Cap 2 DSP2

Discrete-time Signal Processing
Session 2
Discrete-time signals and systems
Luis Ismael Minchala Avila
Universidad de Cuenca
Department of Electric, Electronics, and Telecommunications
ismael.minchala@ucuenca.edu.ec
Ismael Minchala A. (UCuenca) Discrete-time signals and systems September, 2016 1 / 62

Agenda
1 Introduction
2 Discrete-time systems
3 Linear time-invariant systems
4 Linear constant-coefficient difference equations
5 Frequency-domain representation
6 Fourier transform
7 Symmetry properties of the Fourier transform
8 Fourier transform theorems

Introduction
Continuous-time vs. Discrete-time (Signals)
x(t) = A sin t + x[k] = sin(0 k + )
x(t)
t
t
Figure: Continuous-time
Figure: Discrete-time

Introduction
Sequences
Discrete-time signals are represented as sequences1 of numbers:
x = {x[n]}, < n <
x[n] = xa (nT ) , < n <
1.2
x[0]
1
x[-1]
x[1]
0.8
x[-2] x[2]
0.6
0.4
x[k]
0.2
-0.2
-0.4
-8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10
k
1
Sequence: a function whose domain is the set of integers
Introduction
Sequences
1
0.5
-0.5
-1
0.3 0.302 0.304 0.306 0.308 0.31 0.312 0.314 0.316 0.318 0.32
Time (s)
0.5
-0.5
-1
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
Sample (k)

Introduction
Data acquisition with MATLAB
recObj = audiorecorder
disp ( Start speaking . )
r e c o r d b l o c k i n g ( recObj , 2 ) ; % Audio r e c 2 s e c
d i s p ( End o f R e c o r d i n g ! ) ;
play ( recObj ) ; % Reproduce audio
y = getaudiodata ( recObj ) ; % Samples
plot (y );

Introduction
Basic sequences
Unit sample sequence Unit step sequence

0, n 6= 0 1, n 0
[n] = x[k] =
1, n = 0 0, n < 0
1 1
0.5 0.5
2 1 1 2 5 10
Any sequence can be expresed as, The unit step is related to the impulse,

X
X
x[n] = x[k][n k] u[n] = [k]
k= k=

Introduction
Basic sequences
x[n] = An x[n] = A cos (0 n + )
2.5
2 0.8
0.6
1.5 0.4
x[k]
0.2
x[k]
1 0
-0.2
0.5 -0.4
-0.6
0 -0.8
-4 -2 0 2 4 6 8
Sample (k)
-1
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Sample (k)
Figure: Real exponential

Figure: Sinusoidal

Introduction
Basic sequences
In the case of the exponential function has A = kAke j , and
= kke j0 , we have
x[n] = An = |A|e j ||n e j0 n = |A|||n e j(0 n+)

x[n] = |A|||n cos (0 n + ) + j|A|||n sin (0 n + )
0 Radians ( < 0 < )
n Integer

Introduction
Basic sequences
= kke j0 , we have

0 Radians ( < 0 < )
n Integer
For a frequency (0 + 2):
x[n] = Ae j(0 +2)n = Ae j0 n e j2n = Ae j0 n

x[n] = x[n + N]
N Integer period 0 N = 2k

Introduction
Basic sequences
= kke j0 , we have

0 Radians ( < 0 < )
n Integer
For a frequency (0 + 2):
x[n] = Ae j(0 +2)n = Ae j0 n e j2n = Ae j0 n

x[n] = x[n + N]
N Integer period 0 N = 2k
Complex exponential sequences as well as sinusoidal sequences with

frequencies (0 + 2r ) are indistinguishable from one another.
Introduction
Example 1. Periodic and aperiodic discrete-time sinusoids

x1 [n] = cos n
4
N = 8

3
x2 [n] = cos n
8
N = 16

Introduction
Example 1. Periodic and aperiodic discrete-time sinusoids
1
x1 [n] = cos n 0.5

4
x 1 [k]
0
N = 8
-0.5
-1
0 5 10 15 20 25
Sample (k)
1
3
x2 [n] = cos n 0.5
x 2 [k]
0
N = 16 -0.5
-1
Increasing the frequency of a discrete- 0 5 10

Sample (k)
15 20 25
time sinusoid does not necessarily de-

crease the period of the signal.

Introduction
Example. Periodic and aperiodic discrete-time sinusoids

x[n] = cos(2k + N)
1
0.5
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
x[n] = cos(/8 k + N)
1
-1
0 5 10 15 20 25
x[n] = cos(/4 k + N)
1
-1
0 5 10 15 20 25
x[n] = cos( k + N)
1
-1
0 5 10 15 20 25
Sample (k)

Discrete-time systems
A discrete-time system is defined as a transformation, which maps an

input sequence (x[n]) into an output sequence (y [n]).
y [n] = T {x[n]}
x[n] y ([n]
T[ ]
Special class of systems: Linear and shift-invariant, also known as

time-invariant (LTI).

Examples of discrete-time systems

The ideal delay system Moving average
y [n] = x[n nd ], < n < 1

M2
X
y [n] = x[n k]
M1 + M2 + 1
k=M1
x[n]
1
0.5
-0.5
x[n]
2
-1
0 5 10 15 20 25
1.5
0.5
0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
x[n - 4]
1
0.5
-0.5 x f [n]
2
-1
0 5 10 15 20 25 1.5
Sample (k)
1
0.5
0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80

Properties of discrete-time systems
Memoryless systems. If the output y [n] at every value of n depends

only on the input x[n] at the same value of n. For example,
y [n] = (x[n])2

Memoryless systems. If the output y [n] at every value of n depends

only on the input x[n] at the same value of n. For example,
y [n] = (x[n])2
Linear systems. The class of linear systems is defined by the principle

of superposition.
T {x1 [n] + x2 [n]} = T {x1 [n]} + T {x2 [n]} = y1 [n] + y2 [n]

T {ax[n]} = aT {x[n]} = ay [n]
T {ax1 [n] + bx2 [n]} = aT {x1 [n]} + bT {x2 [n]}

Example. The accumulator system

n
X
y [n] = x[k]
k=


n
X
y [n] = x[k]
k=
n
X
y1 [n] = x1 [k]
k=
n
X
y2 [n] = x2 [k]
k=


n
X
y [n] = x[k]
k=
n
X
y1 [n] = x1 [k]
k=
n
X
y2 [n] = x2 [k]
k=
x3 [n] = ax1 [n] + bx2 [n]

Xn
y3 [n] = x3 [k]
k=


n
X
y [n] = x[k]
k=
n
X
y1 [n] = x1 [k]
k=
n
X
y2 [n] = x2 [k]
k=
x3 [n] = ax1 [n] + bx2 [n]

Xn
y3 [n] = x3 [k]
k=
n
X n
X n
X
y3 [n] = (ax1 [k] + bx2 [k]) = a x1 [k] + b x2 [k]
k= k=
y 3[ n] = ay1 [n] + by2 [n]

Time-invariant systems. A shift or delay of the input sequence causes

a corresponding shift in the output sequence.
y [n] = T {x[n]}
y1 [n] = T {x[n n0 ]} = y [n n0 ]

Time-invariant systems. A shift or delay of the input sequence causes

a corresponding shift in the output sequence.
y [n] = T {x[n]}
y1 [n] = T {x[n n0 ]} = y [n n0 ]
Causality. The output sequence value at the index n = n0 depends

only on the input sequence values for n n0 . The system is not
anticipative.
x1 [n] = x2 [n] n n0
y1 [n] = y2 [n] n n0

Example. The compressor system
y [n] = x[Mn], < n <

Example. The compressor system
y [n] = x[Mn], < n <
y1 [n] = x1 [Mn] = x[Mn n0 ]

y [n n0 ] = x [M (n n0 )]
y [n n0 ] 6= y1 [n]

Stability. Every bounded input sequence produces a bounded output

sequence.
|x[n]| Bx <
|y [n]| By < n
Example. Consider the accumulator with a unit-step sequence as

input,
n
X
y [n] = u[k]
k=

Linear time-invariant systems
LTI systems
Let hk [n] be the response of the system to [n k]. Then,

( )
X
y [n] = T x[k][n k]
k=

X
X
y [n] = x[k]T {[n k]} = x[k]hk [n]
k= k=

LTI systems
Let hk [n] be the response of the system to [n k]. Then,

( )
X
y [n] = T x[k][n k]
k=

X
X
y [n] = x[k]T {[n k]} = x[k]hk [n]
k= k=
The property of time invariance implies that if h[n] is the response to

[n], then the response to [n k] is h[n k]. Then,

X
y [n] = x[k]h[n k] = x[n] h[n]
k=

Example. Computation of the convolution sum

Input signal Impulse response
1 1
0.8 0.8
0.6 0.6
0.4 0.4
0.2 0.2
0 0
-5 0 5 10 -5 0 5 10
Convolution Output signal

1 1.4
1.2
0.8
1
0.6 0.8
0.4 0.6
0.4
0.2
0.2
0 0
-5 0 5 10 -5 0 5 10
k k

Example. Lineal filter

Example. Lineal filter
n
X
y [n] = u[n] h[n] = u[k]h[n k]
k=0
0
X
y [0] = u[k]h[n k] = u[0]h[0] = 0
k=0
1
X
y [1] = u[k]h[n k] = u[0]h[1] + u[1]h[0] = (0)(1) + (1)(3) = 3
k=0
2
X
y [2] = u[k]h[n k] = u[0]h[2] + u[1]h[1] + u[2]h[0] = (0)(1) + (1)(2) + (2)(3) = 8
k=0
3
X
y [3] = u[k]h[n k] = 8
k=0
4
X
y [4] = u[k]h[n k] = 4
k=0
Properties of LTI systems

The impulse response is a complete characterization of the properties
of a specific LTI system


Some general properties of LTI systems are related with the
convolution operation. For instance, the convolution operation is
commutative:
x[n] h[n] = h[n] x[n]
X
y [n] = x[k]h[n k]
k=
m = nk

X
X
y [n] = x[n m]h[m] = h[m]x[n m] = h[n] x[n]
m= m=


Some general properties of LTI systems are related with the
convolution operation. For instance, the convolution operation is
commutative:
x[n] h[n] = h[n] x[n]
X
y [n] = x[k]h[n k]
k=
m = nk

X
X
y [n] = x[n m]h[m] = h[m]x[n m] = h[n] x[n]
m= m=
The convolution operation also distributes over addition
x[n] (h1 [n] + h2 [n]) = x[n] h1 [n] + x[n] h2 [n]

x[n] y [n]
h1 [n] h2 [n]
x[n] y [n]
h2 [n] h1 [n]
x[n] y [n]
h1 [n] h2 [n]
Figure: Cascade configuration of two LTI systems

h1 [n]
x[n] y [n]
+
h2 [n]
x[n] y [n]
h1 [n] + h2 [n]
Figure: Parallel combination of two LTI systems


LTI systems are stable if and only if the impuse response is absolutely
summable, i.e.

X
S = |h[k]| <
k=

|y [n]| =
P X
k= h[k]x[n k] |h[k]||x[n k]|
k=

X
|y [n]| Bx |h[k]| |x[n]| Bx
k=


summable, i.e.

X
S = |h[k]| <
k=

|y [n]| =
P X
k= h[k]x[n k] |h[k]||x[n k]|
k=

X
|y [n]| Bx |h[k]| |x[n]| Bx
k=
Finite-duration impulse response (FIR) systems are always stable


summable, i.e.

X
S = |h[k]| <
k=

|y [n]| =
P X
k= h[k]x[n k] |h[k]||x[n k]|
k=

X
|y [n]| Bx |h[k]| |x[n]| Bx
k=
Finite-duration impulse response (FIR) systems are always stable
Stability of infinite-duration impulse response (IIR) systems have to

be investigated

Ideal delay can be represented as:
x[n] [n nd ] = [n nd ] x[n] = x[n nd ]

x[n] [n nd ] = [n nd ] x[n] = x[n nd ]
Any noncausal FIR system can be made causal by cascading it with a

sufficiently long delay

x[n] [n nd ] = [n nd ] x[n] = x[n nd ]
Any noncausal FIR system can be made causal by cascading it with a

sufficiently long delay
If an LTI system has in impulse response h[n], then its inverse system,
if it exists, has an impulse response hi [n] defined by the relation:
h[n] hi [n] = hi [n] h[n] = [n]

Linear constant-coefficient difference equations
Difference equations
An important subclass of LTI systems consists of those systems for

which the input x[n] and the output y [n] satisfy the Nth-order linear
constant-coefficient difference equation of the form:
N
X M
X
ak y [n k] = bm x[n m]
k=0 m=0

An important subclass of LTI systems consists of those systems for

which the input x[n] and the output y [n] satisfy the Nth-order linear
constant-coefficient difference equation of the form:
N
X M
X
ak y [n k] = bm x[n m]
k=0 m=0
Example. Difference equation representation of the accumulator

n
X
y [n] = x[k]
k=

n1
X
y [n 1] = x[k]
k=
n1
X
y [n] = x[n] + x[k]
k=
y [n] y [n 1] = x[n]
x[n] y [n]
+
simple delay
y [n 1]

Example. Difference equation of the moving-average
2 M
1 X
y [n] = x[n k]; M1 = 0
M2 + 1
k=0
2 M
1 X
y [n 1] = x[n k 1]
M2 + 1
k=0
y [n] = y [n 1] + x1 [n]
1
h[n] = ([n] [n M2 1]) u[n]
M2 + 1
Accumulator

x[n] 1
x1 [n] y [n]
M2 +1 + accumulator
delay (M2 + 1)

x[n] 1
x1 [n] y [n]
M2 +1 + accumulator
delay (M2 + 1)
1
x1 [n] = (x[n] x[n M2 1])
M2 + 1
y [n] = y [n 1] + x1 [n]
1
y [n] y [n 1] = (x[n] x[n M2 1])
M2 + 1

Frequency-domain representation
Frequency response
x(t)
y(t)
x(t) y (t) t
G(s)

Frequency response
x(t)
y(t)
x(t) y (t) t
G(s)
X X
yss (t) = |G (j)| e j e jt + |G (j)| e j e jt
2j 2j
!
e j(t+) e j(t+)
yss (t) = X |G (j)| = X |G (j)| sin (t + )
2j | {z }
Y
Sinusoidal and exponential sequences play an important role in

representing discrete-time signals

Frequency response
x(t)
y(t)
x(t) y (t) t
G(s)
X X
yss (t) = |G (j)| e j e jt + |G (j)| e j e jt
2j 2j
!
e j(t+) e j(t+)
yss (t) = X |G (j)| = X |G (j)| sin (t + )
2j | {z }
Y
Sinusoidal and exponential sequences play an important role in

representing discrete-time signals
Complex exponential sequences are eigenfunctions of LTI systems
Eigenfunctions for LTI systems

X
y [n] = h[k]e j(nk)
k=

!
X
jn jk
y [n] = e h[k]e
k=


X
y [n] = h[k]e j(nk)
k=

!
X
jn jk
y [n] = e h[k]e
k=
By defining,

X
H e j h[k]e jk

=
k=


X
y [n] = h[k]e j(nk)
k=

!
X
jn jk
y [n] = e h[k]e
k=
By defining,

X
H e j h[k]e jk

=
k=
We have,
y [n] = H e j e jn



H e j Eigenvalue or the frequency response of the system

H e j = HR e j + jHI e j

j
H e j = H e j e jH (e )



H e j Eigenvalue or the frequency response of the system

H e j = HR e j + jHI e j

j
H e j = H e j e jH (e )

Example. Frequency response of the ideal delay
y [n] = x[n nd ]
x[n] = e jn
y [n] = e j(nnd ) = e jnd e jn
H e j = e jnd


Example. Sinusoidal response of LTI systems
A j j0 n A j j0 n
x[n] = A cos (0 n + ) = e e + e e
|2 {z } |2 {z }
x1 [n] x2 [n]
A j j n
y1 [n] = H e j0 e e 0
2
A j j n
y2 [n] = H e j0 e e 0
2

Example. Sinusoidal response of LTI systems
A j j0 n A j j0 n
x[n] = A cos (0 n + ) = e e + e e
|2 {z } |2 {z }
x1 [n] x2 [n]
A j j n
y1 [n] = H e j0 e e 0
2
A j j n
y2 [n] = H e j0 e e 0
2
Ah i
H e j0 e j e j0 n + H e j0 e j e j0 n

y [n] = y1 [n] + y2 [n] =
2
j0

y [n] = A|H e | cos (0 n + + )

Frequency response of LTI systems
The concept of frequency response of LTI systems is essentially the

same for continuous-time and discrete-time systems

The concept of frequency response of LTI systems is essentially the

same for continuous-time and discrete-time systems
However, an important distinction arises in the discrete-time systems

because their frequency response is always a periodic function of
with period 2

X
j+2
h[n]e j(+2)n

H e =
n=
j(+2)n jn j2n
e = e e = e jn
j(+2r ) j

H e = H e r Z

H e j is periodic with T = 2. Therefore, H e j needs to be

defined in an interval of length 2


It is generally convenient to specify H e j over the interval

< <



< <
The low frequencies are frequencies close to zero



< <
The high frequencies are frequencies close to



< <
The high frequencies are frequencies close to
The low frequencies are close to an even multiple of , while the

high frequencies are close to an odd multiple of

Example. Ideal frequency-selective filters

The frequency response is unit over a certain range of frequencies and is
zero at the remaining frequencies.
Hlp e j

c c
2 2 + c 2 c 2


The frequency response is unit over a certain range of frequencies and is
zero at the remaining frequencies.
Hlp e j

c c
2 2 + c 2 c 2
j

Hlp e

c c

Figure: Ideal lowpass filter

Hhp e j

c c

Figure: Highpass filter


Hhp e j

c c

Figure: Highpass filter
Hbs e j

b a a b

Figure: Bandstop filter
Example. Frequency response of the moving-average
1
M1 +M2 +1 M1 n M2
h[n] =
0 otherwise
M2
1 X
H e j e jn

=
M1 + M2 + 1
n=M1
j
1 e jM1 e j(M2 +1)
H e =
M1 + M2 + 1 1 e j
j(M1 +M2 +1)/2
1 e e j(M1 +M2 +1)/2 j(M2 M1 )/2
H e j

= e
M1 + M2 + 1 e j/2 e j/2
1 sin [ (M1 + M2 + 1) /2] j(M2 M1 )/2
H e j

= e
M1 + M2 + 1 sin (/2)

Example. Frequency response of the moving-average
|H(ej )
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6

H(ej )
1.5
1
0.5
0
-0.5
-1
-1.5
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6

|H e j | falls off at high frequencies and H e j varies linearly with . This
attenuation of the high frequencies suggests that the system will smooth out
rapid variations in the input sequence.

Fourier transform
Representation of sequences by Fourier transforms
Z
1
X e j e jn d

x[n] = (1)
2
X
X e j x[n]e jn

= (2)
n=

Fourier transform
Z
1
X e j e jn d

x[n] = (1)
2
X
X e j x[n]e jn

= (2)
n=
Eq. (2) the Fourier transform, is an expression for computing X e j

from x[n], i.e., for analyzing the sequence x[n] to determine how much of
each frequency component is required to synthetize x[n] using Eq. (1)

Fourier transform
Z
1
X e j e jn d

x[n] = (1)
2
X
X e j x[n]e jn

= (2)
n=
Eq. (2) the Fourier transform, is an expression for computing X e j

from x[n], i.e., for analyzing the sequence x[n] to determine how much of
each frequency component is required to synthetize x[n] using Eq. (1)
j
X e j = |X e j ||e jX{z(e })

| {z }
Magnitude Phase

Fourier transform
The frequency response of an LTI system is the Fourier transform of

the impulse response

Fourier transform

The impulse response can be obtained from the frequency response by

applying the inverse Fourier transform integral
Z
1
H e j e jn d

h[n] = (3)
2

Fourier transform

The impulse response can be obtained from the frequency response by

applying the inverse Fourier transform integral
Z
1
H e j e jn d

h[n] = (3)
2
A sufficient condition for convergence of the Fourier transform is:

X
X
|X e j | = jn jn
P
n= x[n]e |x[n]||e | |x[n]| <
n= n=

Fourier transform

A stable sequence is absolutely summable, therefore it has Fourier
transform

Fourier transform

transform
Absolute summability is a sufficient condition for the existence of a

Fourier transform representation

Fourier transform

transform

Any FIR system will have a finite, continuous frequency response

Fourier transform

transform

In the case of sequences with infinite length, we must be concerned

about convergence of the infinite sum

Fourier transform

transform

In the case of sequences with infinite length, we must be concerned

about convergence of the infinite sum
Example. x[n] = an u[n]

X
X n
X e j = an e jn = ae j
n=0 n=0
1
X e j
= if |ae j | < 1 or |a| < 1
1 ae j

Fourier transform

Some sequences are not absolutely summable, but are square
summable,
X
|x[n]|2 <


Fourier transform

Some sequences are not absolutely summable, but are square
summable,
X
|x[n]|2 <

Such sequences can be represented by a Fourier transform. The
convergence now is mean-squared, that is

X
X e j x[n]e jn

=
n=
M
X
XM e j x[n]e jn

=
n=M
Z
|X e j XM e j |2 d

0 = lim
M

Fourier transform
Example. Square summability for the ideal lowpass filter

j
1 || < c
Hlp e =
0 c < ||

Fourier transform

j
1 || < c
Hlp e =
0 c < ||
Z c
1
hlp [n] = e jn d
2 c
1 c 1
e jn c = e jc e jc n

hlp [n] =
2jn 2jn
sin (c n)
hlp [n] = <n <
n

Fourier transform

j
1 || < c
Hlp e =
0 c < ||
Z c
1
hlp [n] = e jn d
2 c
1 c 1
e jn c = e jc e jc n

hlp [n] =
2jn 2jn
sin (c n)
hlp [n] = <n <
n
Since hlp is nonzero for n < 0 , the ideal lowpass filter is noncausal. Also, hlp is
P
not absolutely summable. The infinite sum n= sin( c n) jn
n e does not
converge uniformly for all values of

Fourier transform
M
j
X
sin (c n) jn
HM e = e
n
n=M
h i
Z c sin (2M+1)()
1 2
e j =

HM
d
2 c sin 2

Fourier transform
M
j
X
sin (c n) jn
HM e = e
n
n=M
h i
Z c sin (2M+1)()
1 2
e j =

HM
d
2 c sin 2
Z
|Hlp e j HM e j |2 d = 0

lim
M

Fourier transform
M
j
X
sin (c n) jn
HM e = e
n
n=M
h i
Z c sin (2M+1)()
1 2
e j =

HM
d
2 c sin 2
Z
|Hlp e j HM e j |2 d = 0

lim
M
j converges in the mean-square sense to Hlp e j

HM e

Fourier transform
HM (ej ), M=1 HM (ej ), M=5
1 1
0.5 0.5
0 0
-0.5 -0.5
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4

HM (ej ), M=11 HM (ej ), M=25
1 1
0.5 0.5
0 0
-0.5 -0.5
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4


Fourier transform
Example. Fourier transform of complex exponential

sequences
Consider a sequence x[n] whose Fourier transform is the periodic impulse train

X
X e j =

2 ( 0 + 2r )
r =

Fourier transform

sequences

X
X e j =

2 ( 0 + 2r )
r =
Z
1
x[n] = 2 ( 0 ) e jn d
2
x[n] = e j0 n

Fourier transform

sequences

X
X e j =

2 ( 0 + 2r )
r =
Z
1
x[n] = 2 ( 0 ) e jn d
2
x[n] = e j0 n

x[n] is not absolutely summable, nor is it square summable, and |X e j | is not
finite for all

Fourier transform

From the previous example, the mathematical statement,
X
X
e j0 n e jn = 2 ( 0 + 2r )
n= r =
must be interpreted in a special way (Lighthill, 1958)

Fourier transform

X
X
e j0 n e jn = 2 ( 0 + 2r )
n= r =
It is possible to extend the concept of a Fourier transform representation to

the class of sequences expressed as a sum of discrete frequency components,
X
x[n] = ak e jk n <n <
k
X X
X e j

= 2ak ( k + 2r )
r = k

Fourier transform

X
X
e j0 n e jn = 2 ( 0 + 2r )
n= r =
It is possible to extend the concept of a Fourier transform representation to

the class of sequences expressed as a sum of discrete frequency components,
X
x[n] = ak e jk n <n <
k
X X
X e j

= 2ak ( k + 2r )
r = k
1
P
The Fourier transform of u[n] is U e j = 1e j
+ r = ( + 2r )
Symmetry properties of the Fourier transform
Symmetry properties2
x[n] Real
X e j X e j

=
X
X e j x[n]e jn

=
n=
X
X e j
x [n]e jn

=
n=
Ismael
2 Minchala A. (UCuenca) Discrete-time signals and systems September, 2016 50 / 62
x[n] Real
X e j X e j

=
X
X e j x[n]e jn

=
n=
X
X e j
x [n]e jn

=
n=
X e j XR e j jXI e j

=
X e j XR e j + jXI e j

=
Ismael
x[n] Real
X e j X e j

=
X
X e j x[n]e jn

=
n=
X
X e j
x [n]e jn

=
n=
X e j XR e j jXI e j

=
X e j = XR e j + jXI e j

XR e j = XR e j

even
XI e j = XI e j

odd
|X e j | even

X e j

odd
Ismael
Symmetry properties
A conjugate-symmeric sequence xe [n] is defined as a sequence for

which xe [n] = xe [n]

Symmetry properties

A conjugate-antisymmetric sequence xo [n] is defined as a sequence for

which xo [n] = xo [n]

Symmetry properties

A conjugate-antisymmetric sequence xo [n] is defined as a sequence for

which xo [n] = xo [n]
x[n] = xe [n] + xo [n]

1
xe [n] = (x[n] + x [n]) = xe [n]
2
1
xo [n] = (x[n] x [n]) = xo [n]
2

Symmetry properties
A real sequence that is conjugate symmetric such that xe [n] = xe [n]

is called an even sequence

Symmetry properties

A real sequence that is conjugate antisymmetric such that

xo [n] = xo [n] is called an odd sequence

Symmetry properties

A real sequence that is conjugate antisymmetric such that

xo [n] = xo [n] is called an odd sequence
A Fourier transform X e j can be decomposed into a sum of

conjugate-symmetric and conjugate-antisymmetric function as
X e j = Xe e j + Xo e j

1
Xe e j = X e j + X e j

2
1
j
X e j X e j

Xo e =
2


Sequence x[n] Fourier transform X e j
x [n] X e j

1.
x [n] X e j

2.

3. <{x[n]} Xe e j (conjugate-symmetric of X e j )

4. j={x[n]} Xo e j (conjugate-antisymmetric of X e j

5. xe [n] (conjugate-symmetric of x[n]) XR e j = <{X e j }

6. xo [n] (conjugate-antisymmetric of x[n]) jXI e j = j={X e j }
X e j = X e j

7. Any real x[n]
XR e j = XR e j (real part is even)

8. Any real x[n]
XI e j = XR e j

9. Any real x[n]
|X e j | = |X e j | (magnitude is even

10. Any real x[n]
X e j = X e j

11. Any real x[n]

Fourier transform theorems
Sampling theorem
xa (t) xa (t)
Sampling

X
xa (t) = xa (t) u0 (t nT )

X
xa (t) = xa (nT )u0 (t nT )


Sampling theorem
xa (t) xa (t)
Sampling

X
xa (t) = xa (t) u0 (t nT )

X
xa (t) = xa (nT )u0 (t nT )

Xa (j) = Xa (j) P(j)

1 X 2r
Xa (j) = Xa j + j
T r = T

Sampling theorem

Theorems

Sequence x[n], y [n] Fourier transform
X e j , Y e j
1. ax[n] + by [n] aX e j + bY e
j
jnd j
2. x[n nd ] nd Z e X e

3. e j0 n x[n] X e j(0 )
X e j

4. x[n]
X e j if x[n] real
dX (e j )
5. nx[n] j d
j

6. x[n] y [n] X e Y e j
1
R
7. x[n]y [n] 2
X e j Y e j() d
Parsevals
P theorem:2 R
1

j 2
8. n= |x[n]| = 2
|X
R e | d
P 1 j
j
9. n= x[n] y [n] = 2 X e Y e d

Fourier transform pairs

Sequence Fourier transform
1. [n] 1
2. [n n0 ] e jn0
P
3. 1 ( < n < ) k= 2 ( + 2k)
4. an u[n] (|a| < 1) 1

1ae j
1
P
5. u[n] 1e j
+ k= ( + 2k)
n 1
6. (n + 1) a u[n] (|a| < 1)
(1ae j )2
r n sin[p (n+1)] 1
7. sin(p )
u[n] (|r | < 1) 12r cos(p )e j +r 2 e j2

sin(c n) 1 || < c
X e j =

8. n 0 c < ||

1 0nM
9. x[n] =
0 otherwise
P
10. e j0 n k=2 ( 0 + 2k)
P j j
11. cos (0 n + ) k= e ( 0 + 2k) + e ( + 0 +

Example. Determining a Fourier transform through tables
x[n] = an u[n 5]

Example. Determining a Fourier transform through tables
x[n] = an u[n 5]
1
X1 e j

=
1 ae j
e j5
X2 e j

=
1 ae j
a5 e j5
X e j

=
1 ae j

Example. Determining an inverse Fourier transform

through tables
1
X e j =

(1 ae j ) (1 be j )

Example. Determining an inverse Fourier transform

through tables
1
X e j =

(1 ae j ) (1 be j )
a b
ab ab
X e j

=
1
ae j 1 be j

a n b
x[n] = a u[n] b n u[n]
ab ab

Example. Impulse response of a difference equation

1 1
y [n] y [n 1] = x[n] x[n 1]
2 4


1 1
y [n] y [n 1] = x[n] x[n 1]
2 4
x[n] = [n]
1 1
h[n] h[n 1] = [n] [n 1]
2 4
1 1
H e j e j H e j = 1 e j

2 4
1 14 e j 1 1 j
4e
H e j

= =
1 12 e j 1 12 e j 1 21 e j


1 1
y [n] y [n 1] = x[n] x[n 1]
2 4
x[n] = [n]
1 1
h[n] h[n 1] = [n] [n 1]
2 4
1 1
H e j e j H e j = 1 e j

2 4
1 14 e j 1 1 j
4e
H e j

= =
1 12 e j 1 12 e j 1 21 e j
n
1 F 1
u[n]
2 1 12 e j
n1 1 j
1 1 F e
4 1 j
4 2 1 2e
n n1
1 1 1
y [n] = u[n]
2 4 2
Appendix Summary
Summary

Appendix Summary
Summary

Appendix Summary
Summary

LTI systems

Appendix Summary
Summary

LTI systems
Convolution sum

Appendix Summary
Summary

LTI systems
Convolution sum
Frequency domain representation of LTI systems

Appendix Summary
Summary

LTI systems
Convolution sum
Frequency domain representation of LTI systems
Fourier transform

Appendix Questions
Questions

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Discrete-time Signal Processing

Luis Ismael Minchala Avila

Ismael Minchala A. (UCuenca) Discrete-time signals and systems September, 2016 1 / 62

3 Linear time-invariant systems

4 Linear constant-coefficient difference equations

7 Symmetry properties of the Fourier transform

8 Fourier transform theorems

Ismael Minchala A. (UCuenca) Discrete-time signals and systems September, 2016 2 / 62

Continuous-time vs. Discrete-time (Signals)

x(t) = A sin t + x[k] = sin(0 k + )

Ismael Minchala A. (UCuenca) Discrete-time signals and systems September, 2016 3 / 62

Ismael Minchala A. (UCuenca) Discrete-time signals and systems September, 2016 5 / 62

Data acquisition with MATLAB

Ismael Minchala A. (UCuenca) Discrete-time signals and systems September, 2016 6 / 62

Ismael Minchala A. (UCuenca) Discrete-time signals and systems September, 2016 7 / 62

x[n] = An x[n] = A cos (0 n + )

Figure: Real exponential

Ismael Minchala A. (UCuenca) Discrete-time signals and systems September, 2016 8 / 62

x[n] = An = |A|e j ||n e j0 n = |A|||n e j(0 n+)

Ismael Minchala A. (UCuenca) Discrete-time signals and systems September, 2016 9 / 62

x[n] = An = |A|e j ||n e j0 n = |A|||n e j(0 n+)

For a frequency (0 + 2):

x[n] = Ae j(0 +2)n = Ae j0 n e j2n = Ae j0 n

Ismael Minchala A. (UCuenca) Discrete-time signals and systems September, 2016 9 / 62

x[n] = An = |A|e j ||n e j0 n = |A|||n e j(0 n+)

For a frequency (0 + 2):

x[n] = Ae j(0 +2)n = Ae j0 n e j2n = Ae j0 n

Complex exponential sequences as well as sinusoidal sequences with

Example 1. Periodic and aperiodic discrete-time sinusoids

Ismael Minchala A. (UCuenca) Discrete-time signals and systems September, 2016 10 / 62

Example 1. Periodic and aperiodic discrete-time sinusoids

x1 [n] = cos n 0.5

Increasing the frequency of a discrete- 0 5 10

time sinusoid does not necessarily de-

Ismael Minchala A. (UCuenca) Discrete-time signals and systems September, 2016 10 / 62

Example. Periodic and aperiodic discrete-time sinusoids

Ismael Minchala A. (UCuenca) Discrete-time signals and systems September, 2016 11 / 62

A discrete-time system is defined as a transformation, which maps an

Special class of systems: Linear and shift-invariant, also known as

Ismael Minchala A. (UCuenca) Discrete-time signals and systems September, 2016 12 / 62

Examples of discrete-time systems

y [n] = x[n nd ], < n < 1

Ismael Minchala A. (UCuenca) Discrete-time signals and systems September, 2016 13 / 62

Properties of discrete-time systems

Memoryless systems. If the output y [n] at every value of n depends

Ismael Minchala A. (UCuenca) Discrete-time signals and systems September, 2016 14 / 62

Properties of discrete-time systems

Memoryless systems. If the output y [n] at every value of n depends

Linear systems. The class of linear systems is defined by the principle

T {x1 [n] + x2 [n]} = T {x1 [n]} + T {x2 [n]} = y1 [n] + y2 [n]

Ismael Minchala A. (UCuenca) Discrete-time signals and systems September, 2016 14 / 62

Example. The accumulator system

Ismael Minchala A. (UCuenca) Discrete-time signals and systems September, 2016 15 / 62

Example. The accumulator system

Ismael Minchala A. (UCuenca) Discrete-time signals and systems September, 2016 15 / 62

Example. The accumulator system

x3 [n] = ax1 [n] + bx2 [n]

Ismael Minchala A. (UCuenca) Discrete-time signals and systems September, 2016 15 / 62

Example. The accumulator system

x3 [n] = ax1 [n] + bx2 [n]

y 3[ n] = ay1 [n] + by2 [n]

Ismael Minchala A. (UCuenca) Discrete-time signals and systems September, 2016 15 / 62

Properties of discrete-time systems