring buyec Nara alae Patlener Berard Good Marke anager Don DsPusua Port sane Mele View [Pulsenios production ager Aone R Geta 92003 1985 Peatsoa Eatin a= AQ). Pittstingas Tene a Proteaina Tec! 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Peston Edenton North Asa Lt HongKong Penton incon Cara, id Toto Deans Etro Menino SAG C¥. ‘eaten Bdeuon pan Tg Paason Edson Malone LAContents 1 Chapter] Analysis of Stress Introduction Scope of Treatment Definition of Stress ‘Components of Stress: Stress Tensor Some Special Cases of Sess Internal Force-Resultant and Stress Relations Stresses on Inclined Planes in an Axially Loaded Member ‘Variation of Stress within a Body ‘Two-Dimensional Stress ata Point Principal Stesces and Maximum Shear Stress in Two Dimonsicns ‘Motu’s Cirele for Fwo-Dimensional Stress ‘Taree Dimensional Suess ata Point Principal Streses in Three Dimensions Normal and Shear Stresses on an Oblique Plane Mohr’s Circle for Three-Dimensional Stress ‘Boundary Condition in Terms of Surface Forces Problems EREGEEESRERREDEE BYEBBRBSS EB omuane Chapter? Strain and Steess-Strain Relations a 24 Introduction 22 Deformation 23° Susu Defined 2A Equations of Compatibility 25 State of Strain ata Point 26 Engineering Materials 27 Surese-Strain Diagrams 28 Hook's Law and Poisson's Ratio araugges29 Generalized Hooke’s Law 240. Measurement of Suain: Bonded Strain Gages 2M Strain Energy 2A2 Strain Energy in Common Structural Members 243 Components of Strain Enorgy 244. Saint-Venant’s Principle Problems Chapter 3 Two-Dimensional Problems in Elasticity 31 Introduction 32 Fundamental Principles of Analysis Part A— Formulation and Methods of Solution 33. Plane Strain Problems 34 Plane Stress Problems 35. Airy’ Stress Function 36 Solution of Elasticity Problems 37 Thermal Stresses 38 Basic Relations in Polar Coordinates Part B— Stress Concentrations 39 Stresses Due to Concentrated Loads 3410. Stress Distribution near Concentrated Load Acting on a Beam BLL Stes Concentration Factors 312 Neuber's Diagram BIS Contact Stresses Problems Chapter 4 Failure Criteria 44 Introduction Failure Failure by Yielding Failure by Fracture Yield and Fracture Criteria ‘Maximum Shearing Stress Theory ‘Maximum Distortion Energy Theory (ctahodral Shearing Stress Theory 49° Comparison ofthe Yielding Theories 410 Maximum Principal Stress Theory 411 Mohr's Theory 432 Coulomb-MoheTacory WARS Introductory Fracture Mechanics 414 Faluce Criteria for Metal Fatigue 445 Fatigue Life under Combined Loading 416 Impact or Dynamic Loads 417 Dyzamic and Thermal Effects Problems BeRRECE as us us 14s 1st 132 153 154 as7 158 159 10 18 17 370 ya, vsChapter $ Bending of Beams Sa Introduction Part A—Exact Solutions 52. Pure Bending of Beams of Symmetrical Cross Section 53. Pure Bending of Beams of Asymmetrical Cross Section 54 Bending ofa Cantilever of Narrow Section SS Bending ofa Simply Supported, Narrow Beam Part B— Approximate Solutions 36 Elementary Tasory of Bending 57 Bending and Shearing Stresses 58 Effect of Transverse Normal Sress 39 Composite Beams S40 Shear Center SAL Statically Indetorminate Systems S42 Energy Method for Deflection: Part C-Corved Beams S43. Exact Solution S44 Tangential Suess Winkler's Theory SAS Combined Tangential and Normal Stresses Problems Chapter 6 Torsion of Prismatic Bars Introduction Elementary Theory of Torsion of Ciccular Bars ‘General Solution ofthe Torsion Problem Prandtl’s Stress Function Prandt's Membrane Analogy ‘Torsion of Thin-Walled Members of Open Cross Section ‘Torsion of Multiply Conneered Thin-Walled Sections Fluid Flow Analogy and Stress Concentration ‘Torsion of Restrained Tain Walled Members of Open Cross Section Curved Circular Bars: Helical Springs Problems gceaarhere Chapter? Namereal Methods 7A Totroduetion 72 Finite Differences 73. Finite Difference Equations 7A Curved Boundaries 7S Boundary Conditions 76 Finite Element Method 79 Properties of a Fiaite Elemeat 78 Formulation ofthe Finite Blement Method 79 Triangular Fite Element 14 184 14 188 192 195, 197 201 212 216 a9740 ‘Use of Digital Computers Problems Chapter 8 Axisymmetically Loaded Members an a2 a3 xa 85 86 87 Bs 39 10 an an Introduction ‘Thick Walled Cylinders ‘Maximum Tangential Stress Application of Failure Theories Compound Cylinders Rotating Disks of Constant Thickness Rotating Disks of Variable Thickness Rotating Disks of Uniform Stress ‘Thermal Stresses in Thin Disks ‘Thermal Stress in Long Circular Cylinders Finite Element Solution Formulation of Axisymmettic Element Problems Chapter Beams on Elastic Foundations ot 02 3 ey 3 u 2 Introduction General Theory Infinite Beams Semi-lafinite Beams Finite Boams:Clasification of Beams Beams Supported by Equally Spaced Elastic Elements ‘Simplified Sotutions for Relatively Su Beams Soliton by Finite Differences Applications Problems| Chapter 10. Energy Methods 101 02 303 Introduction ‘Work Done in Deformation Reciprocity Theorem Castigliano's Theorem Unit or Dummy Load Method Crotti-Engesser Theorem Statically netermanate Systems Principe of Vial Work Principle of Minimum Potential Energy ‘Application of Trigonometrc Series Rayleigh-Ritz Method Problems S38 au 314 ais 325 333 336 3a 309 9 350 355 359 361 30 364 369 309 30 378 contenChapter 11 Elastic Stabiity LL Introduction 312 Critical Load 13 Buckling of a Column, UL4 End Conditions LS Critical Suess in @ Column 116 Allowable Stress IL Initially Curved Members LS Eccentrially Loaded Columns: Secant Formula 119 Energy Methiods Applied to Buekling LI0 Solution by Finite Dierences IL11 Finite Difference Solution for Unevenly Spaced Nodes Problems Chapter 12 Plastic Behavior of Materials 321 Introduction 122 Plastic Deformation 123 True Stress-True Strain Curve in Simple Tension 124 Instability in Simple Tension WS Plastic Deflection of Beams 126 Analysis of Perfectly Plastic Beams 127 Collapse Load of Structures 128 Elastic Plast Torsion 129 Flastc-Plastc Stresses in Rotating Disks 120 Plastic Stross-Strain Relations WML Plastic Stres-Straia Increment Relations BAZ Siresses in Perfectly Plastic Thick-Walled Cylinders Problems ‘Chapter 13 Plates and Shells Part A—Bending of Thin Plates Basie Assumptions Strain-Curvature Relations ‘Stress, Curvature, and Moment Relations Governing Equations of Plate Deflection Boundary Conditions ‘Simply Supported Rectangular Piatos “Axisymmetticaly Voaded Cirear Plates Delleetions of Rectangular Plates by the Strain Energy Method Finite Flement Solution Part E—Membrane Stresses in Thin Shells 3310 Basic Assumptions TAL Simple Membrane Action B42 Symmetricaly Loaded Shells of Revolution BESEREEEE concn ao ot 405 410 aut 43 420 25 25 43 34 6 88 ar 451 45 461 an nm a3 45 46 a1 o1 a 91 3“i 1343. Some Comaton Cases of Shells of Revolution 4314 Cylindrical Shells of General Shape Problems AnpendicA Indical Notation Appendix B. Solution of the Stress Cubie Equation Bal Principal stresses B2 Direction Cosines Appendix € Moments of Composite Areas CA Controid €2 Moments of Inertia €3 Paralic-AxisTheotem CA. Principal Moments of Inertia Appendix D Tables Dai _ Average Propertcs of Common Engineering Materials D2 Conversion Factors SI Units to US. Customary Units D3 Si Unit Prefixes DA _Deflections and Slopes of Beams References Answers to Selected Problems Index 495 ar 503 50s 506 s10 S19 33 sue 3 524 36 526 527 sa sa conesPreface to the Fourth Edition INTRODUCTION ‘This text is a development of classtoom notes prepared in connection with ad vanced undergraduate and fistyear graduate courses in elasticity aad the mechan ics of solids Its designed to satisfy the requirements of courses subsequent t0 an elementary eatment of the strength of materials In addition to its applicability to aeronautical, civil, and mechanical engincering and to engineering mechanics cu rlcula the authors have endeavored to make the text useful to practicing engineers, Emphasis is given to numerical techniques (which lend themselves to computerize tion) in the solution of problems resisting analyical treatment, The sress placed on numerical solutions is rt intended to deny the value of classical analysis, which 's. given a rather full treatment. It instead attempts to fill what the authors believe to bea void inthe world of textbooks, ‘An effort has been made to prescat a balance between the theory necessary to gain insight into the mechanics, but which can often offer no more thaa crude ap /roximations to real problems because of simplifications related to geometry and Conditions of loading, and numerical solutions, which are s0 useful in presonting stress analysis in a more realistic setting, The authors have thus attsmpted to em- pphasize those aspects of theory and application that propare astudeat for more ad ‘vanced study or for professional practioe in design and analysis. “The theory of elasticity plays three important roles in the text: Itprovides exact solutions where the configurations of loading and boundary are relavely simples it provides a check on the limitations ofthe mechanics of materials approach and it Serves asthe bass of approximate solutions employing numerical analysis. ‘To make the text as clear as possible, atention is given to the presentation of the fundamentals of the mechanies of materiale The physical significance of the so lutions and practical applications are given emphasie The authors have made. spe- ial effort to illustrate important principles and applications with numerical ‘cxamples. Consistent with announced national policy, probleme are included in the text in which the physical quantities aro expressed in the International Syetem of Units (SP). All important quantities are defined in both SI and US. Customary Sys- tem of units A sign convention, consistent with vector mechanics, is employedthroughoat for loads internal foros and streses This convention conforms to that ‘used in most classical strength of materials and elasticity texts, as well as to that ‘most often employed in the numerical analysis of complex structures. ‘TEXT ARRANGEMENT Becaust of the extensive subdivision into a variety of topics and the employment of alternative methods of analysis, the text should provide flexibility in the choice of assignments to cover courses of varying length and content. Most chapters are sub- ‘Stantaly seltcontained, Hence the order of presentation can be smoothly altered to meet an instructors preference Its suggested, however, that Chapters 1 and 2, ‘hich address the analysis of basic concepts, should be studied first. The emphasis placed on the treatment of two-dimensional problems in elasticity (Chapter 3) may Sitter sccording tothe scope ofthe cours. “This fourth edition of Advanced Strength and Applied Blastcty seeks to pre- serve the objectives and emphases of the previous editions. Every effort has been tmade to provide a more complete and current text through the inclusion of new material dealing with the fundamental principles of stress analysis failure criteria; fracture mechanies, compound cylinders, numerical methods, energy and vari- tional methods; buckling of stepped columns; and common shell types. The entire text has been reexamined and maay improvements have been made throughout by 1 process of elimination and rearrangement. Some sections have been expanded 19 improve on previous expositions. "The references, provided as en aid tothe student who wishes to purse further certain expects ofa subject, have been updated and identified at the end of the text. Thave resisted the tomptation to increase the material covered except where ab- solutely necessary. However, it was considered desirable to add a number of illus- “trative examples and a lage number of problems important in engineering practice and design, Most changes in subject-matter coverage were prompted by the sugges- ions of faculty familiar with earlier editions. 'As before its hoped that I ave maintained larity of presentation, simplicity asthe subject permits, unpretentious depth an effort to encourage intuitive under- Standing, and 4 shunning ofthe irrelevant. In this context, as throughout, emphasis is placed on the we of fundamental in order to build student understanding and an ability to solve the more complex problems. SUPPLEMENT ‘The books accompanied by a Solutions Manual available to instructors It features complete solutions to all problems in the text. Answers to selected problems are given atthe end af the book, Preface he Fourth EatonACKNOWLEDGMENTS It is a particular pleasure to acknowledge the contributions of these who assisted the authors in the evaluation of the t=x. Thanks, of course, aze due to the many readers who have contributed goneral ideas and to reviewers who have made de~ tailed comments on previous editions, These particularly include the following: F Freudenstein, Columbia University; R. A. Scott, University of Nichigan: M. W. Wileox and ¥. Chan Jian, Souther Methodist University, CT. Sun, University of Florids;B, Koplik, H. Kountouras,K.A. Narh, R. Sodhi, and C. E, Wilson, New fer sey Institte of Technology; H. Smith, Jr, South Dakots School of Mines and Tech nology: B. P. Gupta, Gannon University;S Bang, University of Notre Dame; B. Koo, University of Toledo: T. Easley, University of Kansas: A. Bailey, North Caroling State University, W. F Wright, Vanderbilt University: R. Burks SUNY Maritime College; G.E. O. Widera, University of Hinois; R. H. Kocbke, University of South Carolina; B. M. Kwak, University of Iowa; G. Nadig, Widener University; R. L. Brown, Montana State University; SH, Advani, West Virginia University; E. Nas sat Illinois Institute of Technology; R. I. Sann, Stevens Institute of Technology; C. (©.Smith, Univesity of Nebraska; } Kempner, Polytechnic Universi of New York: and P.C.Prister, North Dakota State University ‘Accuracy eiecking ofthe problems and typing of Solutions Manual were done ‘expertly and with considerable care by Dr. Youngiin Chung. I am grateful to bim {or his hard work. lam deeply indebted to my colleagues who have found the toxt useful through the years and to Bernard Goodwin, publisher of Prentice Hall PTR, who has encoursged the preparation ofthis edition. Copy editing and production were handled skillfully by the staff of Pine Tree Composition, Inz and Prentice Hall Their professional help is appreciated, AC Upural Holmdel, NI Pret the Poth ton‘About Prentice Hall Professional Technical Reference ith oii reaching backto the industry's fist computer scence publishing progam Inthe 3960s, and formally aunched a sown impntn 986, Prentice Hal Professional “Technical Reference (PH PTR) has developed inte the leading prvider of tectnical books inthe word toca. Our eltor now publish aver 200 books annual authored by leaders nthe es of computing, engineerin, and business. (ur res are fly planted inthe soll that gave ise 1 the technical revolution ‘urbookshat contain many of theindustys computing acengineeting asses: Kemighan and tcie’ C Programming Language, Nemath’s UND Systm ‘Adminstration Handbook, Mosiman" Core ove, 38 Johnsons High Spee Digital Desi, PH PTR seknowadges its auspeous beginnings whileitloks tothe future for inspiration. Ve continu to avbve and break ner grourdin. publishing by proving ody professionals ith tomorrows Soltons.mmmagoeas> aStFRagTe 3EECE TE yt List of Symbols width carry-over factor, torsional rigidity distance from neutral axis to outer fiber distribution fector, flexural rigidity of plate elasticity matrix diameter, distance modulus of elasticity in tension or compression ‘modulus of plasticity or secant modulus tangent modulus dilatation, distance, eccentricity ody foree per unit volume, concentrated foree sisplacement fonction of finite clement ‘modulus of elasticity in shear acccleration of gravity (49.81 mis?) depth of beam, height, membrane deflection, mesh with ‘moment of inertia of area, stress invariant polar moment of inertia of area, strain invariant balk modulus spring constant ofan elastic support, stifnes factor, ther- ‘al conductivity, fatigue factor, strength coeficent stilfnoss matric of whole structure constant, modulus of clastic foundation, spring constant, sess eoncentra- tion factor stiffness matrix of finite element length, span moment ‘sisting moment in plates ‘moment caused by unit load fatigue life eyees), ores factor of safety, number stain hardening index dircotion cosines ‘concentrated forceo> geet at gto NEES & ee gesae Ret anager ue listibuted load per unit Jength or area, pressure, stress resultant first moment of ara, hat flow per unit length, shearing force ‘nodal force matrix of finite element radius reaction clastic section modulus, shear center radius radius of gyration polar coordinates Gistance along a line or 8 curve temperature, twisting couple or torque thickness strain energy strain energy per unit volume complementary energy shearing force, volume velocity ‘weight, work ‘components of displacement plasti section modulus, curved beam factor ectangular coordinates angle, coeficient of thermal expansion form factor for shear ‘nomerical factor, angle ‘Shear strain, weight pe unit volume or specific weight, angle ‘eftection ite difference operatr, variational symbol displacement nda) displacement matrix of finite cleatent ‘change of a fasction normal sin angle angle of twist per unit length slope Poisson's ratio aval lad factor, Lamé constant potential energy Sensity (mess per unit volume), radius formal stress shear stress total angle of twist stress fonction angular velocity stream function Lief SymbolsCHAPTER 1 Analysis of Stress 14 INTRODUCTION ‘The basic structure of matter is characterized by nonuniformity ard discontinuity attributable to its various subdivisions: molecules, atoms, and subatomic particles, (Our concern in this text is not with the particulate structure, however, and it will be assumed that the matler with which we are concerned is hortogencous and ‘continuously distributed over its volume. There isthe clear implication in uch an ‘approach that the smallest element cut from the body possesses the same proper- ties as the body. Random fluctuations in the properties of the mateial are thus of ‘no consequence, This approach is that of continuum mechanics, in which soidelas- tic materials are treated as though they are continuous media, raher than com- posed of ciscrete molecules. Of the states of matter, we are here eoncemed only with the solid, with its ability to maintain its shape without the need ofa container and to resist continuous shear, tension, and compression. Jn coatrast with vigic-body statics and dynamics, which treat the external be- havior of bodies (tha i, the equilibrium and mation of bodies without regard to small deformations associated with the application of load), the mechanics of eolids is concerned with the relationships of external effect (forees and momeats) to i ternal stresses and strains Two different approactes used in solid mechanics are the ‘mechanics of materials ot elementary theory (aso called the technical theory) and the theory of elaseity. The mechanics of materials focuses mainly on the more or less approximate solutions of practical problems. On the other hané, the theory of clastletty concerns hse argely with more mathematical analysis te determine the “exact” suess and strain distributions in a loaded body. The difference between these approzehes is primarily in the nature of the simplifying assumptions Used, de- scribed in Sec.3..‘External forces acting on a body may be classified as surface forees and body Jorces.A surface fore is ofthe conconiated type when it acts at point; a surface force tigy aso be distributed uniformly oF nonuniformly over a finite ares. Body forces are associated with the mass of a body, rather than its surfaces, and are dis- tributed throughout the volume of a body. Gravitational, magnetic, and inertia forees are all body forces, They are specified in terms of force per unit volume. All forces acting on a body, inchuding the reactive forces caused by supports and body forees, ae considered to be exemal forces. Imernal forces ate the forces that bold together the particles forming the body, Unless otherwise stated, we assume inthis text that body forces can be neglected and that forces are applied steadily and slowly. The later is referred to as static loading. Im the International System of Units ($1, force is measured in nowtons (N). [Because the newton isa small quantity; the kilonewton (KN) is often used in prac- tice in the US. Customary System, foree is expressed in pounds (Ib) or ilopounds {(kips) We shall define all important quantities in both systems of units. However, in numerical examples aad problems, SI units will be wsed throughout the text consis- tent with international convention, (Table D2. compares the two systems) “The study of the behavior of members in tension, compression, and bending began with Galileo Galilei (1564-1642), although Robert Hooke (1635-1703) was the fist to point out that a body is deformed subject to the action of force. Since thea many engineers, physicists and mathematicians in the field of stress analysis have contributed to the basie knowledge on which modern methods are based.” “The literature dealing with various aspects of solid mechanics is voluminous For those seeking more thorough treatment, selected references ar identified in brack- ets and compiled atthe end ofthe tex. 412 SCOPE OF TREATMENT “The usual objective of mechanics of materials and theory of elasticity isthe exami nation of the load-carrying capacity of 2 body from three standpoints, strength, stifness (deformation characteristics), and stability by using the fundamental prine Giples outlined in See.32 and employed throughout the text. These are the laws of {orees the laws of material deformation, andthe conditions of geometric compati- bility. The principal topies under the general heading of mechanics of solids may be summarized as follows: 1 Analysis ofthe stresses and deformations within 2 body subject to a preseibed system of forces Tis is accomplished by solving the governing equations that describe the sires and strain fields (theoretical stress analysis) Its often advan: tageous, where the shape of the structure or conditions of loading preclude a theoretical solution or where verification is required, to apply the laboratory ‘techniques of expertmental stress analysis. Histol reviews of machonie of materia nd the theory of elasticity are gen in Refs Li rough 14 Chapin) Anais of Se2 Determination by theoretical analysis or by experiment ofthe limiting values of oad that a structural element ean sustain without suffering damage, failure, oF ‘compromise offencton, 3. Determination ofthe body shape and solection ofthe materials that are most ef- ficient (or resisting a prescribed system of forees under specificd conditions of ‘operation such as temperature humidity vibration and ambient pressure. This the design function and, more particulary, that of optimum design. Etliciency ‘may be gauged by such citria 35 minimum weight or volume, minimum cost oF any criterion deemed appropriate. ‘The design function, item 3, clearly relies on the performance of ‘he theoretical analyses under items 1 and 2, and iis to these that thie text is directed. The role of analysis in design is observed in examining the folowing rational procedire in the design ofa load-carrying member: 1, Evaluate the most likely modes of failure of the member, Failure rteia that pre dic the various modes of failure under anticipated conditions of service are dis- ‘essed in Chapter 4, 2, Determine the expressions relating applied loading ta such effects as stress, strain, land deformation. Often, the member under consideration and conditions of loading are so significant or so amenable to solution as to have been the subject (of prior analysis For these sitwations textbooks, handbooks, journal articles, and technical papers are good sources of information, Where the situation is unique, a mathematical derivation specifi to the ease at hand is roquied. 3. Determine the maximus usable value ofsvess, sain, or energy. ‘This value is ob- tained ether by reference to compilations of material properties or by experi- ‘meatal means such as simple tension tost and is used in connection with the relationship derived in step 2. A. Select a design factor of safety. This sto account for uncertainties fn a nurnber ‘of aspects ofthe design, including those related ta the actual service loads ate al properties, or environmental faciors. An important area of uncertainty is ‘connected withthe assumptions made in the analysis of strese and deformation. ‘Also, we are not likely to Bave a secure knowledge of the stresses that may be ins ‘woduced during machining, assembly, and shipment of the elemest. The design factor of safcty also reflects the consequences of failure: for example, the pos. itty that failure will result in less of human life or injury or in coal repairs oF ‘danger to other components ofthe overall system. For the aforementioned tea~ sons. the design factor of safety is also sometimes called the factor of ignorance ‘The uncertainties encountered during the design phase may be of such magni- tude as to lead to a design carrying exteeme weight, volume, or cost penalties Tt ‘may then be advantageous to perform thorough tests or more exacting analysis, ‘atlise to rely on overy large design factors of sate. ‘The tue factor of safety, usually referred to simply 28 the faetorof safety can only be determined after the member is constructed and tested. This factor i the ratio ofthe maximum load the member can sustain under severe testing without failure to the maximum load acauaily carried under norecal service conditions, 12. Scape of Trimet *‘the working load. When @ lincar relationship exists between the load and the stress produced by the load, the factor of safety n may be expressed as meximum usable tess allowable stress an ‘Maximum usable stress sepreseats either the yield stressor theultimate stress ‘The allowable stress isthe working stress The factor of safety must be greater than 1.0 failure isto be avoided, Values for fetor of safety, selected bythe de- signer on the bass of experience and judgreent, are 1S or greater. For the major- ity of applications, appropriate factors of safety are found in various construction and manufacturing codes ‘The foregoing procedure isnot always conducted in as formal a fashion as may be implied. In some design provedures, one or more steps may be regarded as un: necessary ar abvious onthe basis of previous experience ‘We conelade this section with an sppeal for the reader to exercise a degree of kepticiam with regazd tothe application of formulas for which there is uncertainty a5 to the limitations of use or the areas of applicability. The relatively simple form ‘of many formulas usualy results from rather severe restrictions in its derivation, “These relate to simplified boundary conditions and shapes, limitations on stress and strain, and the neglect of cortzin complicating factors Designers and stress analysts must be aware of such restrictions lest their work be of no value or, wore lead to dangerous inadequacies Tn this chapter, we are concerned with the state of siress at a poiné and the variation of sree taroughout an elastic body. The latter is dealt within Ses. 1.8 and 116 and the former ia the balance of the chapter. 13. DEFINITION OF STRESS Consider body in equilibrium subject to a system of external forces as shown in Fig. La. Under the action ofthese forces, internal forces will be developed within the body. To examine the latter at some interior point Q, we use an imaginary plane to cut the body ata section o-a through O, dividing the body into two paris As the Py » @ Frovne 13, (a) Sectioning of a body; () ree body with incemal force: () enlarged rex BA with compancns ofthe force AF. Chapter! Anais of Seesforces acting on the entire body are in equilibrium, the forces acting on one part alone must be in equilibrium: This requires the presence of forces or plane ea. ‘These internal forces, applied to both parts, are distributed continuowaly over the cut surface. The aforementioned proces, referred to as the method of tions, will be relied on as a Gist step in solving all problems involving the investigation of in- ternal forces. ‘Figure 1.1 shows the isolated left part of the body. An element of area 4.4, lo cated at point @ on the cut surface is ated on by force AK. Let the origin of coor. ‘dinates be placed at point Q, with x normal and y, tangent to A.A. In general, AF ‘does not lie along x, y, oF z. Decomposing AF into components parilel to sy, and z (Fig Ile), we define the normal sess andthe shearing sresest, and %, tim O96 . dhe ee BA GA 5, _aP, AF, a2) tS ity Ba aa = ‘These definitions provide the stress components at a point Q to which the area 44 is reduced in the limit Clearly the expression AA 0 depends ov the ieal- ization discussed in the frst paragzaph of Sec, 1.1. Out consideration i wth the a ‘rage stress on areas, which, while small as compared wih the size of “he body, is large compared with interatomic distances in the solid, Stress is thus defined ade ‘quately for engineering purposes. As shown in Eq. (1.2), the intensity offoree perp cendicula,or normal, tothe surface is termed the aormal stress ata pont, while the intensity of force paral! to the surface is the shearing tess ata point. ‘The values obtained in the Timiting process of Eq, (1.2) differ from point to point on the surface as AF varies The stress components depend on not only AF, however, but also on the orientation ofthe plane on which t acts at point Q. Even ata given point, therefore, the stesses wil diffe as different planes are considered. ‘The complete descriptioa of stress ata point thas requires the speifcstion of the stress on all planes passing through the point ‘Because the stress (o or ) is obtained by dividing the fore by ateait has units cof force per unit area, In ST units, stress is measured in newtons per square meter (Nim), or pascals (Pa). As the pascal is @ very small quantity, the megapascal (Pa) is commonly used, Whon US. Customary System units are used, stress sex Dressed in pounds per square inch (psi) oF kips pe equare inch (ks 14 COMPONENTS OF STRESS: STRESS TENSOR [is vetfied in Soc. 1.12 that in order to enable the determination of thestresses on an infinite number of planes passing through 2 point Q, thus defining the stresses at tat point, we need only specify the stress companents on three mutually perpen dicular planes passing through the point. Thote three planes perpendicular to the coordinate axes, contain three hidden sides of an infinitesimal eube (Fe. 1.2), We ‘emphasize that when we move from point Q to point Othe values of stress wil, in general, change. Also, Dody forces can exist, However, these eases will not be dis- 14 Compares of Ss Ses TensFrowne 12. Element subjected 9 threes ‘dimensional sve All sires have postive sence cussed here (see Sec, 1.8), a8 we are now merely interested in establishing the ter~ inology necessary to specify a stress component, “The general case ofa dhree-dimensianal stace of sres is shown in Fig, 1.2.Coa- sider the stresses to be identical at points Q and Q' and uniformly distributed on ‘ach face, represeated by a single vector acting a the center ofeach face. In. 30cor- ‘dance with the foregoing, total of nine scalar stress components defines the state fof stress at a point. The stress components can be assembled in the following matrix form, wherein each sow represents the group of stresses acting on a plane passing ‘through Q(x, y, 2): -[z “| as ‘This aray represents a tensor of sscond rank (refer to Sec. 1.12) requiring two in exes to identify its elements or components A vector is a tensor of frst rank; 2 seals is of ero rank. “The double subsript ntation is interpreted as follows: The first subserit ini- cates the direction of a normal tothe plane or face on which the stress component cs; the cond subscript relates to the cirection ofthe stress itselt. Repetitive sub ‘Soripts will be avoided in this text, x0 the normal stresses Tye yy and 7, will be des. ignated o,.0, and o, as indicated in Eg. (13). face or plane & usually idenifed by the axis normal to iforexaraple, the x faces are perpendicular to the x axis Siga Convention ‘Referring again to Fig, 12, we observe that Both stresses labeled +, tend to twist the element in a clockwise direction. It would be convenient, therefore, if a sign ‘convention were adopted under which these stresses carried the same sign. Apply- fag s convention relying wlely on the coordinete direction of the stresses would Clearly not produce the desired rosul, imsmuch as the <,, stress acting on the ‘pper surface is directed in the positive x direction, while,» acting on the lower urtace is directed in the negative x direction. The following sign convention, whic fpplies to both normal and shear stresses, is related to the deformational influence Chapin! Anais of Sesfof a stress and is based on the relationship between the direction of an outward ‘normal drawn toa particular suraee and the directions ofthe stress components on the same surface. ‘When bah the ouler normal and the stress component face in a postive diree- tion relative to the coordinate axes, the stress is positive. When Bodh the outer nor- smal and the siress component face in a negative direction relative tothe coordinate axes, the stess is postive. When the normal points in a positive drestion while the siress points in a negative direction (or vie vers), the sites t negative. In ascor- dance with this sign convention, tensile stresses are alweys positive and compres sive stress always negative. Figure 12 depicts a system of positive normal and shear stresses Equality of Sheating Stresses We now examine properties of shearing stress by studying the equilibrium of forces acting on the cubic element shown in Fig. 12. As the stresses acting on opposite faces (which are of equal area) ate cqual in magnitude, but opposite indirection, ‘translational equilibrium inal drcctions is assured: that EF, = 0. ZF, ~ 0, and EF, = 0. Rotational equilibrium i established by taking moments othe x-,-,and {directed forces about point 0, or example. From EI, = 0. ry dy dzlde + (%y,dedz)dy = 0 Simplifying, we (ua) 0, we have: Likewise, from EM, = Oand 2M, aot Lab.) “Heence the subscripts for the shearing stresses ate commutative, and the stres ten- sors symmetric. This means thal shearing stresses on mutually perperdicular planes ‘of the element are equal. Therefore, no distinction will hereafter be made between the stress components ty, and “ya 74 ANG Tey OF Tye And Ty a See. 1.8 iis shown rigorously that the foregoing is valid even when stress components vary from one point to anather. Indicial Notation Many equations of elasticity become unwieldy when writen i fl, anabbreviated forms see, for example, Eq (1.24). As the comyplenity of the situation described creases, 50 does that ol the lormalations, tending to obscure the fundamentals in & ass of symbols. For this reason, the more compact indical notation oe tensor nota: tion described in Appendix A is sometimes found in techoical publistions.A sire tensor is written in indicia) notation asx, where {and j each assume the values. y. and z as required by Eq, (1.3). Generally, such notation is not employed inthis ext 1 Componenn’ of Set Sirs TensorLS. SOME SPECIAL CASES OF STRESS Under particular circumstances, the general state of stress (ig, 1.2) reduces to sim pler stress states as brie ly described here. These stresses which are commonly en- ountered in practice, wil be given detailed consideration taronghout the text. a Tiiaxal cress. We shall observe ia Sec. 1.13 that an element subjected to only stresses 0; 0%, and oy acting in mutually perpendicular directions is sai to be in A state of tiatal stress Such a state of stress can be written as m9 0 0% 0 ® 00 ow, “Tho sbsence of shearing stresses indiestos that the preceding stresves are the “principal swesses forte clement. A special case of triaxial stress, known a spherical fr dilatational sires, acer if ell principal stresses are equal (ee Sec. 114), Equal ‘ae tension is sometimes called hydrostatic tension. An example of qual tiax- {al compression is found ina smal clement of liquid under static pressure. b. Two-dimensional or Plane Stress. In this case, only the x and y faces ofthe ele~ ment are subjected to stress and al the stresses act parallel to the x and y axes as shown i Fig. 1.38, The plane stress matrixis writen [n =| as [Although the three dimensional nature ofthe clement under stress should not te forgotten, forthe sake of convenience we usually deaw only ovo-dinensional view ofthe plane szess element (Bg 13). When only two normal seis are present the state of sess f called ise. These stresses occur in thin plates Fressed in two mutually perpendicular directions ce Pave Shea tn ts ese the element it subjected to plane shearing teses only {or examples, and ty (Fig 13) Typieal pure sbear occas over the cross sec- tons and on logical plans of cul shaft oubjected to torsion. 4. Unacat Sess ‘When normal stresses act along one direction only, the one- FIGURE LS. (a) Eloment in plane sess; (0) avo-dimensionl presentation of plane res) lone pure sheer ° chapter Anais of Sess1.6 INTERNAL FORCE-RESULTANT AND STRESS RELATIONS Distributed forces within a member can be represcated by a statically equivalent system consisting of a force and a moment veetor acting at any arbitrary point (as ally the centroid) ofa section. These inernal force resultant also called stress resul- ‘ants, exposed by an imaginary cutting plane containing the point through the sacmiber, are usually resolved into components normal and tangent to the eul see. tion (Fig 14). The sense of maments follows the right-hand sefow rule ellen ropee- sented by double-headed vectors as shown in the igure. Each compotent can be associated with one of four modes of force transmission: 1 The axial force P or N tends to lengthen or sherten the member. 2. The shear forces V, and ¥, tend to shear one part ofthe member reve to the adjacent part and aro often designated by the letter V. 3. The torque or twisting mament Tis esponsible for twisting the member 4. The bending moments M, and M, cause the member to bend and areofteniden- ‘fled by the letter 4. A member may be subject to any ora of the modes simultancously, Not that the ‘same sign convention is used forthe force and moment components thal i used for sucss;a postive force (or moment) component acts on the positive face inthe pos ‘uve coordinate divetion or on 2 negative face inthe negative coordinate direction. A typical infinitesimal area dA of the eut section shown in Fig. 1s acted on by the components ofan arbitrarily directed force dF. expressed using Eqs, (1.2) a8, GE, = ,dA,dE, # t4A, and dF. = 2,cdA, Clearly, the stress components on {he eut section cause the internal fore resultant on that section. Thug the inere mental forees are sunnmed in the x ysand z directions to give pe fot ye fot Ye frdd cy Ima like manner, the sums of the moments of the same forees about the, y,and @ focsas FicWRe 14, Posie forces and mmm on 4 eu, Seaton of body and component of Ihe force OF on an inate area a8 re fiuy-nnun 9 == foxes cy 1 Inert Fr Resa nd Ses Relations4 ot FlQUne LS. Primate bari ension. where the intorations proceed over area A of the eut section. Equations (1.6 rep Tesent the relations between the intemal force resltants and dhe sresss. In the next paragraph wo illustrate the fundamental concept of sess and observe how Eqs (0.6) connect interaal force resultant and the state of tess ina specifi case. ‘Consider « homogeneous prismatic bar loaded by axial forces P at the ends Gis, 152). A primatie bar is steaight member having constant cross-sectional sea throughout it length. To obtain an expression for the normal stress, make fn imaginary cat (Section a-a) through the member at right anges to its sais A {reo body diagram ofthe iolated partis shown in Fig. 1.5, wherein the stess Is submits on the cut secon a 8 rplacoment forthe effec of the removed part Equilibrium of axial forece requires that P= fo,dA or P= Acy The normal stress i therefore one an where d is the erose-sectional are ofthe ber Because V,, Vj, and Tall are equal to 2ero, the Second and third of Eqs (1.62) and the fist of Eqs (1.6b) are satisfied by Toy = Teg = 0-AlsO, M, = M, = O in Eqs (1.66) requires only that ¢, be symmetri- cally distributed about the y and 2 aes, as depicted in Fig. 1.9b. When the member is being extended as in the figure, the resulting stress isa uniaxial censile sre, ifthe direction of forces were reversed, the bar would be in compression under uniaxial ‘compressive ses, Inthe later ease, Eq (17) is applicable only to chunky or short members owing to other effect that take place in longer members” Similarly, application of Eqs (1.) to torsion members, beams, plates, and sbelis willbe presented as the subject unfolds fllowing the derivation of stress-strain re lations and examination of the geometic behavior ofa particular member. Apply ing the method of mechanics of materials, we shall develop other elementary Formulas for stress and deformation. These also called the basic formulas of me- chanics of materials axe oftea used and extended for application to more complex problems i advanced mechanics of materials andthe theory of elasticity. For refer. nee purposes to preliminary discussions, Table 1.1 lists some commonly encour Further dacescon of aniaial comprasion sos is found in Se. 1.5, where we ke up the casietion of nlumas Chapir | Anais of Sees‘Tanus 1.t._Commonly Used Elementary Formulas for Sires 1. Prismatic Bars of Linearly Elastic Materiat . . Lont —— —E- Axial loadings 0, = > @ ow “ot tr Torsion: © =, Ta 7 (b) Bending Sty 2 Shear: ty = Tb (@ normal axl sess, { = momeat of inp bow Shearing srs dacto torque |” peut ats CA) ta dearng ses stowrdeal J = polar mami nea Shea force weratorces accion Dia oe = id ofbar at ES, 7 ators Steed V2 verte hea fore = as M = bending momen sbout aie Q = fst moment aboutNA.of he ‘t= gnsoclont en trea beyond te pot whith 2 soni ppl nat, tale’ Srincare 2. Thin-Walled Pressure Vessels GED Cylinder: Sphere: o = FE o tangential stress in eylinder wall aia sires in cylinder wall membrane stress in sphere Wall 17 Sinsesom clined Paes isan Aly Lode Menbertered cases. Each equation presented ia the table describes a state of scess associ sted with a single force, orque, moment component, or pressure ata section of &| typical homogeneous and elastic structural member. When a member is acted oa si- ‘ltancously by two o more load types, causing various intemal-torce resultants ‘on a section, its assumed that each load produces the stress as if it were the only load acting on the member. The final or combined stress is then determined by su- perposition of the several states of stress as discussed in Sec. 22. "The mechanice of materials theory i based on the simpiifying assumptions re- tated to the pattera of deformation so thatthe strain distnbutions for a cross sec- tion of the member ean be determined. It isa basic assumption that plane sections before loading remain plane after leading. The assumptiou can be shown to be exact for szally loaded prismatie bars, for prismatic czcular torsion members and Cor prismatic beams subjected to pure bending. The assumption is approximate for other beam situations, However, itis emphasized that there is an extraordinarily large variety of cases in which applications of the basie formulas of mechanics of ‘materials lead to useful results Tp this text we hope to provide greater insight into the mieaning and limitations of stress analysis by solving problems using both the clementary and exact methods of analysis. 17. STRESSES ON INCLINED PLANES IN AN AXIALLY LOADED MEMBER ‘We nowt consider the sirestes on am inclined plane b-b of the bar in uniaxial tension shown ia Fig 15a, where the normal x’ tothe plane forms an angle 8 with the axial direction. On an isolated part of the bar to the left of seetion bb, the resultant P may be rcsolved into two componeats: the normal force Py = P cos and the shear foree P, = —P sin 6, a8 indicated in Fig. 1.62. Thus, the normal and shearing ‘Stresses niformly distributed over the area A, = Alcos 6 of the inclined plane Fig 1.60), are given by o,c0s 8 (asa) ~oesin 8 cos 8 (186) “The negative signin Eq, (1.0) agrees wth the sign convention for shearing stresses described in See. 14. The foregoing proces of determining the sires in proceeding {tom one set of coordinate ates to another scaled sess ansformation. “Equations (8) indeatehow the sresses vary 25 the inclined plane is cut at various angles As expected i 8 maxim (Gnu) when 8 i 0" of 180", and yy Js manimum (fgg) When € 645" oF 13S" ABO, = lyqqe The maxim stresses are thos Cm Sn Ta = HEC, as) Chaput Analysis of SessFloat 16, Golated part ofthe ber shown in Fi. 5 Observe that the normal stres is either maximum or a minimum on planes for ‘whieh the shearing stress is zero, Figure 1.7 shows the manner in which the stresses vary a¢ the section is cut at angles varying from © = 0° to 180°, Cleary. when © > 90°, the sign 0! rey in Ea, (1.8) changes; the shearing stress changes sense. However, the magninids of the shearing stress for any angle @ determined from Eq, (1.88) is equal to that for 8 + 90°. This agrees with the gonoral conclusion reached inthe prececing section ‘Shearing stresses on mutually perpendicular planes must be equal. ‘We note that Eqs. ([.8) can also be used for uniaxial compression by assigning to Pa negative valu. The sense of each stress direction is then reversedin Fig. 1.5. EXAMPLE L1 ‘Compute the siresses on the inclined plane with @ = 35° for a prismatic bar of a cross-sectional area 800 mm*, subjected to a tensilo [cad of {60 KN (Fig. 15a). Then detormine the state of stress for 6 = 35° by cal culating the stresses on an adjoining face of stress element, Sketth the stress configuration. Solution “The normal stress on a ross section is 2 _ a0) =F aortas = 7M Introducing this value in Bigs. (1.8) and using 6 = 35%, we have Ficus 17. Variation of sens at pot with the inlined tection in he Bar shown in Pp 5 17 Seeeron nc Paes in Asi Laed MenborProne 18. Example ns wr ie A z as24nrs coe ay = 6,c08 0 = 75(cos35")* = 5033 MPa : ‘tap ® ~0,sin 6605 6 = ~T5(sin 38*)(c08 35") = —35.24 MPa “The normal and shearing stresses acting on the adjoining y’ face are, respectively, 24.67 MPa and 35.24 MPa, a8 calculated from Eqs (1.8) by svbetituting the angle 9 + 90° = 325°, The values of ay and ayy: are the same on opposite sides of the element. On the bass of the estab lished sign convention for stress the required sketch is showa in Fig, 8, 18 VARIATION OF STRESS WITHIN A BODY ‘As pointed out in See 13, the components of stross generally vary from point to pointin a stressed body. These variations are governed by the conditions of equ ium of satcs,Folflment of these conditions establishes certain zlatioaships, known as the differential equations of equilibrium, which involve the derivatives of the stress components. Consider a thin clement of sides dx and dy (Fig. 19), and assume that SnG Typ and ye axe functions of x y but do not vary throughout the thickness (Ge independent of 2) and that the other siress components ase zero. Also assume that the x and y components of the body forces per unit volume, F, and F,, ae i- dependent of 2 and thatthe z component of the body force F, = 6. Tis combina- tion of stestes, satisfying the conditions described, is the plane stress Note that because the element is very small forthe sake of simplicity, th stress components may be considered to be distributed uniformly over each fae. Inthe figure they are shown by a single veetorrepresentiog the mean values applied at the center of each face "As we move from one point to another, for example, from the lowerleft comer to the upper-right corner of the element, one stress component, say o., acting 00 ‘the negative x face, changes in value an the positive» face The streses ¢, fy nd ‘rq similarly change. The variation of stress with position may be expressed by a ‘Pincated Taylors expansion: wae” @ o.+ Be ® Chap Anat of Ses.Ficunst9. Element wih srsser and body force. ‘The partial derivative is used because o, isa function of x and y. Teeating all the components similarly, he state of stress shown in Fig. 1.9 is obtained We consider now the equilbcium of an element of unit thicktess, taking mo- ments offoree about the lowereft comer. Thus 3M, = O yields (ery) $= (ean) + (oe Baar te © pact [Neglecting the triple products involving di and dy, this reduces 0 ty = Tye Ina {ike manner, it may be shown that tye =, and ty, = ry a5 altezdy abtadted in ‘Sec. L4, From the equilibrium of x forees, ZF, = 0, we have (0 a}o-nee( Upon simplification, Bq (b) becomes ( Inasmuch as dz dy is nonzero, the quantity inthe parentheses must vanish. A simi lar expression is written to describe the equilibrium of y forces The x and y equa tions yield the following differential equations of equilibrium for tro-dimensianal +A }teay =o © 10) ‘The differential equations of equilibrium for the case of thre-dimensional ress may be generalize from the preceding expressions a follows: 18 Warton of Sts Win a Bodyay ‘A sznet representation of thes expressions i given by Eq. (A1)AS the reo uulbriam relations of Bas (1.10) contain tre nknowns (ew ey) 888 the ‘ivee expressions of Eqs (11) involve the sx unknown stress comport prob- lems in rss analy are inerealy satically ineterminat Tira number of practical sppictions, the weight ofthe member isthe ony ‘ody force Hfwe take the yas ws upward and designate by p the mas density per Unit volume of the member and by g, the gravitational acceleration, then Foe Fn 0 and F, = =pg Be (110) and (11). The resultant ofthis free ‘ver the volume of the member i sully £0 small compared with the surface forces that it ean be ignored, sated in See, However in dypamic systems the Stresses caused by body frees may far exoced those asvociated with surface frees, {S08 (obs the principal inven on theses ek “Application of Ege (1.10) and (11) toa variety of loaded members is pre sented in sectors suploying the approach ofthe theory of elasisy, beginning ‘vith Chapter The fellowingsamie problem shows the ptirn ofthe body foes ‘htnbuton foran arbitrary sate of sess in equbrium. EXAMPLE 12 ‘Theres ld within an cat structural members epresied sft rows o,= Pt VY ty SSet 2 tea tty @ wth teed ane | Determine the body fore eiseibution requited fr equilibrium. Solution Substitution of the given stresses into Eq. (111) yields (-32) + (@) + Gre) += 0 (+O +O +R=0 (32) + (2 +29) +) +R =0 ‘The body force distribution, as obtained from these expressions, is therefore in shis ease, the body is notin sate euifbelum, and dhe inertia foes terms aq ~pay 206 pn, (where ay Nd 2 6 the componcas of seeleratia) Bust be l= duce in he body foes components F, and F, respec Eas (L11)., Chaper 1 Analtcof eesFes3P-4y-he Bay, Rady tdi 2 ©) ‘The state of stress and body foree at any specie point within the mes- ‘ber may be obtained by substituting the specific values of x,y, and into Eqs (@) and (¢), respectively, 19 TWO-DIMENSIONAL STRESS ATA POINT ‘A two-dimensional state of tress exits when the stresses and body forces are inde- Pendent of one of the coordinates, hete taken ar z, Such a state is described by stresses a4, 6», and 75, and the x and y body forces. Two-diniensional problems are of two classes lane stress and plane strain. In the case of plane stress, 2s describes inthe previous section, the stresses 6,7, and 7, and the z-itected sody forces are assumed to be zora. In the case of plane strain, the stresses =, and, and the body fores Fate likewise taken to be zer9, but ¢, does not vanish anc can be de termined from stresses @, and 0, ‘We shall now determine the equations for transformation of the stiess compo= nents 0». and ¢,, at any point of a body represented by an infinitesimal clement (Fg. 1.10a)."Mhe e-irected normal steoss¢, even iit is nonzero, need not be con sidered here. Consider an infinitesimal wedge ext from the loaded body shown in Fig, 1.108, bi. Its required to determine the stresses oy and ty, which refer to ates 2, making an angle @ with axes x, yas shown in the fguée. Let side AB be normal to the x’ axis Note that in accordance withthe sign canvention, ay and ty are posie tive stresses as chown in the figure. If the area of side AB is taken as unity then sides QA and QB have area cos 8 and sin 9, respectively. ‘Equilibrium of forces inthe xand y directions requires that FicuRE 1.10. Blement in plane stress ‘More deals nd itstratons of these assumption are given in Chapter 3. 19 Two-Dimensional Sets oa Pint veam 0, c068 + tysin® % where py and p, ate the components of svess resultant acting on AB in the x and y Girections respectively. The normal and shear stresses on the.x' plane (AB plane) fare obtained by projocting p, and p, i the x’ and y' directions: n.cos 9 + p, sine sey = py ~ sin ‘rom the foregoing it is lear that o2 + thy = pl ~ 9}: Upon substttion ofthe stress esultants from Ea, (1.12), Eas (2) become 6080 + 0,8 8 + 2h in B08 8 a.) co(eas?® ~ st?9) +(@,—a,)sin0cos (L138) “sues oy me ey ole by sabtting # + 2 fo Bin eee ax yoos® + o,sind @ 6p = 0, si 0 + 6, e056 ~ 2rySin 8 080 a9 Equations (1.13) can be converted to @ usefol form by introducing the following wigonomettic identities: $(1 + 0828), » sin 9cos 6 = }sin 2, siat 6» }(1 ~ 60528) cote “The transformation equations for stress now become oc =Ho.+e,) +Ha,~o,)c0s28 + rysin20 (Lda) sey =~ Hex ~ 0) sin 28 + 20628 aay c= Koto) ~{o.-o)o20—s,sinae te) ‘Tne foregoing expressions permit the computation of stresses acting on all possible planes AB (the state of ess ata point) provided tht three stress components on a setof orthogonal faces are knowa, Consider, for example, the possible states of stress corresponding to o, = M4MBa,c, = 4MPa, and 2, = 1OMPa. Substituting these values into Eq. (L.14) aad permitting 8 to vary om O° to 360° yields the data upon which the ives shown in Fig, 1 are based. Tas plots shown, called stress trajectories, are polar representations: cy versus 6 (Fig, L112) and rey versus 0 (Fig L1b).Itisob- ‘Served that the direction of each maximum shear stessbisecis the angle between the maximum and minimum normal stesses Note that the normal stress is either a ‘maximum of a minimum on planes at @ = 31.66° and @ = 31.66" + 90", respec- tively, for which the shearing stress 2270, The conclusions draum frm this exam- pile are valid for any two-dimensional (or three-dimensional) state of sess and will be observed in the sections to follow. It ean be verified thaf, Cartesian representa: ‘ons of Ea. (114), which may be sketched similar to what is shown in Fig. 1.7, lead to the same results [Ret 15). : Chapter Analysis of SvsCURE LIL. Polar representations of and ry (on megopatcaly) versie 8 110 PRINCIPAL STRESSES AND MAXIMUM SHEAR STRESS INTWO DIMENSIONS ‘The transformation equations for two-dimensional stress indicate that the norm stress oy and shearing stress", vary continuously asthe axes are rotated through the angle 8. To ascertain the orientation of x’y’ corresponding to maximum or muin- imum o,, the necessary condition da.id@ = 0 is applied to Ea, (1.14). lo so doing, we have (0, ~ ¢,)sin28 + 22,,c0828 = 0 o This yields Bry ass) tan 29, Inasmuch as tan28 = tan( + 26), two directions, mutually perpendicular, are found to satisty Eo. (1.15). These are the principal directions, along Vhich the prin- , Eg.) may be writin a8, . 113. Principal Sewers DireionsP= opi Bem oh © -Thaxe expressions togeths with Eq (122), esto Lo. (0, 8,) + tam + tat 0 a+ (,-slm nat =0 nd +ay0n +(e. 9,)n =O 26) ‘A nontrivial solution for the direction cosines requires thatthe characteristic deter- sina vanish: Mae me | ° am Expanding Bg (L2 eas to a beh + hy re where heatoyt 29) hao, + 0, Of ye cian) alt % / Ga0) “The three roots of the sires cubic equation (1.28) are the principal stresses corte~ sponding 9 which are three ses of direction cosines, which establish the relation- hip of the principal planes to the origin of the eonprineipal axes. Tae principat ‘Streses are the characteristic values o eigenvalues ofthe stress tensor 7, Since the Stress tensor isa symmetrio tensor whose elements are all rea it has ral cigeaval tues That i the three principal stresses are rea! (Ref. 1.6} The direction cosines 4m, land are the eigenvectors Of It is clear that the principal stresses are independeat ofthe orientation of the orignal coordinate system, I fllows from Eq, (128) that the coefficients, and 1, must likewise be independent of x, y,and z, sine otherwise the principal stresses ‘would change For example, we can demonstrate that adding the expressions for bevay, and oy given by Eq. (124) and making use of Bq, (1:25) leads to ee ge ay Fae = 1 + 6, + a Thus, the coeificients ff and iy represent three tvassents of the sttess tnsor in three dimensions or, briefly, the stress invari- (ins. For plane sss it i asinple mattar to show that the following quantities ace invariant (Prob. 111): Lrate;= ontop b 30) ry ~My = O28, . Chapt) Aras of SoeEquations (1.29) and (1.30) are particularly helpful in checking the results of a ‘ress transformation, as ilustrated in Example 17. If now one of the principal streses, sy «, obtained from Eq. (1.28) is substi- tated into Eq, (1.25); the resulting expressions, together with f+ m+n? = L, : provide enough information to solve forthe direetion cosines, th specifying the ‘tientation of o, relative to the xyz system. The direction cosines of @3 and 03 fe similarly obtained. A convenient way of determining the roots ofthe scess cubic ‘equation and solving for the direction cosines is pressated in Appendix B, where a related computer program is als included (see Table Bl). * EXAMPLE 1.6 ‘A steel shaft to be force fitted into a fixed-ended cast-iron hub, The shaft is subjected to a bonding moment M4, a torque 7, and a vertical force P, Fig 1.184, Suppose that ata point Qin the hub, the stress field is as show in Fig. 1.18b, represented by the marie m9 O4T 6.5 47 46 118 645 U8 -83 Determine the-Principal stresses and their orientation with respect 9 inate system, Substituting the given stresses into Bq, (1.28) we obvain from \ Solu o)~ 1L6IBMPa, oy = (02) 9.001 MPa, oy = ~25316MPa ‘Successive introduction of these values into Eq, (1.26), together with ‘Eq, (1.250), or appliction of Eqs (B.6) yields the dizection cosines that define the orientation ofthe plancs on which 01,03, and os act 0.6002, 1, = 07834 03802, m= 03306 0.8855, m= 05262 “Hee “EBS wy Foun 18, Reample 6 113 Paicpal Sec i Tse Dimensions mFiguee 119. Example 17. rote thatthe ezetons ofthe pina steesss ae seldom required for Detpones of pediting the behavior of structs members EXAMPLE 1.7 EXAMPEE caso at a point in x machine element with respec (2 & Tre Sey coordinate system is given by the following SFY: “(9 0 0 yo 20 0 |MPs © 0 40 20) petermipe Actas of sats and fi fy and fy for a8 2 72 SE Deter ened by rotating % y trough an ange of © = 45° cou pee cize about the z axis (Fig, 1.198) Keraton The dzetion cosines onexponding (0 the preserhed i Solan ein Pip 1398 Tus throug te we of Ea (629 tain 45-15 2828 “is 25-2828 | MPa @ iris soa that the aray (0) nd (4), when subtrated inte Ea, 2°) Coan yield = 100 MPa = 1400 (Pa), nds s Bote dane of In and / wider the orthogonal transformation isconfirmed. {ah NORMAL AND SHEAR STRESSES ON AN OBLIQUE PLANE rrissometimesequze to determine he searing and normal sess 508 1c soretplige pane of tetrahedron 2s in Fig 1200 phen principal stresses apbirary tans Png un perpendicular rine. Inte Bere 5 702 ae lo the principal axes Denoting the ierton anaes FS ‘ABC Ly ae Eee C12) mith 9, ~ O79 ~ Fa = Dandsoomeduceso Pea B= OI | PON @ cteting io Fig- 120 and defniins (the tes renin pis lee ax rina sees ad the sen components onthe aliens bythe expressior 2 Caper Anais ofSFIG: 1-20, (a) Element in iil ses; (b) sreser on an cetahedron. Pool tol toa +o eh) “The normal tess o on this plane, rom Eq, (1.24a),is found of + ox + oye 132) Substitution ofthis expression into Eq. (1.31) leads to = OP + obn + ohn? — (a + ogni + oye)? Expanding and using the expressions 1 — P= m2 + Wi = nl = P+ 80 0n, the following result is obtained forthe shearing stress on the oblique [cw ~ oP? + (62 — 05a? + (oy — oaree” as ‘This clearly indicates that if the principal tresses are all equal the shear stress van- ‘shes, regardess of the choices of the direction cosines For situations in which shear as well as normal siresses act on pergendicular planes (Fig, 1.208), we have py py and p, defined by Eqs (1.2), Tren, 24. (132) becomes 2 oe ogi + Ural + ent tale) —— (135) Hence, sate sumone] 036) where ois given by Eq. (1:35). Formulas (1.32) through (1.36) represent the simplified transformation expressions for the three-dimensional stress I interesting to note that substitution ofthe direction cosines from Eqs. (a) into Eq. (1.21) leads to 114 Nomal an Seo Sts on en Obie PlaneFigure 221. Ses elipsoid. (2) (2) (8) which is a stress ellipsoid having itg three somiaxes as the principal stresses (Fig. 121). This geometsial interpretation helps to explain the earlier conchusfon that ‘the principal stresses are tho extreme values ofthe normal stress Ja the event that On a oy = @,, 2 state of hyérostatic stress exists and the sires ellipsoid becomes a Sphere this case note again that aay three mutually perpendicular axes can be taken as the principal axes. a3n EXAMPLE LS Dotermige the tests acting on & plane of parila importance in fate theory, represented: by foe ABC. in Fg. 1202 ith QA = QB = QC. Solution Toe ual to this oblique face thus bas,equal direction oaince eget the principal ance Since + mt +r? = 1, we have \ 4 Cy t=meacte \ XK Vi Plane ABC isclearly one of eight such faces of regula octahedron (Fg. +1206) Eaqation (134) and () are aow applied o provide an expression forthe octahedral shearing tress, which may be rearanged wo the form tox = Ho, — 2 + (2 os + (soy 38) + Through the use of Eqs (132) and (b} we obtain ae = Hor +o * 0) a3) “The normal stress acting on an octahedal plane is thus the average of the principal stresses, the mean sires. The orientations of Og 303 om fre indvated in Fg, 1.20b, Another weal form of Fa, (1.38) is devel- ‘oped in See 2.13 LAS MOHR’S CIRCLE FOR THREE-DIMENSIONAL STRESS Teas been demonstrated thal, given the magntudes ofthe disction cosine ofthe . principal stresses, the steses on aly oblique plane may be ascertained through the Epica of Eqs (1.2) and (1). Thit may also be accomplished by means ofa ue Cryer Anais Sraephil technique due 19 Mohr a which the aforementioned eqGtiSar 4 Top resented by thre cles of sires [Rete 17 and 18} Insc anaes Hole oe. les a three dimensions have great atts a heuristic dee Lacteech ooo stress in their vrious transformations may pla role in eaalg either ld oe frastar ofa materiahit soften instructive flo hes ctlee, Consider the element sbown in i. 1.20 recuing rom the cutng of sal cae by an oblique plane The clement is subjected to princalsesec os aad 3 fepreseated a ordinate aus with the origin at . We ae intrested in Svc mining the normal an shear srsss acting et point G on the rt fae ple abcd). This plan is eriented soa obo tangent at © to a quatran a speed surface inscribed within a cube ements shown, Note lis QO, rumvng esse origin of the principal ais estes point Gwe Une of iterate of te shaded plans (Fig 1223) the lnliation of plane QAGGB, relative ore oases agven by the angle © (mcasuted inthe ono plane). an tha of plane DA, Es by the angle (measured in the 05 pane). Calan 8h. and Abed ag lected on the abe faces Isles that angles 0 and 9 unamblguuy dee ths entation of OG with espet tothe prinepl ance ‘Todetermine o and ives 0,00 the following procedure plied (refer vo Fe 12205 1. Establish a Cartesian coordinate system, indicating +0 aud + as stown. Lay off the principal stresses (10 scale) along the @ axis, with o> 05> 05 (alge rately). 2. Draw thee Mohr semicitees centered at C;, Cs, and C; (referred to as cicles e1Cu 6s) with diameters Aya, AgA;,and A\Ay 3 Atpoint C; draw ine CB; at angle 26; at €,, draw CyB, at angle 26. These li fut icles c, and cy at points By and By, respectively. NMS Mohr Cre for Pris Dimensional SesFIGURE 123. Planes of maximum shearing sess. a oy 4. By tral and error, draw ares through points Ay and B, and through A, and By ‘vith their centers on the « axis The intersection ofthese ares locates point G on the oy plane. Ia connection with the foregoing construction, several points are of particular interest: ‘a. Point G willbe located within the shaded area or along the ciscumferenes of it- cles ci, ey OF em forall combinations of @ and 6. b. For the particular ease 8 = = 0, G coincides with A, in Fig 122a and 6. For the case 8 = 45° and & ~ 0°, the shearing stress is a maximum located 25, the highest point on circle ¢)(20'= 90°). The value of the maximum shearing stress therefore Foor = 310, ~ 0) (40) sesing on the planes bisecting the planes of maximum and minimum principal fess as indeated in Pg 123 Ts aoted that the planes of maximum shear may dino be asertained by subtteting f= 1 — Pmt into Ba. (1.3),clleretiating ‘wth respect to land mand equating tbevesling expressions 210 (Prob. 1.61) ai For ¢ = = 45% line QG wil maks equal angles with the principal axes The blque lane icin this ease, an octaedral plane, aad the stresses acting onthe plane, the octahedral etessen Recall that Eqs (1.8) and (139) provide alge- trac expressions for these sess. EXAMPLE 19 Gre the sate of stress desribed in Fig, 124a, use Mohr’ ctl to de- termine (@) the principal stress and () the octahedral and maximum Shearing stresses Solution 1 int Moles crcl forthe tamatormation of aes ia the 2y plane is ‘Stetched in the asta Inanner as shown, centered at C, with dameter ‘Ardy (Fg 240). Neve, we complete tbe three diiensional Mobs Gicie by drawing two adtioaal semicircles of diameters AyAz nd A,Ay in he fire Referring tothe etl, he principal stresses ure 0, 2 100MPs, ,=ADMPa, and oy = ~6OMPs. Angle Chapter) Anais of Seeswea | ay, sop Ficune 124, Bxample 19, 8 = 2656", as tan 267 = 413, The results are sketched on a properly ‘ofiented element in Fig. 1.246 b. Now, applying steps 3 and 4 of the general provedure given for 8 = 6 = 45", the octahedral stresses are obtained graphically Fig L2eb}: mq = 26:7 MPS, Taq = 66 MPS ‘Note that, fom Eqs (139) and (1.38), we ean readily caleulate these sSuesses as 26.67 and 65 MPa, respectively. The maximum shearing stress, point By, equals the radius of ir lec; of diameter A,Ay Thus 100 ~ (=€0)] = 80 MPa ‘The maximum shearing stress occur on the plancs 45° from the y" and z faces ofthe element of Fig. 1.24 116 BOUNDARY CONDITIONS IN TERMS OF SURFACE FORCES We now con 118 Boundary Condon Terms of Src forces «the relaionship between the stress components and the given surface fores acting on the boundary of a body. The equations of equiltriu thet ‘must be satisfied within a body are derived in See 1.8.The distribution ofstressin 2 bbody must also be such as to accommodate the conditions of equilibrium with te-spect to'externally applied foroés The external forces may thus be regarded os a ‘continuation ofthe internal stress istibution. ‘Consider the equiibnum of the forees ating on te ttratidron shown in Fi 1.17a, and assume that oblique face ABC ie coiniet wit the surface ofthe body. “Te components of the sess resultant p arc thus now the surface forces per uit cao Surface ractons pp, nd p The equations of equilibrium fr this ele- tment representing boundary conditions are from Eqs (1.22) Pe sod + nay + tah Py tad + oy + a aan peated bam to For example, if the boundary is plane with an s-ditected surface normal, Ege (Lal) pve p= oe 2) = Tay Ad Pe = "ag under these circumstances tbe applied Sarfcs force components By pn and p, are balanced by On ty ANG Say ADEE tively Tis of interest to note tha, instead of preseribing the distribution of surface forces on the boundary, the boundary conditions of a body may also be given in terms of esplacement compoaents Furthermore, we may be givea boundary cond- tions that preserbe surface force on one part of the boundary and displacements fon another, When displacement boundary conditions are given, the equations of ‘uiibrium express the situation in trms of strain through the use of Hooke’ aw tnd subsequently in tems of te displacements by means of sran-displacement Felations (Sec 23) Ie is usal in engineering problems, however, to specify the boundary conditions in terms of surface fores a n Eq. (1.42), rather than surface Gsplacements This practice is adhered toi this text PROBLEMS Secs 14 through 18 1L1. Two prismatic bars of $0 mm by 75 mm rectangular cross section are glued as shown in Fig. PI.1. The allowable normal and shearing stresses for the {glued joint are 700 and S60 kPa, respectively. Assuming that the strength of the joint controls the design, what isthe largest axial load P that may be applied? 112, A prismatic steel bar of S0-mm by SO-mm square cross ection is subjected to an axial tensile load P = 125KN (Fig. 15a). Calculate the normal and FlovePLL. Crapir Ana SasFicune PAS, shearing stresses on all faces of an clement orientod at (a) @ = 20", and ona 13. A prismatic bar is under an axial load, producing a compressive stress of 75 MPa on a plane at an angle 0 = 30° (Fig. PL.) Determine the normal and shearing stresses onal faces ofan element al an angle of § = 50, LAL A squate prismatic bar of 1300-mm* cross aoctional area is composed of ‘wo pieces of wood glued together along the x’ plane, which makes an angle 9 with the axial direction (Fig. 15a). The normal and shearing stresses acting simultancous'y on the joint sre limited to 20 and 10 MPa, re- spectively, and on the bar itself to 56 and 28 MPa, eepeotively. Determine the maximum allowable axial load that the bar can carry and the corre sponding value of the angle 8 Pipe of 160-mm outside diameter and 10-mm thickness, pi at an angle of & = 40" with the axial (x) directca,is subjected to an axial compressive load of P = 150KN through the riid ond plates (Fig. PLS). Determine the normal oy and shearing stresses cy acting si ‘multancously in the plane ofthe weld, U6, The following describes the stress distribution in a body (in megapascals): nytt oP +2y, 117. Given zero body forces, determine whether the following stress distribu: tion ean exist fora body in equilibrium: o.= ~texy, ena Te = Glee F) Feat, tae Fravec PLS.Here the ee are constants « 18, Determine whether the following stress fields are possible within an clastic “sructural member in equilibrium: ax tay ex ay - byt ay? fa ) : 7 ofstg sek o [2] “The care constant, and tis assumed thatthe body forces are negligible. 19. For'what body frees wil the following tress field describe a state of equ brium? ee eee 32-3 me nade t yt te + aay — Bet y tt Sees L9 through L11 1L10. The states of stress at to points ina loaded beam are represented in Fig, P1.20a and b, Determine the following for each point: (a) The magnitude of the maximum and minimum principal stresses and the maximam shearing siucss;use Mo's cic, (b) The orientation of the principal and maximum sear planes; use Makr's ciace. (e)Sketeb the results on properly oriented tlements. Check the values found in (a) and (D) by applying the appropri- ate equations. {LAL By means of Mohr’ circle, verify the resalts given by Eqs (1.30). 1B An clement in plane sess (Fig. 1.3) is subjected to. stresses o, = SOMPa,o, = ~190MPs, and z,, = ~70MPa. Determine the prin- Sipal stresses and show them of a sketch of a properly oriented element 143, For an clement in plane stress (Pig, 1.35) the gotmal stresses are 6, ~ 0MPa and ¢, = 100 MPs, What is the maximum permissible Value of shearing stets 1, ifthe shosring stress in the matesal is not to ex- ceed 140 MPa? 14. The state of stzesson an clement oriented at @ = 60° i hown in ig, PLAS CCaleulate the normal and shearing stresses on an clement oriented at 8 = 0% ee bso so + be + e x ry » igure P10. haper!Anabyi ofScore aa re sd ae at aoe ure PL. Flour Ps. = 60" ‘093 LAS. A thin skewed plate is subjected to a uniform distribution of stress along its sides as shown ia Fig. P15. Calculate (a) the srdsses 0, 05." and (6) the principal stresses and their orientations, 16, The steess acting uniformly over the sides ofa rectangular block is shown in Fig. P116. Calculate the stress components on planes parallel and per~ ‘pendialar to mn, Show the results on 2 properly ofiented element, LAT. Redo Prob. 1.15 forthe stress distribution shown in Fig. PLA? LAB. A thinswvalled cylindrical tank of radius ris subjected simultancously to in- {eral pressure p and a compressive force P through rigid end pistes Deter- mine the magnitude of force Pto produce pure shear in the cylindrical wall LAD. A thin-walled cylindrical pressuce vessel of radius 120 mm and awall thick- ness of 5mm i subjected to an internal pressure of p = 4 MPs. In addition, an axial compression load of P= 30m kN and a torque of T = “On kN-m ‘are applied to the vessel through the righd ond plates (Pig, P19}. Deter- imine the maximum shearing sess and associated normal sresces in the cxtncrical wall Show the results ona properly oriented element. 120. A pressurized thin-walled cylindrical tank of radius ¢ = 60 mma and wall ‘thickness ¢ = 4 man is acted on by end torques T'= 600 N-m ind tensile 7oMPs Faure P16 Flours PI Ficuan PL, Probema .Figure P12, Froune PL, a. 12a, forces P (Fig, PL9 with sense of P reversed). Tiv internal pressure is p—5MPa. Calculate the maximum permissible value of P ifthe allow- Able tensile stress inthe eylinder wal is 0 MP, ‘Abhollow generator shaft of 180-mm outer diameter and 120-mm inner di- ameter carries simultaneously a torque T = 20kN-m and axial compres- sive load P = 700 &N. What isthe maximum tensile stress? ‘A cantilever beam of thickness ris subjected to a constant traction 79 ((oree per unit area) atits upper surface as shown in Fig, P12. determine, in terms of to hand L, the priscipal stresses and the maximum shearing, strest al the corner points A and B. ‘A hollow shaft of 60-mm outer diameter and 30-mm inner diameter is acted on by an axial tease load of 50 KN, a torque of 500 Nm, and a bending moment of 200 N-m. Use Mohr’s circle t0 determine the princ- pal stesses and their directions. ‘Given the stess acting uniformly over the sides of a thin lat plate (Fg. ~ P14) determine (a) the stresses on planes inlined at 20° to the horizon- tal and (6) the prinipal stresses and their orientations. A steel shaft of radius r= 75mm is subjected to an axis! compression SLKN, a twisting couple T= 15.6KN-m, and a bending moment MM = 13 EN-m at both ends Calculate the magnitude ofthe principal stresses the maximum shear sve andthe planes on which they ctin the shat. ‘A structural member is subjected to a set of forees and moments Each sep- “rately prodices the stress conditions at a point shown in Fig, P1.26, Deter- ‘mine the principal stresses and their orientations at the point under the effect of combined loading." a chaper} Anat of es Figuae P36.Ae Zh. ae zor Lat sonre ft + a sae Bole Frowne P28 1127, Redo Prob. 1.26 for the case shown in Fig, PI.27 4128, Redo Prob. 1.26 forthe ease shown in Fig, PI.2. 1129. The shearing stress ata point in a loaded structure is ,, = 40 MPa. Also, it fs known that the principal stresses at this point az oj = 40MPa and & = ~G0 MPa, Delermine e, (compression) and ¢, and indicat the prin- ‘Spal and maximum shearing stresses on an appropriate sketch. 1130. Acting at point ona horizontal plane in a loaded machine part are normal ‘suess 6, = 20 MPa and a (negative) shearing stress. One principal stress at the points 10 MPa (terile), and the maximum shearing stress of magni tude $0 MPs. Find, by the use of Mobe's circle, (a) the unknown stresses on the horizontal end vertical planes and (b) the unknown principal stress. ‘Show the principal tresses ona sketch ofa properly orientedelement BL. For a state of stress at a point in a structure, certain stress components are given for each of the two orientations (Fig. PI 31). Applying transtorms- ie ” Oe138. 134. cure PLS. rues FI. tion equations, calculate stress components © and tyy and the angle @ ‘between zero and 90°. ‘A solid shaft 200 mam in diameter rotates at f = 20 eps and is subjected 10 ‘bending moment of 2-7 KN-m. Determine the torque T and power P than can also act simultancously on the shaft without exceeding a resultant shearing stress of 56 MPa and a resultant normal stress of 98 MPa. (With F ‘expressed in rps and torque in N-m, P = 2efT in watts) “The cylindrical portion of 2 compressed-uir tank is made of S-ma-thike plate welded along 2 helix at an angle of ¢ = 60° withthe axial direction (Fig, P33). The radius of the tank is 250 mm. Ifthe allowable sbearing siress parallel to the weld is 30 MPa, caleulate the largest interoal preseure that may be applied ‘A thin-walled cylindrical taok is subjected to an internal pressure p and ‘uniform axial tensile load P (Fig, PL3). The radius and thickness of the tankare r = 045m and ¢ = 5 mm. The norma stresses ata point A on the surface ofthe tank are restricted to oy = S4MPa and cy, = 56 MPa, while Shearing stress ty is not specified. Determine the values of p and P. Use e= 30" . For a given state of stress ata point in a frame, certain stress components, ‘are known for each of the two oricatations shown in Fig. P15. Using vy fore Pek Te icure PIS topir araiisof Ses:+ o Ficuny P36 Mohr's ieee, determine the following stress components: (a) +, and (b) ry and a 136. The state of sires al a point in a machine member is shown in Fig, PL36. ‘The allowable compression stres atthe point is 14 MPs, Deteraine (a) the tensile stress o, and (b) the maximum principal and maximem shearing stresses inthe member, Sketch the results on propery orientedelement, 137, In Example 13, taking o, = 0, investigate the maximum sheaving stresses ‘on all possible (hcee-dimensional planes 1.38. A thio-walled pressure vessel of 60-mm radius and 4-mm thickeess is made fom spirally welded pipe and fitted with two rigid end plates (Fig, P18). ‘The vessel is subjected to an internal pressure of p= 2UPs acd « P = 50 KN axial load, Caleulae (e) the normal stress perpendicular to the ‘eld: (b) the shearing sess paralol to the wel. ‘A thin-walled cylindrical pressure vessol of0.3-m radi and 6-mn wall tick ness has.a welded spiral seam at an angle of @ = 30° with the axl direction (ig, PLS). The vessel i subjected to an internal page pressure of 9 Pa and an axial compressive load of P ~ 9x kN applied through rigid endplates Find the allowable value of p ifthe normal and shearing stresses acting simultane. ‘ously inthe plane of welding re ited to21 and’? MPs, repectily, Secs. 112 and 113 dQ, Thestate of stress ata point in an. yz coordinste system is § 20 12-15] 2 0 10|MPa 1s 10 6] Determine th stresses and stress invariants relative tothe x’ ',2” coordi nate system defined by rotating x,y through an angle of 30° counterclock- Wise about the z axis, LAL, Redo Prob, 1.40 fr the case in which the state of stress ata point in an sy, ‘zcootdinate system is 9 0 400 -20|MPa, -40 -2 20LAL, The state of stress ata point relative to an.x, yz coordinate system i given by : je 4 2 4-8 -1|MPa- - L246 CCalealate the maximum shearing tress atthe po 1143; At a point in a loaded member, the stresses relative to an x 9, z enordinate system are given by 62010 29 ~40--5 [MPa Costes as tina pce Me Bi fo 6 9 » PES She canlecenupts est tm ana tp ce ne system are given by 300 20 0 0 0 [Mpa m0 0, Determine by expanding the characteristic stress determinant (a) the pin ‘dpa stresses; () the direction cosines ofthe maximum principal stress. LAT. The stresses (in megapsscals) with respect to an x y, coordinate system E are deserved by eeetty gm met ote eH tytn [At point 3.1, 5), determine (2) the srost components with respect to Byzil MBO es, 8 het mah mB mek ome D and (b), the sires gomponcats with respect to <2") 2 if ie 2V5.m, = “V5, and m = 1. Sbow that the quantities given by Ha, (1.29) are invariant under the transformations (a) and (). Chapter! Anaysisof sessLAB. Determine the stresses with respect to the 2’, y',2” axes in the clement of Prob. 15 if unk 449, For the case of plane sires, verity that Eq, (1.28) reduces to Eg (1.16) 1150. Oblaia the principal stresses and the elated direction coxnes for the fol lowing cases - _— : 3 eT use 08155 (ye? |r, () | 08 697 52 [pe a lbs 1 13852163 Secs. 114 through 116 ASL The stross at point in a machine component relative to an x yz coordi- nate system is given by 100 40 0 40 60 80 mPa 0 9 20 Referring to the parallelepiped shown in Fig, PJ. calewate the normal stress o and the shear stress at point Q forthe sure parallel tothe fl lowing planes:(a) CEBG, (b) ABEF, (6) AEG. [Hin The posiion vectors ‘of points G&A and any point on plane AEG are, respetively, ¥, = 33, Fe" 4j.x, = kyr = ai + yJ + zk The equation ofthe plane is ghen by (Gm) xm) <0 (rast) Fictnn PIS Protonstrom which sy 2 340) 30 2 “The direction cosines ace then 0 of 4x4 3y + 62= 12 4 4 aot ee Vere e Ver 152, Re-solve Prob. 1.51 for the case in which the dimensions of the paral lelepiped are as shown in Fig P12. 1153 The state of stress at a point in a member relative to an x 352 coordinate systemis $2 10-107 . 10 300 |MPa [2% al Determine the normal stress and the shearing stress x om the surface in- int and parallel tothe plana: 2x + y ~ 32 = 8. |L54, For she Seesses given in Prob. 1.43, calculate the normal stress @ and the Zaring stress + on 2 plane whose outward normal is oriented at angles 435°, 60", and 75.6" with th x, and z axes, respectively. “155. Ata poiat in a loaded body, the stresses relative ton x,y,z coordinate sys em are 40 40 20 4o 20 0 [MPa 30 0 20 Determine the normal stress and the shearing stres x on a plane whose Satwerd normal is oriented at angles of 40", 75°, and 54* withthe % y,and 1 axes respectively. 4156, Determine the magnitude and direction of the maximum shearing stress for the cases given in Prob. 1.50. te RicuRe PLS? Chapter! Anat of SessLST. The stresies at a point io a loaded machine bracket with respect to the 5 yz axes are given as 3000 8 . 0 480 [MPa 0 0 =m. Determine (a) the octahedra stresses; (b) the maximum shearing stresses, 4158, The state of stress at a point in a member relative to an xy, zeoordinate systems given by 1000-80" 0 2 O}MPa “0 0 20. Calculate (3) the principal stresses by expansion ofthe characteistic stress determinant; (b) the octahedral stresses and the maximum sheaiiag stress. 159. Given the principal stresses o),02, and gy at a point in an elistic solid, prove thatthe maximum shearing stress a the paint always excecds the 0 tahedral shearing stress 160. Determine the value of the octahedral streses of Prob 145. LOL. By using Eq. (1.33), verity thatthe planes of oraximum shearing stress in three dimensions bisect the planes of maximum and minimum principal stresios Also find the normal stresses associated with the shearing plane by applying Eq, (132). 1.62. Consider u point in a loaded body subjected to the stress field (megapas- cals) represeated in Fig, 1.62. Determine, using only Mohr's cide, (a) the principal siresses and their orientation with respect to the original system and (6) the normal snd shear stresses on an oblique plane sietanes of tne flament that accompanies achange in the strain Deformation of He aera or hich tho gage is bonded results ina deformation ofthe backing 99 WS Sage gel, Thus, with sain, a variation in he estance of the ge wl grid age a change inthe voltage across the grid. An electrical ridge circuit 3 a ers tne quae by means of lead wies, is then used fo transite clecial Te ato sans The Wheasione Bridge, one ofthe mest aenurate and conve anes Ten of ths ype employed i capable of measuring strains a small as Strain Rosette Special combination gages are aval for che measurement of ce ate of S08 SPER Sn a surtacesiltancousy i three more iections General hese ata Fol hice gages nese axes ate either 45° or 60" apart. Consider three stain ssa. / err" ee? ® w Ficune 212. () Sain gase (0) strain rote. Cchaper? Sram and SeeeSein Relationsgages located at angles 8,6), and 9, with respect to tefereace axis x (Fig, 2.126), “The a b-,and edirected normal strains ae, from Eq, (2.108), eccos! + ty sin 04 c05 8, 8 + Sit 6088 239 = 650088, + a, sin? 6, + sin 6008 2, cos + 6, sia? When the values of fae, and f Fe measired for given gage orientations 8D 0 By the values of ty ey and“, ean be obtained by simalencous solution of Eqs G4). The arrangement of gages employed for ths kind of measrement is called asain rove. ‘Once strain components ae know, we can apply Eq, (3118) of Sea.3.4 wo de- teamine the out-of plane principal rain eT in-plane principal sri and Gt orientations may be obtsined realy wing Eqs (212) and (2.13), 8 Mustated sent Moke crete for strain EXAMPLE 2.6 Strain rosette readings are made ata eritical point on the free surface in ‘structural steel mernber. The 60° rosette contains three wire gages po- sitioned at 0°, 60", and 120* (Fig, 2.428). The eadings are 200), ee = —300 @ Determine (6) the in-plane principal stains and stresses and their dec tions,and (b) the true maxiraum sheating straia, The material properties are E = 200 GPa and » = 03, Solution For the situation described, Ea, (2-34) provides three simul = 190m, 6, From these, and e; may be observed from a Mobr’s circle construction corresponding to the state of strain e, 6, and, at the point under consideration, 20 Mesaremantof Srabe Bonded Soin Cages‘a Upon subtituting numerical values, we obtain 6 b 190 377 The, fro Eq. (213), the principal 20 py and “Yy imam, [ssn 130)", (sm) ea a Z =20u 2308 230, 62-3008 ro) “The maximum shear strain i found from Yous = (6) ~ 23) = $1360 = (-300)] 4 = 2660 “The orientations of the principal axes are given by Eq, (2.12): =95, of, 205" @ tea issn B02) tpt ty 0) on Moe, Hasce3" an serpents Bot melurdinn de owl abi stole ae SocaT glare any nw eu tom te pene SST Seti gute ot for pae en peters oral oy os opsher win be a= 2B 4 03(-30]104) = 4M p= 22222 399 « 030] = ~22Ps ‘The directions of w, and os are given by Eq. (d). From Faq. (230), the maximum shear stress ag — OI ee" 30+ 03) Note as. chock that (a) — ‘Applying Ea. 6. neophyte) 60 x 10 = 50.77 MPa V2 yeas the same result 1b), the out-of plane principal strain is 03 SE gtt90 ~ 130) = 26 ‘The principal stain found in part (a) is redesignated «, = ~300 so that algebraically 2, > oy, where o, = ~26 e. The tmar maximums shearing strain Grea): = Her ~ 23) @39) Is therefore +660, as already calculated in part (2). Chapter Sra and Set Sain RelciontTAwe21. Stain Rosette Equations 1. Rectangular rosette or 45° serain rosete Principal strains: can feras Vien ait Gon Principal stresses: ete. temas Ditcetions of principal planes: tan2e, = 2. Dettarosete oF 60" sain rosette Principal strains: = [erases Vera one PeSe 3] exo Principal stresces: Efatete, Vip oar SBF 8tee ive eam Dizon of princi panes tan20, = ame Employing a procedure similar to that used inthe preceding numetical exam Pla, its possible to develop expressions relating thre=-clement gage outputs of var {ous rosettes to principal strains and stresses Table 2.1 provides two typical cases: ‘equations forthe rectangular rosere (9, = 0", 6 = 45°, and 8, = 5, Fig, 2125) and the dela rosete (9, = O°, 8, = 60", and 0; = 120°, Fig, 2.126). Experimental stress analysis is facilitated by this kind of compilation, 24, STRAINENERGY “The work done by external forces ia causing deformation is stored within the body fn the form of sirain energy. In an ideal elastic process, no dissipation of energy ‘aes place, and al ie stored encrgy is recoverable upon unloading. ‘We begin our analysis by considering a rectangular prism of dimensions de dy, de subjected to uniaial tension. The front view of the prst i represented in Fig, 2.13a. Ifthe stress is appliod very slowly, as i¢ generally the ease inthis text, itis cea sonable to assume that equilibrium i maintained at all times In evaluating the 210 Sin EneProporins sie neat este o o icone 2.13. (a) Displacement under wna stress (6) work dons by ruara ese work done by stresses 6, on either side ofthe element, itis noted that each stress wer hough a different displacement. Cleary, the work done by oppositely dl- SE forces (ody de) tough positive displacemeat (a) cancel one another. The net work done on the element by fore (a, 4y de) is therefore = au [ed Bac) ards = 0, doslaxdyée) av ai= [Send Hae)epace [osetansres sehere au = e, Nove that dis the wor done on dy de and dU the conre™ Sponsing increase in strain energy. Designating the strain nergy par wnt volume (Girain encrgy density) a8 U;, fora linearly elastic material we have tie [loses [Ente © ‘After integration, Ea (a) yields 238) “This quantity represents the shaded area in Fig. 2130. The area above the Tress stain curve, termed the complementary energy density, may be determined [row ex For a linearly clastic meterial, Up = U%, but for @ nonlinearly elastic material Uuand U: wil differ as seen inthe figure. The unit of strain energy density in St tualts isthe joules per cubie meter (Jim’), or pasals; in US. Customary Units it Wrexprested tn iuclepounds per eubie iach (in.lbvin?), or pounds per square inch (psi). ‘Whea the material is stressed to the proportional tii, the strain energy den sity ie neferre t0 as the modulus of resilience. I is equal to the area under the Stuight line portion of the stress-strain diagrem (Fig, 2.68) and represents & mea~ Serer the material’ ability to store or absorb energy without permanent deforma Cchager 2 Sin an Sets Seain Relationstion. Similarly the atea under an entice sros-strain diagram provides ameasur of materia’ ability to absorb energy up to the point of fracture; It called the modulus of toughness. The greater the (al area under a stress-strain dagram, the {ougher the materia Te the cae in which 9,,0, and 0; ac simultane the total work done by these normal sresssisimply the suas of expressions similar to Eg. (28) foreach ireation. This is because an xdiected stass does no workin the y or zditetions ‘The total strain energy per volume this Us = Heres + 08, + 948) © ‘The elastic stain energy associated with shear deformation is now analyzed by considering on cloment of thickness de subject only to shearing stress, (Pig 2214), From the igure, we note that shearing force", dade cases a deplacement Of yo, dy. The strain energy due to shear is (dy dy), where the factor} aris becase the tes varies nearly with tein fom 27 (0s ial aera be foce The stain enray density therefore lange, <4 Obst = Bet = 16H, ea) Because the work done by s,y accompanying perpendicular stains and Ye: is 2210, the (otal stain energy density atributabic to shear alone is found by supespo sition of three terms identical in form with Eq, (2.40) UW, Marty + the + Fecha) © Given a generat state of stress, the strain energy density is found by adding Eqs. () 20d ©: Up= oie + O46, + Ose arly FHT Teed — ALY Introducing Hooke’ lav into Eq, (241) feads tothe folowing form invelving only stresses and elastic constants: u, tee) 1 (+o) +0) - Xoo, +o, EOE oD — How, + 0, Ch tmed (242) FicuRE214, Deformation dae to pure shear, 2 Sain ery‘Aa alternative form of Ea, (2-41), writen in terms of strains is Up ie +26(6 +5 +d) + 604, + ae * Ye) (23 “The quantities A and care defined by Eas (2.32) and (2.31) respectively. ip intaresting to observe that we have the relationships wa) BAe) my 2 Here U(s) and Us) designate the strain eneray densities expressed in terms of rose and strain cespetvely [Eqs (242) and (243) Derivatives of this type wil Pe ctted again in connection sith energy methods in Chapter 10. We note that Eqs tt) and (227 ave tw Bim ane em Oo, Gee + Cats + ciate Feary + iste * Cte eas) 2.46) We are led 10 conclude fom these results that ¢, ~ (i, ™ 1,2,-.-16). Beeause (of this symmetty of elastic constants there can be at most ((36 ~ 6)2] + 6 = 21 ‘dependant elastic constants for an anisotropic elastic bod.” 242. STRAINENERGY IN COMMON STRUCTURAL MEMBERS ‘To detormine the elastic sain energy stored within an entire body, the elastic en- cngy density integrated over the onginal or undeformed volume V. Therefore, w= [uer= ff forsearse em “The foregoing shows thatthe eacrgy-absorbing capacity ofa body (that i, the fail- lie resistance), which i critical when loads are dynamic in character, i @ function finateril volon. This contrasts withthe resistance to failure understate Loading, Sihich depends on the cres sectional ara or the section modulus for a discussion of th laste properties of varios lasses of materials se Ref 26 ayi2?. ipter2 Sian and Stee Siin Raion:Frounn2t8, Nompimac arith joa veryung anal loading be | Equation (2.47) permits the strain energy to be readily evaluate! for @ number of commonly encountered geometries and loadings, Note especially thatthe sala energy isa nonlinear (quadratic) function of load or deformation. The principle of ‘superposition is thus noi valid for the strain energy. That fy the efeets of several forces (or moments) on strain energy are not simply additive, as demonstrated in Example 27. Some special eases of Bg. (2.47) Follow. Strain Energy for Axally Loaded Bars ‘The normal stress at any given transverse section through a nonprisuatic bar sub ected to an axial force Piso, = P/A, where A represonts the cross-sectional ares (Fig, 218) Substituting this and Eq. (238) into Eq. (247) and setting dV = A ds, wehave pat. pep um [Save [ Fea 2.48) ‘When a prismatic bar is subjected at its ends to equal and opposite forces of magni tude P, the foregoing bseomes oe Zk (249) where Lis the length ofthe bar. EXAMPLE 27 AA prismatic bar suspended from one end caries, in addition to its own ‘weight, an axial load P, (Fig. 216). Determine the strain anergy U. stored in the bar. Solution The sxil (once P setng on the shaded clement indicated is expressed PrrAl~ a) +2 ® where y is the specific weigh ofthe matetial and 4, the cross sotional area of the bar. Inserting Eq, (a) nto Ea, (2.48). we have i. fe 2) +0R PAL yA PL on [a UE AE BE amy ‘Tae first and the thed lerms on the right sido represent the stain en- ergy ofthe bar subjected to its own wight and the strain energy MT a bar BID Soin tery i Cron Stra MembersRoure216, Bxample27-A prismatic bar loaded 0 bys weight and loed Py T T Ly of | 4 supporting only axial force P,, respectively. The presence ofthe middle tonm indicates that the strain energy produced by the two loads acting ‘inuttancously is cot simply equal tothe sum of the strain energies 28- Soviated with the loads acting separately Strain Energy of Ciealae Bars in Torsion ‘Consider a circular bar of vanying cross section and varying torque along its axis (Gig 215, with double-headed torque vector T replacing foree vector F). The state Se Siccss fs pure shear. The torsion formula (Table 1.1) for an arbitrary distance p fom the centroid of the eross section results in r = Tpld. The strain energy density Eq, (240), becomes then U, » Tip!2J%G. When this introduced into Ea. (247), mee gdje ' 1A dx dA represents the crose-sectional area of an clement. By def- tia J of the cross wey oe re eae v- [Be sy cn tec op tp ie ea dot T, Eq. (2.51) yields ex) here Lis the length ofthe bar ‘Strain Energy for Beams in Bending For the case of a beat in pure bending, the flexure formula gives Us the axial nor imal stress ¢, = ~My (see Table 1.1). From Eq. (2:38), the strain energy density 0, = My"REP, Upon substituting this into Eg, (247) and noting that MET is ‘a function of x alone, we have Chapter? SrainandSoss-Sin Relators+ [Ef fru) © Hore, as before. dV = dA dx, and dA represents an clement of the cross-sectional area, Recalling thatthe integral in parentheses defines the moment of inertia [of the cross-sectional area about the neutral axis, the strain energy is expressed as ae [ ihe 33) ‘where integration along beam length Z gives the required quantity, 213, COMPONENTS OF STRAIN ENERGY A new perspective on strain energy may be gaioed by viewing the general state of strcss (Fig. 2.172) in terms of the supesposition shown in Fig. 217. The stale of stress in Fig. 2.17b, represented by oy 0 0 0 om 0 @ 0 0 ow resis in volume change without distortion and is termed the dilatational sess tensor. Here oj = j(6, + 0, + o,) isthe mean sees dined by Ba. (138). ASSO, slated with oy is the mean strain, tq = le, +e, + e,). The sum of the no mal stains acompanying the application ofthe diationa tes tonsa i theo latation ¢ = 2, + €, + £5, represcating change in volume only, Thus, the Ailatationalsrsn energy absorbed por unit volume is given by nigiitaea? asp win nae 5 29 EY = ana Fiowne-219. Resolution of a) state of ses ito (b)ditaional sess ad (6) isortonal trees 219 Compares of Sean ery“The state of stress in Fig, 2.17e represented by ent to | facalled the deviatoric or dstortional stress tensor. This produces devistor strains oF tortion without change in volume. This is because the sum of the normal strains 5s (ea €2) + (6) ~ Bq) * (ez ~ eq) =O The distortional energy per unit vol- lume, Uy associated with the deviatoric stess tensor is attributable to the change ‘of shape of the unit volume, while th volume remains constant. Since Uy and Urs tre the ouly components of the strain energy, we have U, = Un, + Une By subtract- ing Eq, 254) fom Ea, (242), the distortional energy is realy Cound vo be fg = So, Ua gt 255) “This is the clastic strain energy absorbed by the unit volume as a result of its claange in shape (distortion). Inthe preceding, the octahedral shearing stress tay i aivenby sea” Sloe 9)? + ()~ 0)? + (@~ o2 + 64 +A + HII SH. “The planes where the Tq acs are shown in Fig, 1.20b of See. I.14.The strain energy of distoction plays an important role in the theory of failure of a ductile metal tnder any coneition of sires. This is discussed further in Chapter 4. The stresses land strains associated with both components of tae strain energy are also very use ful in deseibing the plastic deformation (Chapter 12). EXAMPLE2.8 ‘A mld stel bar of uniform crass section A is subjected to an axial ten- sile load P. Derive an expression (or the strain energy density its com- ponents and the total strain energy stored inthe ba. Let v = 025 Solution Tae state of stress at any point in the bar is axial tension, ty = te = ty = 8) =O = 08, = 6 = PIA (Fig, 2.172). We there fore have the stresses astociated with volume change oy = o/3 and shape change C, ~ Ow = 2013.0; ~ Om = 02~ m= —0F3 (Fig. 2.17b,). The strain energy densities forthe State of sire in cases a,b and ¢ are found, respectively 3s follows: un Ge Ou GE BE © y= BAe Se ea 3E DE ptr’ Sin ana See Sae ReaionsObserve from these expressions that Ul, = Uy + Ung and tat Sle = Use ‘Thus we sce that in changing the shape of @ unit volume clemwat under uniaxial stressing, five times more energy is absorbed than in changing the volume. 244 SAINT-VENANT’S PRINCIPLE ‘The reader wil recall from a study of Newtonian mechanics that, or purposes of analyzing the statis or dynamics f a body, one Fores system may be replaced by an ‘equivalent fores system whose force and moment resultents are en fal. Tis often added in discussing this point that the fore resultants, while equivalent, need not case an identical distribution of stro, owing to difference in the errangement of the forees Saint-Venant's principle named for Barré de Saint-Venant (1797-186). famous French mathematician and clastician, permits the use of an equivalent load ing forthe calculation of stress and stain Ths principle sates that, ian actual Inibation of forces is replaced by a statically equivalent system, ie distribution of stress and strain throughout the body is alterod only near the regions of load pplication. ‘The contribution of Saint-Venant’s principle to the solution of engineering problems is very important, ort ften frees the analyst ofthe burden of prescribing the boundary conditions very precisely when its diffcut to do so. Furthermore, ‘here a certain solution is predicated ona particular boundary loading, he solution can serve equally for another type of statically equivalent boundary loading, not ‘uite the same asthe Sirs. That i when an analytical solution calls fora certain d= tribution of sires on a boundary (such ato, im See. 5.5) we need not discard the 50 ution meroly because the boundary distribution is not quite the same as thet ‘equited by the solution. The value of existing tahtions is thus greatly sxtended. Seiat-Venant's principe is confirmed in Fig. 218, which shows te sess dsti= bution, obtained using the methods ofthe theory of elasticity, across ‘hres sections fr r feeot f FRE 218. Sires distbution due toa concentrated led ina rectangular ela plate ‘confirming the Saint Venant prop +See, for example, Refi.28 and 29 216 Sate Vran Preileounce 219. Covilever beam duraing use of Saint Yenants prc (leo) ceil apport (0) satel euivalnt of arectangular cast plate of width B ubjoced tox concentrated load (Ref 2.10} ‘Tho cvcrage sesso. a5 piven by Eq, (1) is also sketched i che diagrams, From theo ote thatthe aximum ste Gy, greatly exceeds the average sess Near {he gine of application of the load and diminisies 38 we move along the vertical ee 2enGs of te plate avay from an end. Ata distance equal tothe width ofthe plats the ses is nearly wlform, “fae tovegeing observation also holds tue for most stress concentrations and pracy ny type of loading, Thus, the base formals ofthe mechanics of mater shoe dh sacs a member with High accra, provided that he cross section in Sion a least a dance for) away trom any conceatrated oad or discon” sot shape. Here b (orb) denotes the largest tera! dimension of member. We Pan shat win this stance the stresses depend on the detail of loading, bouné- eer onclvona end geometry ofthe sess concentration, si seen in Chapter 3. qeinsicen for eeample the sobstittion of uniform distribution of stress atthe ends toni test specimen forthe actual) erglardstefbuion that results from SES Suing If we require te stress ina region away from the ends the stress Se Sion atthe ends need not be of concer, sine it doesnot lead to significant Vahtion io the zopion of interest As a frther example secording to Saint Vanants principe te complex distribution of force supplied by the wall to 2 can- Tieue beam (ap 2192) may be replaced by vertical and horizootal forces and 2 wrestcot (Fig? 190) for purposes of determining the streses acting ata distance {fom the wall equal to or greater than the depth of the beam. PROBLEMS Secs. 21 through 26 2a. Determine whether the following strain fields are possible in a continuous material: » [57 eh w Pee? ex] ° [ ey oS OL ee Fe Here cna smal onstn andi sumed that 6, c= = 22, Rectengle ABCD is sete onthe surface of « member prior to losing RSS" lowag ine appcaton of the load he placement fel expressed Chapter 2 SranandSesSesia RelaisFiowne P22. et, v= els? 37) where ¢ = 10, Subsequent to the loading determine (a) the length ofthe sides AB and AD-(b) the change in the ange between sides AZ and AD: and (6) the coordinates of point A 23. A displacement field in a body is given by um e(at + 10) v= Dey w= ol-xy +24) where c = 10. Determine the state of strain on en clement positioned at 0,21). 2A The dsplacement fil and strain ditrbaton ino membor hav th form Tey + ayy + osty wo byxty + byxy ey = tly + yey + ene? + yy? at relationships consectng the constants (a b's and cs) make the foregoing expressions possible? 25. Redo Prob. 24 forte following gytom af stein: ee Mag tay + yt fy byt bateat et eaye+ +6) 26, A 100. by 130.nm rectangular plate QABC is deformed into the shape shown bythe dated lines in Fig: P2.5All dimension shown in the ge are ia milimetec. Determine st point Q (a) the stain conponcals ney Yon and (0) the principal strtne andthe Giteton ofthe prnepal Ww 27. Calculate the principal strains and thei orientations at point 4 of the de- formed rectangular plate shown in Fig. 2.4 of Exatnple 21. 28, As result of loading, the rectangle shown in Fig, P2.8 deforms into a par- allelogram in which sides QA and BC shorten 0.003 mm and rolte 500Fiouae P26. iouae P28. radian counterclockwise while sides AB and QC elongate 0.004 mm and Totate 1000 radian clockwise, Determine the prineipal strains and the d- Testion of the principal axes at point Q.Take @ = 20mm and 6 = 12mm. 29. A thin rectangular plats a= 20mm x b= I2mm (Fig, P28) is acted thon by 2 stress dstbution reslting in the union strains, = 300 s-— we sG0qn and Yq) = 200. Determine the changes ia length of diago- als OB and AC. ‘240, Redo Prob. 29 using the fellowing information: a = 30 mm, b= 15mm, ec = 400s 2, = 200 and yyy = ~300 ‘AL. A thin plate subjected to uniform shear stess 7 = 70 MPa (Fig, PI.24 of Chapter 1) Let E = 200 GPa, v = 03, AB = 40mm, and BC = 60 me. ‘Deteraine (a) the change in length AB, (b) the changes in length of diagonals IAC and BD, a (6) the principal straics ad ther directions at point A. 242. ‘The principal strains at a poiat are e; = 400 and e ~ 200s. Determine (a) she mpxiiium shear stain and the direction along which it occurs and eains in the ditections at @ = 30° from the principal axes Solve © problem by using the formulas developed and check the results by ext ploying Mohe's circle. Zaz Adm by 2m soctangeas thin plate is deformed by the movement of point B to Bas show by the dashed lines in Fig. P213. Assuming a cispiace- tment field of the form w= czy and v = cary, wherein cj and ¢, are con: stants, fe (a) expressions for displacements u and v; (b) strain ae 5 € Froune P213, % Chap? Sein and Sree Sala Refionscomponeais-e. ty and y,, at point B;and (c) the normal strain in the itesfiat of line QB. Verify that the strain Geld is possible, strains al a point are ¢, = —900 u,€, = ~300y and Yyy = 9004, ‘what are the principal strains and in what direction do they decur? Use Moles circle of strain. 2.18, Solve Prob.2.14 for e, = 3004, 2, = 900 2, and 7 = ~90Dp. 2.46. A 3.m by L-m by 2m parallelepiped is deformed by movement of corner A to 4” (2.9995, 1.0005, 1.9994), a8 shown in Fg, P2.16. Assuming that the Aispiacemet feld i given by Eqs (218), calculate at point (a) the train ‘components and ascertain whether this strain disuibution is possible (b) the normal strain in the direction of line AB;and (c) the shearing stra for the perpendicular lines AB ané AC. 217. Redo Prob. 216 for the case in which eomer point A is moved to A’ 6.0005, 0.9997, 19996}, 2.18. At a point ina stressed body the strains, elated tothe coordinate set xyz are given by ery eee 200300200 300-100 500/n &)395 20500 400 Determine: (a) the strain invariants; (0) the normal strain the x” dre. tion, whic is directed at guangle 9A" fem he-c ans) the pina Stns yey and eg and @) ONE seat 5 218, Solve Prob. 2.18 for asta of strain given by 400 10 wo 0 ~200 |. 0-20 ew, 22n. The following dosribos the state of strain aa pont ina srutural member 450 600 $00 600 300 750 | $00 750. 130 Determine the magnitudes and drctions ofthe pricipal strains Fron P26. Probions2a. 222, ‘A tensile testis performed on a 12-mro-diameter aluminum alloy specimen (= 033) using a SO-nm gage length. When an aia tesil Toad reaches S vatue of 16 EN. the gage length has increased by 0.10 mam. Determine (8) {ho modulus of clastity, (b) the dacrease Ad in diameter and the cilata- tion eof the bar. ‘A Ti-mm-diameter specimen is subjected to teasile loading, The increase ‘length sosuling from a load of 9 IV is 0025 mm for an original length TL of TS mim, What are the true and conventional strains and stresses? Cal- calate the modulus of elasticity. Sees 27 through 19 223, 22s. 'A So-m-squate plate is subjected to the stresses show in Fig, P2.23.What ‘eformation is experienced by diagonal BD? Express the solution in verms Of for » ~ 03 using two approsches: (a) Determine the components of Strain along the x and y directions and then employ the equations governing {he transformation of strain (b) determine the stress on planes perpendicir Jar and parallel to BD and then employ the geacralized Hooke’s law. 'A uniform pressure p acts over the entire stright edge ofa large plate Fig p22) What are normal stess components g and 9, acting on a volume ‘Hc clement at some distance from the loading in terms of Poissons ratio pnd p.as required? Assume that e, = £, = Oand o, = ~p everywhere 'A.AS? yosete is used to measure stain a aeritica point on the surface ofa foaded beara. The readings are 4, = ~100 4, 2 = 50, c= = 100m for f= 0°, 6 ~ 45%, and 6 = 50° (Fg. 2.12b). Caleulate the principal straias fd stresses and sher directions Use E = 200 GPa and v = 03, 5. The followit state of strain hes been measured at 2 point on the surface of juordie book. £, = 1000, ep = ~250 a, and ¢, = 200) for 6, = 15%, $= 30", and 6, = 75° (Fig. 2120). Determine strain components ex fy and “The strains measured ata point on the surface of ¢ machine element are ee ta aad 50 for 6, = 30%, Oy ~20% ane + somes ol fc ee a sue . wove = (ERER ETI Le Figure F228, Figure F224 Chapter? Saino Svee Sein Rtas8. ~ 90" (Fig, 2.12b), Calculate (a) the in-plane maxiraum shearing stain, and (b) the true maximum shearing strain, Use » = |. 228. Fora piven steel, = 200 GPa and G = 80 GPa. Ifthe state of strain at @ point within this materials given by 200 100 100 300 400 | rn) certain the corresponding components of the sess tensor. 228, For a material with G = 80 GPa and E = 200 GPa, determi tensor fora state of stress given by ‘ m4 5 ~¢ 0 10|MPa 310 15) the strain 230. The cistribution of stress in an aluminum machine componeat is givca Gia smegapascals) by 83H yt Calculate the state of strain of a point positioned at (1, 2, 4). Use E=70GPe and y= 03. 231. The distribution of stress in a structural member is given {in megapascals) bby Eqs. (¢) of Example 1.2 of Chapter 1. Calculate the strains ct the spect fied point OC, f, 3) for E = 200 GPa and v = 0.25. 232 An aluminum alloy plate (£ = 70GPa,¥= 1/3) of dimensions 42 = 300mm, & = 400 mm, and thickness ¢ = 10 mm is subjocied to Sia. ial stresses a8 shown in Fig. P2.32. Calculate the change in (a) the length AB; (b) the volume ofthe plate. ae& Frome P22 PromsFicuas F238, 2.38, ‘The tel rectangular paclictepiped (E200 GPa and Fig 7293 has mensions ¢ = 250mm, 8 = 200m, ad ¢ Bvoubjected to tincal sveses cy = ~60MPa, 0, = SO MPa, and = MHOMPa acting oo the = yan faces respect. Determine (2) ibe changes doy Ab, ond Ae inthe dimensions ofthe block, and (b) the ‘hinge AV inte volume. 234, Redo Prob.2.33 for an aluminum block (E = 70 GPa and v = }} for which f= 150mm, 6 100mm, and c= 75mm, subjected io steses G.= 70MPa, ¢, = ~30MPa, and 0, = ~15 MPa 238, Ata point in an elastic body the principal strains ese rin the ratio Sha: Ste larges principal ses is 9; = IMO MPe, Deteine the ratio ao, and th vl of cy an0 Take» = 03 and E = 200 GPa 236. A rectangular plates sbjected to uniform tense stress alongs upper {nd lonerooperasshown in Fig P236 Determine the doplacerents and ‘rin terms of yy and materia proper (E,»): (2) wing Ege 2) and the appeoptitecontons athe ein () by the mechaics of material approach, 237, The stress il in an case bodys given by ot 0 One, where cis a constant, Derive expressions forthe displacement components ay) and u(y) inthe Body. Flours P26 Chap? Souinand Sree Reaont238. Derive the fotoningeations involving the lsc conan: rosy) eg X= 3) Ty 2KG~ 20) 3KE Kentio~ 20ty) “SRE oko) FG TPO # 0) = 5K(t 29) = GAG f-1-38 KE 2 FORT G) 6K 2.29. As shown in Fig, P39, thin prismatical bar of specific weight and cone stant cross section hangs in the vertical plane. Under the effect ofits own Weight, the displacement fcld is deseribed by -o Yq pany ‘The < displacement and stresses may be neglected, Find :he strain and stress components in the bar. Check to soe whether the boundary cond’ tions (Eq, (141)] are satisfied by the stresses found, 2.40. A uniform bar of rectangular cross section 2k > b and specific weight y tangs the vera plane (i P20) leweigh resle a dpeoree w= tte z 4 vee we Be 2) +s Demonstrate whether this solution satisfies the 1S oqualiors of clasticity and the boundary conditions UU TR = cum P28. Picune P20,Sees 21 through 2.4 2a. 20. 245, ‘A bar of uniform cross-sectional area A, modulus of elasticity £, and length Li fxed at its right end and subjected to axial foress F, and Pat its fee end, Verify thatthe total strain energy stored in the bar is given by RL, Pil , BPl 2AE * 24E * AE [Note that Us not the sum of the strain energies due to P, and A, acting separately. Find the components of the energy for F,= R= P and 125. v e2any ‘Three bars of succesively larger volume are to support the same load P (fig, F242), Note thet the fist bar has uniform cross-sectional crea A ‘over its Jength L. Neglecting stress concentrations compare the stain en ergy stored inthe teee bass A solid bronze sphere (E = 110 GPa,v = J,r 150 mm) is subjected to thydrostatie pressure p so that ts volume is reduced by 0.5%. Determine (2) the prostate p, and (0 the strain energy U stored i the sphere (Note: Nolume of aphore V = {er} Calculate the total stain energy U stored in the block desrbed in Prob 233, ‘A round bar i comprised of thre segments of the same materi (Fg. P45) The dameter is forthe lengths BC and DE and nd for length CD, vere mis the rato ofthe two diameter. Neglecting the sires concen: trations, verily hat the strain energy of the bar when subjected £0 axial load Pis 143m PL OG DAE 24s) where A= ma/4, Compare the result for m n= (@) Taking into account only the effect of normal stress determine the strain energy of prismatic beam AB due to the axial force P and moment M, act Lary AE hy ure PAR, with those for n = J and Chaplr 2 Soin and Soe Sin Rlaiontfe AE a= Flours 724s, Prove Pas, ing simultaneous (Fy, F240), (0) Evans the san energy forthe ete Ja whic te Beam sretangua, 00mm deep by 15 mm ee 2 oan Mon 2kNom C= 12ma=tdm b= domme ware 247. & stopped shat is subjected to pute torsion as shown in Mig POYT,Ne- fect theses concentrations dovlop the fling whcion feng fray stored inthe sa = Here $s the ange of twist and G represents the modus of rig, 248. (a) Determine the strain energy of a solid brass circular shaft ABC loaded & Shown in Fig, F248, assuming thatthe stress concentrations may be ‘grated. (b) Caleulate the strain energy for T= L4kN-m, a= 500 om, 4 = 20mm, and G = 42 GPa. 24, Consider a simply supported rectangular beam of depth f, with &, and length F subjected to a uniform load of intensity p. Very thatthe gan ‘um strain energy density equals, ue (ran u,= $3 (r249) ‘in which U's the strain energy of the beam and V its volume. 250. Consider beam with simple supports at B and C and an ovtikang AB (is. P20). Whats the strain energy inthe beam du to the load 2? ices Poa,gf nee 2, tos =a Le Figure FAs, Rove P20. ‘251. A simply supported beam carries a concentrated force P anda moment Ms {is shows ia Fig P2S1. How much sain energy stored in the beam owing 1 the loads acting simultaneously? 252. Consider the state of stres given in Fig. 1.180. Determine bow many tes more energy is absorbed in changing the shape than in changing the vol- fume ofa unit element. Let E = 200 GPa and v = 03. 253. Thestate of stress at a point is 200-20 10) 20 S00 | MPa Lio 0 40. Decompose this array into a set of dilatational stresses and a set of devia~ tor stresses. Determine the values of principal deviator sires 254, Calculate the strain energy per ait volume in changing the volume and in changing the shape of the material at any point op the surface of a stec! Shaft 126 mm in diameter subjected to torques of 20kN-m and moments Of 1SEN-m atts ends Use £ = 200 GPa and v = 025. 12588, The state of stress at a point in a loaded member is represented in Fi. 2255. Express the dilatational energy deasity and the distortional energy ensity in terms of the given stesses (o,7) at the point and the material properties (E, 9) 1256, A cccular prsmatie cantilevers subjected toa torque T'and an axial force P atts fee end. The length ofthe bars L,the radius is rand the modulus ‘of elasiity ofthe material is E. Determine the total strain energy stored in the bar and its components Ascume v = } for the material P ete + igure PASI Ficune P2SS. CChapier? SrainandSressSein RelokonsCHAPTER 3 Two-Dimensional Problems in Elasticity 34 INTRODUCTION ‘As has been pointed out in Se. 1.,the approaches in widespread use fr determin- ig the influence of applied loads on clastic bodies are the mechaniss of materials for elementary theory (also known as technical theory) and the theory of elasticity. Both must rely on the conditions of equilibrium and make use ofa relationship be teen stress and strain that is usualy considered ta be associated with elastic mats ‘als The essential diference botwean these methods lie in the extent to which the strain is described and inthe types of simplifeations employed. ‘The mectianics of materials approach uses an assumed deformétion mode or strain distribution in the body as a whole and hence yields the average stress at a section under a given leading, Moreover, it usually teats eeperately exch simple type of compiex loading, for example, axial contri, bending, or torsiog. Although of practical importance, the formulas of the mechanics of materials are best suited for Telatively slender members and are derived on the basis of very resiictive con tions. On the other hand, the method of elasticity does not rely on a prescribed de- formation mode and deals with the general equations to be satisfied by a body in equilibrium under any external force system, ‘The theory of clasticity is preferred when critical design const-aints such as ‘minimum weight, minimum cost or high reliability dictate more exac; treatment or when prior experience i imited and intuition does not serve adequstely to supply ‘the needed simplifications with any degree of assurance. If proper applied, the theory of elasticity should yield solutions more closely approximating the actual istribution of stain stress, and displacement Thus, elasticity theory provides a check on the limitations of the mechanics of ‘materials solutions We eraphasize, however, that both techniques cited are approxi= ‘matioas of nature, cach of considerable value and each supplement ng the other.“The influences of material anisotropy, the extent to which boundary conditions de- part from reality, and numerous other factor ll contribute to error. 32. FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF ANALYSIS, “To ascertain the distribution of stress, strain, and displacement withia an elastic body subject to & prescribed system of forces requires consideration of a number of conditions relating to certain physical laws, material properties, and geometry, Tete fundamental principles of analysis also referred to as the three aspects of solid mechanics problems, are summarized 3s follows: 1. Conditions of equilibrium. Tee equations of statis must be satisfied throughout the body. 2. Stress stain relations, Material properties (constitutive relations, for example, Hooke's law) must comply with the known behavior of the material involved. 3, Conditions of campatbiliy. The geometry of deformation and the distribution ‘of strain must be consistent with the pressrvation of body continuity. (The mat- ter of compatibiity is not always broacked in mechanics of materials analysis) In addition, the stresy strain, and displacement fields must be such a to conform to the conditions of loading impored atthe boundaries Ths s known as satisfying the boundary conditions for a particular problom. If the problem is dynamic, the equa- tions of equilibrium become the more general conservation of momentum; conser ‘yetion of energy may be a farther requirement. “The conditions described, and stated mathematically in the previous chapters, are used to derive the equations of elasticity. In the case of a three-dimensional problem in elasticity i is required that the following 15 quantities be ascertained: {x stes components six strain components, and three displacement components ‘Those components must satisfy 15 governing equations throughout the bocy in ad- dition to the boundary conditions: three equations of equilirium, six stress-strain relations and six strain-displacoment relations Note thatthe equations of eompati- bility are derived from the strain-displacement relations, which are already in- cluded in the preceding description, Thus, if the 15 expressions are satisfied, the equations of compatibility will also be satisied. Three-dimensional problems in Chastity are often very complex. It may not always be possible to use the direct ‘method of solution in treating the general equations and given boundary condi tions, Only a useful indirect method of solution will be presented in Sees 633 and 64. ‘in many enginecring applications, ample justification may be found for simpli- tying assumptions with respect to the state of strain and stress. Of special impor- ‘nee, because of the reculting decrease in complesity, are those resucing a three dimensional problem to one involving only two dimensions. In tis regard, we stall discuss throughout the toxt various plane strain and plane stress problems ‘This chapter is subdivided into two parts In Part A derivations of the govemn- ing differential equations and various approaches for solution of two-dimensional problems in Cartesian and polar coordinates are considered. Part B treats stress Chapter} Two-Dimensional Probiens ix Easyconcentrations in members whose eross sections manifest pronounced changes and «eases of load application over small areas. Part A~Formulation and Methods of Solution 33 PLANE STRAIN PROBLEMS Consider a long prismatic member subject to lateral loading (for example, a der under pressure), held between fleed, smooth, rigid planes (Fig, 31). Assume the external force to be functions of the x and y coordinates only. As a canse~ quence, we expect all eross sections to experience identical deformation, ncuding those sections near the ends The frictionless nature ofthe end constraint permis &.y deformation, but precludes z displacement; that i w = 0 at z = LL/2. Con- Siderations of symmetry ictate that w must alo be zero at midspan. Symmetry ar ‘goments can agzin be used to infer that w = 0 at +L/4, and so on, until every ‘ross section is taken into account. For the case described, the strain depends on and y only: ‘The later expressions depend on dulz and avidz vanishing, since w and is deriva- tives are zero. A state of plane strain has thus been described wherein each point remains within its transverse plane, following application ofthe load. Ws next pro- ceed to develop the equations governing the behavior of bodies uader plane sirain Substitution of ¢, = yy. stress-strain relationships: Ficune3. Plane sain in «cylindrical bo 33 Pane Sain Proteses) and o> Mex +2) = He. +55) on ‘Bocause 4; is not contained inthe other governing expressions for plane strain itis determined independently by applyiag Eq, (34). The strain-stess relations, Eqs: (228),for this ease become es) oa “inasmuch as these stress components are functions of x and y only, the first to equations of (1-1) yield the following equations of equilibria of plane sta: am By a Fes x0 a B= oo) ay “Tae tid equation of (1.11) esate it F, = 0. tn the case of pane sti, there fore ne boa for in the wal rection can ent. eile fection fs imposed oo the aurface forces That plane strain wil ena nu psa boy the surac ores p, and p ze each functions ef an Fee PO: On the ltr sarace, n= 0 (Fig. 32) The Boundary conditions, Tram Gt so equations of (LAT) are thas ven bY Pe Od + ty 22 sol = 97 teal. els equation of (4) isa saistie. Tens ca of plane stain problem, therefor eh quate Tr Be ep tts and, st be determined 90 5 to sais Eqs (1) (3) and (3.6) and 6D Fcure32 Sugfceforees Poh haper} Two-Dinesina Prolens Elythe boundary conditions (37), How sight ove (G.6) may be reduced to thres i now discussed. Tiree expresions for twodimensonal strain at 2 point (4. (2.1)] are func tions of only two dsplacemenis, wand v, and therefore a compatility elationshp exists among the strains (Ea. 2) Bey Pe _ Fy, ay” at” aeay ‘This equation must be sale for the strain components to be rete tothe ds placements ain Eqs. (3.1). The condition as expressed by Eq (33) may be wane. formed into one involving components of stress by substituting the stain-stes relations and employing the equations of equlbrium, Peforming the operations indicated using Eqs (35) and (58), we have ‘equations, 8.1), (33), and a8) a @ By al — ve, — v0) + S510 We, w= 25%) "Next, the firs and socond equations of (3.6) are diferentiated with respect to x and _y respectively and added o yield sf (04.098) (84%) acay ae * at) Final sbi of this nto a. () resulta 1h, feared “isi te equation of compsityin reso ese We now hve hes expressions Ege (8) and (9).n terms of dre unkown quae oy andy Tw of eqeton opt wh the tana ond toe G7). wad in 8 ation of pane sin robems Fora gen Satan, ser detrisng the ses Ege 9) era (1) ou th ae nd Seneca respectively In See 3,Eq¢ G0) sd (39) wl abe be felned nore snnied containing sgl abe es» 34 PLANESTRESS PROBLEMS In many problems of practical importance, the strest condition is one of plane sires. The basic definition of this state of stress has already been given in See. 18. In ths section we shall present the governing equations for the colition of plane stress problems To exemplily the case of plane stress, consider a thin plate, a¢ in Fig. 33, herein the loading is uniformly distributed over the thickness, parallel to the plane of the plat. Tos geometry contrasts with that of the long prism previously slscusted, which isin estate of plane strain, To arrive at tentative conclusions wi ‘offrd to the steess within the plat, consider the fact that ¢, ty and 7, are 2010 24 Pie Sets Preisouer33, Tha plate under plane secs ‘on both faces of the plate. Because the plate is thi, the stress distribution may be srry closely approximated by assuming that the foregoing is ikewise tra through cot the plate ‘We shall. as condition of the prablem, take the body force F, = O and F, and F, each to be functions of and y only. As a coasequence of the preceding, the sess is specified by ° @ ‘The nonzero stress components remain constant over the thickness of the plate and ‘xe functions ol andy onl. Tis situation deseribes a state of plane stress Equa~ tioos (LI) and (1.41), together with this combination of stress, again reduce to the Fonne found ia See.3.3 Thus Eqs @.6) and (3.7) deseribe the equations of equilib ‘um andthe boundary conditions in this case, asin the case of plane strain, ‘Substitution of Eg (a) into Ea. (2.28) yields the following eess-sirain relations for plane stress: ~ vs.) 2) and Ho, +0) Qt) “Solving for 0, + o, from the sum ofthe frst two of Eqs (2.10) and inserting there sult into Eq, (3.Ala}, we obtain aa npeyle te) ex) Chapter 3 Tro-Dimenionl Problems in BlaityEquations (311) define the outof plane principal strain in terms of the inplane stresses (0,03) 0F stains (e,,¢). ‘Because e, isnot contained inthe other governing expressions for plane stress, ftcan be obtained independently fom Eqs. (5.11); then #, ~ aule maybe applied to yield w. That is, only w and v are considered as independent variables in the gov- «ming equations in the case of plane stress, therefor, the basi strain-dsplacernent relations ere again given by Eqs (3.1). Exelusion trom Eq, (23) of e, = alae ‘makes the plane stress equations approximate, as is demonstrated inthe section that follows. “The governing equations of planc stress will now be reduced asin the case of plane strain, to three equations invlving stress components only. Since Eqs. 1) apply to plane strain and plane stoss, the compatibility condition represented by Eq. 8) applies in both cases The latter expression may be writen ae flows sub. slituting trans from Eqs (3.10) and employing Eas. (3.5 Fee af He (B-Bjeene-(-%) an » “This equation of compauibifiy, together with the equations of equilibrium, ropre- sents a useful form of the governing equations for probleme of plane stress ‘To summarize the two-dimensional situations discusted, the equations of equi- Iibrium (Eqs. (36), together with those of compatibility [Fa. (3.8) for plane strain ‘and Eq, (3.12) for plane stress] and the boundaty conditions [Eqs (3.7) provide a system of equations suficient for determination ofthe complete stress detrbution, lean be showin tha a solution satisfying all these equations is for given problem, unique [Ref.3.1] That isis the on!y solution tothe problem. Tn the absence of body forces oF in the ease of constant body fores, the com- patibility equations for plane strain and plane stress are the same. Ia these cases, the equations governing the distribution of stress do not contain the elastic con stants, Given identical geometry and loading, a bar of steel and one of Lucite should thus display identical stress distrioutions This characteristic is mmportant in that any convenient isotropic material may be used to substitute forthe actual m= terial a, for example, in phovoelactic studies, IL is of interest to note that by comparing Eqs (3.5) with Eas. (3.10) we can form Table 3.1, which facilitates the conversion of a plane stress solution into a plane strain solution, and vice versa. For instance, conditions of plane stress and plane strain prevail in a narrow beam and a very wide beam, eepectively, Hence, in Tame31 Solution To Convertto: Eis Replaced by: vis Replacedby: E » ane stress Plane strain " " iF i 1+ dy Plnestain Planestess 5 * 25 IA Plane Sos Probiery 2 result pertaining to a thin beam, EF would become EJ/(1 ~ ¥) for the case of a ‘wide beam. The stifness inthe latter case is for v = 0.3, about 10% greater owing to the prevention of sidewise displacement (Secs.52 and 153). 35 AIRY'S STRESS FUNCTION “The preceding sections have demonstrated that the solution of two-dimensional problems in elasticity requizes integration ofthe differential equations of equiit- am (Eqs G6), together with the compatibility equation [Eq. (9) or (3.12)] and the boundary conditions [Eqs (3.7)] I the event that the body forees F, and F, are negligible, these equations reduce to ca xe ee ae together withthe boundary conditions (3.7). The equations of equilibrium are iden- tically satistied by the strexe function, (2, y), introduced by G. 1. Airy, related to the stresses 2s follows: ay, oo ye @ Bherey-8 ° 2 2 | #0 aan to" Sy eas) Substitution of (3.13) into the compatibility equation, Eq, (b), yields 25 7 10 8 age 28 4 2 St reno ew ‘what has been accomplished isthe formulation ofa two-dimensional problem in which body forees are absent, in such a way as 10 require the solution of a single Diharmonie equation, which must ofcourse satisfy the boundary conditions. Te should be noted that in the ease of plane stress we have o, = ty, = 7), = 0 and @,, 0 and %y, independent of z-As a consequence, yx = ye = 0, aNd bn fy te, and 7, are independent of z.In accordance with the foregoing, from Eq, (29).it ‘'veen that in addition to Eq, 14), the following compatibility equations also bold Be, = ‘Cleary, these additional coneitions wil not be satisfied in a case of plane stress by ‘a solution of £4, (3.14) alone. Therefore, such a solution of a plane stress problem has an approximate character, However, it can be shown that for thin plates the error introdueed is negligibly small, Bee e Seno © CChapler) Two-Dlnonsonal Probes Blsily{tis also important to note that, if the ends of the eyinder show in Fig, 31 are {ree w expand, we may assume the longitudinal strain e, to be a onstant Such a Sate may be called that of generalized plane strain. Therefore, we now have and 16) Introducing Eqs (3.15) into Eq, (3.8) and simphlying we again obtcin Eq. (2.14) as the governing differents! equation. Having determined , and 0,, the constant value of ¢, ean be found from the condition that the resultant fore in the z direc- tion acting onthe ends ofthe eylinder is zero, Talis, Boctrdy =0 @ where ois given by Ba. (3.16), 36 SOLUTION OF ELASTICITY PROBLEMS Unfortunately, solving decty the oquations of elasticity derived may be a formi- able task, and itis often advisable to attempt a solution by the inverse or semi inverse method. The inverse method requires examination ofthe assamed solutions ‘witha view toward finding one that wil satisfy the governing equations and bound ary conditions. The semi-inverse method requites the assumption of partial solu- tion formed by oxpressing stress, strain displacement, or stress function in terms of ‘known or undeiesmined coefficients The governing equations are thus rendered ‘more manageable {Wis important to note that the preceding assumptions, based on the mechanics ‘of a particular problem, ae subject to later verification. This i in centast with the mechanics of materials approach, in which analytical verification coes not occur. ‘The applications of inverse, sem-inverst, and direct methods are found in exaraples to follow and in Chapters 5,6,and 8. A number of problems may be solved by using a linear combination of polynomials in x and y and undetermined coefficients of the stress function ®. CFearly, an assumed polynomial form must satisfy the biharmonie equation and mut be of second degree or higher ia under (yield 8 nonzero sts solution Of Eq, G13), a8 described in the following paragraphs. In general, finding the desi able polynomial form is aborious and requires a systematic approach [Refs 32 and. 33]. The Fourier series, indispensible m the analytical treatment of many problems in the field of applied mechanics i also often employed (Secs 10.10 and 18.6). 26 Solution of flict Prien 103 ~‘Another way to overcome the dificult involved in the solution of Eq. (3.14) is tous te method of finite differences. Here the governing equation is replaced by Series of Gaite difference equations (Sec. 73), which relate the stress function at ‘SGotons that are removed from one another by fnite distances. These equations al- though not exact, frequently Tead to solutions that are close tothe exact solution. “The results obtained are, however, applicable only to specifie numerical problems, Polynomial Solutions ‘An elementary approach te obtaining solutions of the biharmonic equation uses polynomial functions of various degree with their coefficients adjusted so that Far = 0 isstisied. A brief discussion ofthis procedure follows, "A polynomial of the second degree, @rp satisfies Bq (814)-The associated stesses are Be Oy ty [All thee stress components sre constart throughout the body. For a rectangular place (Fg, 34a), ts apparent that the foregoing may be adapted to represent Simple tension (Co % 0), double tension (ex # 0,0, # 0), or pure shear (by #0). "A polynomial ofthe hid degree aus) oy Be + Bay 4S fulfils Eq, G14). It leads to stresses ened, tart by Ty ora, = by = 6) = 0, these exprestions reduce to ody, oy representing the case of pure bending ofthe rectangular plate (Fig. 340). ts fin. 4 ry 0 ER > a qui © Figure 34, Sirs fle of 0) Eq. 3.17) and (2) Ea (3.18 Grapes) Two-Dimensional Probie x Basty‘A polynomial of the fourth degree, o ea) satisfies Ba. (G:4) if eg = ~(2eq + a). The conresponding stresses are = ca + dary = (264+ )9# = a2 + bay + cg ty Paxy-F ‘A polynomial ofthe fit degree ‘ ®, Pay 5 yr 4 4, nage tap Gere Bes Bat Bis aan fulfits Ea. (5.14) provided that (Bay + 2ey + esx + (by + 2s + 9A )y Iefollows that & Dey by = Dds ~ 3f ‘The components of stress are then o> Ge + daly ~ Gas + 2aay? + fir? 62 (fy + De ty + cay + Toy = SBF + 2s) — eget y ~ dey? + Bdy + 2e,)y? Problems of practical importance may be solved by combining funcions (3.17) through (20), as required, With experience, the analyst begins © understand the types of siressdistrbations arising from a variety of polynomial. EXAMPLE 3.1 ‘A narrow cantilever of rectangular cross section is loaded by a concen- trated force at ts fee end of such magnitude that the beam weight may ‘be neglected (Fi, 35a). Determine the stress distribution inthe beam. ‘Solution The situation described may be regarded as a case of plane ‘stress provided that the beam thickness is small relative to the Seam ‘depth 2h ‘The following boundary conditions ate consistent with the ecordi- nate system in Fig 35a: (yess =O (yma @ ‘These conditions simply express the fact thatthe top and bottom edges ‘of the beam are not loaded. In addition to Eq, (a) it is necessary on the 36 Solon fFlesicy Pabiems ses106 y- 28 RouReSS, Example Ertloaded canitever bos a basis of zero external loading in the x direction at x = 0, that o, = 0 long the vertical surface at x ~ 0, Finally the applied load P must be {qual to the resultant ofthe sheasing fores distributed cerost the free end pe [aw “ “The negative sign agrees with the convention for stress discussed in Sea. Fr purposes of illustration, three approaches will be employed to etermine the distribution of stress within the beam. Method 1. Inasmuch asthe bending moment varies linearly with x and ‘e, at any section depends on jit s reasonable to assume a general x pression ofthe form $0 ory © jn which ¢, represents a constant, Integrating twice with respect toy, © = key? + Wf) + A) @ ‘where f(x) and ffx) are functions of « to be determined. Introducing the @ thus obtained into Eq. (3.14), we have ah oh Yar ae Since the second term is independent of y, a solution exists for all x and yy provided that difldx* = 0 and afydx* = 0, which, upon integrating, leads to =0 Atel ae to textes fle) sae totter ta hese ca Geiss ate conmants of integration. Substitution of f,(x) and F(x) into Eq. (2) gives Chale} Two-Dinensionl Problems i latin© = heay" + (et ot + eae ty +e + eat + ge be Expressions foro, and 7. fllow from Bq, (3.13): Keay + eile + ey + 6) 2 fe = © ty = ley? ~ Sea? — dee — At his point, we are prepared to apply the boundary conditions. abt tating Ear (8) ito (¢), we obtain = 6, = =e; = Band ey = ke ‘The final condition, Ea (b),may now be written ~[otay= [sou yay = 0 frm wich 202 UR 7 ‘where 1 = jd is the moment of inertia of the cross section sbout the neutral aris From Eqs (€) and (e) together with the values ofthe con- stan the stresses ate found to be ~ 72? Fos Pg — 99) oe ye LOA) @ay “The distribution of these stresses at sections away from the ends is shown in Fig 3.36, Method 2, Beginning with bending moments M, = Pa, we may as- sume a stress eld similar to that forthe case of pure bending: wen wensan “ . Cet =O 0 ® From the second expression, #,, can depend only on y.The fist equa tion of (2) rogether with Egs (5 yields 28 Solin of asic Problemsfrom which watete 9 Hore ¢isdetormined on the basis of (ty)yean = Ose = —PHYDI. The Hiding cxpreson for 1, satis Eq (6) and sSentcal wth the e- sultpreviowsly obtained. LMeihod 3. Tue problem may be tested by superimposing the polme- ral ®; and © ‘Thus, ty ob Sy It is seem thatthe foregoing satistes the second eoncition of Eas. (a). “The first of Eas (2) leads to d, = ~2b4/?. We then obtain wali which when substituted into condiion (0) results in y= ~3P 4h = PHIRI. AS befor, ty ss given in Eas (3.22). Observe that the sess disuibuion obtained is the same as that found by employing the elementary theory Ifthe boundary forse est ina sues datrbution as indiested in Fig. 3.5, te solution fs exact Gtherwise, the solution i aot exact In any eas, recall, however, that Saint-Venants principle permits us io egard the resalt as quite aceurate for sections away from the ends Section 5 ilustrates the determination of the dspiacement Geld after derivation of the eurvature-moment relation. 347 THERMAL STRESSES Consider the consequences of increasing or decreasing the uniform temperature of fun entirely uncunstained elastic body, The resultant expansion or contraction oe {urs in such a way aso eause a cubic element ofthe solid to remain cubic, while &x- periencing changes of length on each of its sides. Normal strains occur in each Sirection unaccompanied by normal stuesies In addition, there are neither shear ‘Strains nor shear stresses. Ifthe body is beated in such a way as to produce 3 ‘ZonuniZorm temperature feld, or ifthe thermal expansions are prohibited from Chactr 3 Two-Dimensional Problems ix Battytaking place freely because of restrictions placed on the boundary even if the tem- perature is uniform, or ifthe material exhibits anisotropy in a uniform temperature field, thermal stresses will occur. The effects of such stresses can be severe, expe cially since the most adverse thermal envionments are often associated vith design requirements involving unusually stringent constraints a8 to weight and volume, ‘This is especially tue in aerospace applications, but is of considerable importance, too, in many everyday machine design applications. ‘Solution of thermal stress problems requires reformulation ofthe stess-strain relationships accomplished by superposition of the strain attributable tastress and that due to temperature. Fora change in temperature T(x 9) the change of length, BL, ofa small linear element of length Lin an unconstrained body is 8 = oT. Here a, usually a positive number, is termed the coefficient of linear thermal ex: pansion. The thermal iain g, associated withthe free expansion a @ point is then sear ez) ‘The totalx and y strains, 6, and e,, are obtained by adding tothe therma strains of the type deseribed, the strains due to stress resulting from external foes: (0, ~ ¥a,) +a 2m) Gry Because free thermal expansion resulis inno angular distortion in ar isotropic ‘material, the shearing strain is unaffected as indicated. Equations (3.23) represent modified strain-stress relations for plane sess Silat expressions may be written for the ease of plane strain, The differential equations of equilibrium (3.6) are ‘based on purely mechanical considerations and are unchanged for thermeclasicy The same is te of the strain-displacement relations (2.3) and the compatiblity equation (3.8), which are geometrical in character. Thus or given boundary cond tions (expressed cther as surface forces or displaceurete) aid vemsperatire distil ution, thermoelastcity and ordinary elasticity differ only to the extext of the strain-stres relationship, By substituting the strains given by Eq. (3234) into the equation of compatiil- ity 6.8), employing Eq. (.6) as well, and neglecting body forces, a compatibility ‘equation is derived in terms of eros:9 # ,#) lo, toy +o ( pp)eet ont ot 24) Introdveing Eq. (3.13),we now have. Wo +E T =O G25) “This expression is valid for plane strain of plane stress provided that the body forces are negligible Tinos been implicit in treating the matter of thermoelasticity 28a superposition problem that the distbution of stressor sain plays a nogisble roe in influencing Fre anperature Geld [Refs 34 and 35]. This lack of coupling enables the tempera due fot to be determined independently of any consideration of stress ce stain. If the effect of the temperature distribution on material properties cannot be diste- faided, the equations become coupled and analytical solutions are significantly verre complex ootupying an area of considerable interest and importance, Nameri= Ei solutions can, however, be obtained in a relatively simple manner through the tee of finite diference methods. EXAMPLE3.2 ‘Rvecianpular beam of smal thickness depth 2, and length 2 sub- jected to an arbitrary variation of temperatare throughout is depth, Pe), Determine the cistibuion of stress and strain forthe casein “abich (2 th beam i ently fre of surface fores (Fig. 3.6), ane (0) The beans held by rigid als thas prevent the x-irected displacement only Fig. 3.60). Solution “The beam geometry indicates a problom of plane stress We begin withthe assumptions e2> ony) oy 0 Cy Direct suattation of Egs (8) nto Eqs (36) indicates thatthe equations ‘Dt equilibrium are satsied. Equations (@) reduce the compatibility {equation (324) to the form e ) Gye ET) <0 Oy en Pa eae © o Fiovne35. Example 32 Rectangular eam in plane sera srs: (6) Supported: (6) placed between we Fig walls Chatr3 Toe-Dimesina rooms Easyfrom which a. = ET + ay +e © where 6, and ey ate constants of integration, The requirement tat faces 1 = thbe fee of surface forces is obviously fulfilled by Eq, (). 2. The boundary conditions atthe end faces are satisfied by cetermi ing the constants that assume zero resultant foree and moment at eeak fess Subwituisg Eq (0) into Eqs (@),, itis found that e1= (QOH) fh aBTydy and c= (UDI) [MaET dy. The nota Sires, upon nbstiatng the values ofthe Constants obtained, to tether wth th moment of inertia f= 23 ane area A = 2h ito Eq (© thus ered teh frg* fr] ea “The corresponding strains are [onto @ ear, y, = a Spar, ‘The displacements can readily be determined from Eqs (2.1) From Eq, (226), observe that the temperature disuibation for stant results in zero stress as experied. Of course, the strains ©) and the displacements wal inthis case, not be 200. It is ako noted that, when the temperature ig sjmmetsical about the midsurface (y= 0), that is 7(y) © T(~y), the final integral in Eq. 326) van- ishes Foran anlisytumetrical temperature distribution about the mid- surface, (y) = ~T(=y), and the first integral in Bq (326) i 2020. b For the situation described, ¢, = 0 for ally, With @, = 1, = 0 and Ey. (c), Bas (8.232) lead to ¢; = c; = 0, regardless Of how T varies with y. Thus, for 27 © [Note thatthe axial stress obtained here can be large even for modest temperature changes, as can be Werified by substituting properties of given material Pherae38 BASICRELATIONS IN POLAR COORDINATES Geometrical cousiderations related either to the loading oto the boundary of @ IReded system often make it preferable to employ polar coordinates ratber than ‘he Castesian system used exclusively thus fer. In general, polar coordinates are Re Sivantageouly where a degree of axial syaunetzy exists. Examples include + Upinder, a disk wedge, a carved beam, and large thin plate containing a circular hole. “The polar coordinate system (7,0) and the Cartesian system (x) are related by the following expressions (Fig. 3.7 @ “These equations yield ae a 3” o a ‘Any derivatives with respect tox and yin the Cartesian system may be transformed into derivatives with respect to rand 3 by applying the chain ral: a sat a ee a) a cats © » , ‘Relations governing properties at point not containing any derivatives are av af fected by the curvilinear nature ofthe coordinates, ais observed next cuREST. (@) Polar coordinates () ses lamers in polar coor- dinates Chale} Two Dinwrcionl Problems EasticiyEquations of Equilibrium ‘Consider the state of strss on an infinitesimal element abed of unit thickness de- setibed by polar coordinates (Fig. 3.7). The r and directed body forces are de- noted by F and F. Equilibrium of radial forces requires that (0.8 arr «ana ~onao- (o,+ Stan) iesn co 0 ere enarsin sadroos > Fra Inasmuch 2s dis small, sin(d0’2) may be replaced by d8/2 and cos(d2) by 1, Ad- ditional simplication is achicwed by dropping terms containing higher-order infni- {esimals A similar analysis may be performed for the tangential direcion. When, both equilibrium equations are divided by r dr d, the results are fo, 1 tm, 9 ~ wre Te 1a, Oe Dow rat ets 628) In the absence of body forces, Eqs. (3.28) are satisfied by a stres function ©(,, 8) for which the stress components in the radial and tangential dicetions are aiven by 1am 1 em a pe Pe a= % G2) Lae ‘Strain-Displacement Relations Consider now the deformation of the infinitesimal clement abcd, denoting the r and 8 displacements by w and v, respectively. The general deformation experienced bby an clement may be regardd as composed of (1) achaage in length 0” the sides, asin Figs 38a and b, and 2) rotation ofthe sides as in Figs 38cand d. In the analysis that fellows, the small angle approximation sin 0 « @ is env ployed, and ares ab and cd are regarded as straight lines, Referring to Fig. 38a, it's observed that a u displacement of side ab results in both radial and tangential strain. The radial strain ¢, the deformation per unit length of side ad associated ‘only with the w displacement: au a 300) 38 Bas Reatons i ter Cordier 6Fioure28, Deformation and dspacementofan element in polar coordinates “The tangential strain owing to u the deformation per unt length of bi @ con! Clearly, a » displacement of element abed (Fig. 380) also produces a tangential strain, eee AS (he ay a8 since the inrease in length of ab is (avia8)A3. The resoltant tangential strain, cor- bining Eqs (6) and (e),is © 1» (306) Figure 38 shows the angle of rotation eb'f of side a'b’ due to au dispiace- ment. The associated strain is (owt) d8_ 1 ae aoe 0 Grale= ‘Te rotation of side be associated with 9 displacement alone is shown in Fig.2.84 ‘Since an inital rotation of "through an angle wr has occurred the relative rote thon gb"h of side bei wie Gan = 2-5 ® “The aum of Eqs (0) and (g) provides the total sheating strain Caper} Tao Dimensional Prolene a Elticiy300) ‘The strain displacement relationships in polar coordinates are thus given nes siven by Eqs, Hooke's Law To write Hooke's law in polar coordinates, we need only replace subscripts x by r and y by @ in the appropriate Cartesian equations In the case of pane stress fom Eqs (3.10) we have 1 El, ~ Has) 1 gles ~ va) es Ye For plane strain, Eqs (53) eadt0 lt ee bEta ~ we, = vd) 65 EM ~ oe ~ va) ox) ay Ya ‘Transformation Equations Replacement ofthe subscripts x’ by rand y’ by in Eqs (1.13) resus in 6, = 6,008 B+ 0, Sit? 8 + 2, sin 0 0080 Jo % (0, ~ 4,)sin B00 8 + 4 (cos 6 ~ sir? 8) 033) 01 = @Sin8@ + 0, 0020 ~ 2r,,sin 0. cos 0 We can also express 6, yy and a in terms of ety and ay (Problem 326) by go placing 9 with ~9 in Eqs. (1.13).Thus, 2, = 9/080 + uy sis? 8 ~ Brg sin Ben @ (e, ~ 04) Sin e089 + ra(cost 8 — sin?) a 1 Sim 8 + 09 C050 + Ir in 9e0s 8 Similar transformation equations may also be written forthe sain ¢,¥.9 and by Basie Rls Por CroresCompatibility Equation Tea be shown that qa (830 result in th folowing form ofthe equation ef om- pasty fey 1 Be 2 oe i ad “To anive at acompatliy equation exrese in terms ofthe ses fortion it To arine sels the prtel derivatives 2/0" and Py in tems and isaecen rhs chin rl together nth Eqs (a). These dervatvs lead to th Laplacian operator 635 30 “The equation of compatibility in alternative form is thus 1a,i# v 242 F\ v9) = ‘° rete J)r ° 639 Fr the axisymmetrieal, 20 body foree case, the compatibility equation i, from Eq. G9) [refering to B36), #(e, +09) , 1 dle, + 00) a dr =o 38) vo, = a) “The remaining relationships appropriate to two-dimensional elasticity are found in manner similar to that outlined in the foregoing discussion. EXAMPLE 3.3 ‘A laoge thin plat i subjected to uniform tensile stress, at its ends. as ‘Shown in Fig, 39. Determine the field of stress existing within the plate Solution For purposes of this analysis, it wil prove convenient t0 Lo te the origin of coordinate axes atthe center of the plate as shown ‘The state of stress in the plate is expressed by pF oy yey =O “The stress function, © = 0,)%2, satisfies the biharmonic equation, Ea, (Guid), The geometry suggests polar form. The stress function @ may be franstormed by substituting y = 7 sin 8, with the folowing result: = gig crater Two-Dimensional Problem in Bt,© = jo,7°(1 ~ co820) "The stresses jn the plate now follow from Eqs. (h) and (3.29) o,f + 00828) = Jor{l ~ 60820) 839 Clearly, substitution of , = tay = O could have led directly to the fore: going result, using the transformation expressions of stress, Eas. (533) Part B—Stress Concentrations 39 STRESSES DUE TO CONCENTRATED LOADS Let us now consider a concentrated force P or F acting at the vertox of «very large or semi-infinite wedge (Fig. 3.10). The load dstibution along te thickness (zdiree- tion) is uniform. The thickness ofthe wedge is taken 28 unity, so P ot Fis the load er wnit thickness. In such situations its Convenient to use polar coordinates and the semi-iaverse method, In actuality, the concentrated load is assumed to be a theoretical lire load and willbe spread over an area of small nite width. Plastic deformation may occur lo- ‘ally Thus, the solutions that follow aze nor valid in the immediate vicnty of the application of load, FicuRE310, Wedge of unit thiknaeeubjcted toa concenraed (oad per unt thickness: f) Knife edge 0” pivot (8) wedge conver 29 Seer Duet Conor Lots a‘Compression of a Wedge (Fig. 3102). ‘Asume the stress function @ = eProsing @ where cis constant. Tan be verified that Eq. (a) satisties Eq. (3.57) and compat Daity is ensured, For equilibrium, the stresses rom Eqs. (3.29) are ener ono, cand ® etc att ag on» ne sfc of sol ai sow he Fo ee Say alts eto ‘expressed by ae ta Om © af eos = -P © Conditions (c) are fulfilled by the last two of Eqs (0). Substituting the first of igs () into condition (2 results in P cr [cost oad Integrating and solving for & knife cdg is therefore 1(2a + sin 2a), The stoss distribution in the 420 G40) re “This solution is due to J. Michell (Ret.36). “The disuibation ofthe aormal stresses a, over any cross section m—n perpen dicular to the axis of symmetry of the wedge is not uniform (Fig. 30a). Applying Eq, 34) and substituting r = Leos @ in Eq, (3.40), we have Posto iso 8 =~ Tina eat) “The foregoing shows thatthe stresses increase as L decreases. Observe also thatthe formal stress is maximum atthe center of the cross section {@ = 0) and a mi fnum at 3 ~ a, The dilference between the maximum and minimem stes5 Aoi from Eq. 3.41), © For instance, if « = 10°, Ae, = ~0.172PIL. is about 6% of the average aormat ‘vest ealcalated from the elementary formula (¢,)auq = ~PIA = “POL tan a Chapter} Two-Dimensional Problas is Basey~2836PIL. For larger angles, the difference is greater: the error in the mechanics ‘of materials solution increases (Prob. 331). It may be demonsttated thatthe stress

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