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CICIND
Model Code for Steel Chimneys
REVISION 1 1999
TABLE OF CONTENTS
DISCLAIMER
This CICIND Model Code is presented to the best of the knowledge of its members as a guide only. CICIND is not, nor are any of its
members, to be held responsible for any failure alleged or proved to be due to adherence to recommendations or acceptance of information
published by the association in a Model Code or in any other way.
Extracts from standards are reproduced with the permission of BSI under licence number PD\1999 1591.
Complete copies of the standard can be obtained by post from BSI Customer Services, 389 Chiswick High Road, London W4 4AL, UK
CICIND, Talacker 50, CH-8001, Zurich, Switzerland
Copyright by CICIND, Zurich
page 2 CICIND Model Code
B.J. Vickery (Canada) CICIND has departed from generally accepted principles of
H. van Koten (The Netherlands) steelwork design and construction only when this was required by the
philosophy outlined above or by specic chimney requirements.
0. INTRODUCTION
1 SCOPE
0.1 General This model code relates to the structural design and construction of
steel chimneys of circular cross-section, with a minimum height of
Chimneys are required to carry vertically and discharge to the
15m, with or without linings, and to the design and application of
atmosphere, gaseous products of combustion, chemical waste gases, or
linings to such chimneys where required. It also relates to chimneys
exhaust air or for the combustion (aring off) of industrial waste gases.
with a height less than 15m and a slenderness ratio more than 16. The
This Model Code contains guide-lines which reect the current state model code does not deal with architectural or thermal aspects of
of art in the design and construction of steel chimneys. Nevertheless, steel chimneys nor with their foundations, except insofar as they
the design, fabrication and erection of steel chimneys require a affect the chimneys structural design. The model code does not deal
thorough knowledge of these structures, the properties of the with those aspects of the design and construction of steelwork,
materials used, the actions occurring upon the structure and the refractories and insulation which are not peculiar to chimneys.
recognised rules of the relevant technologies. The design of steel
chimneys should therefore only be entrusted to appropriately 2. FIELD OF APPLICATION
qualied and experienced engineers. The construction and erection The model code is valid for all steel chimneys of circular cross-
should be carried out by rms competent in this class of work. At all section. However, the design rules have been formulated for self
times the work should be under the direction of appropriately supporting chimneys taller than 15m. For other chimneys
qualied supervisors. simplication may be acceptable.
CICIND will continue to try to improve the understanding of the Additional information is given in the Appendices and
behaviour of chimneys. Further revisions of this model code will Commentaries.
therefore be published from time to time.
3.REFERENCES
0.2. Appendices and Commentaries
[1] CICIND model code for concrete chimneys Part A,
This Model Code is accompanied by extensive appendices and The Shell, August 1998 CICIND, Zurich, Switzerland.
commentaries. The appendices provide information which the
committee believes will be of use to a steel chimney designer, even [2] Eurocode 3.2: Design of Steel Chimneys ENV 1993-3-2: 1997
though its inclusion in a chimney design code could not be justied. [3] Thom, H.C.S.: Distribution of extreme winds over oceans
The commentaries have the following objectives: Journal of the Waterways, Harbors and Coastal Engineering
a) Justication of the regulations of the model code. Division. Proc. of the American Society of Civil Engineers,
February 1973.
b) Simplication of the use of the model code.
[4] Vickery, B.J: Wind loads and design for chimneys, CICIND
c) Understanding of the meaning of the regulations of the REPORT, Vol. 14, No. 2, 1998
model code.
[5] Eurocode 1 Basis of Design and actions on structures
d) Documentation of the areas in the model code where the present Part 2 4: Actions on structures Wind Actions ENV
knowledge is sparse so that the regulations are possibly or 1991-2-4: 1995
probably not optimal.
[6] Van Koten, H: A calculation method for the fatigue life of steel
The following items are not objectives of the CICIND chimneys subject to cross-wind oscillations, CICIND
commentaries: REPORT, Vol. 14, No. 2, 1998
page 4 CICIND Model Code
[7] Ruscheweyh, H.: Experience with Vortex Excited Oscillations W wind-force (N/m)
of Steel Chimneys, CICIND REPORT, Vol.11, No. 2, 1995
Cross-sectional forces
[8] Ole Hansen, S: Vortex induced vibrations of line-like
structures, CICIND REPORT , Vol. 14, No. 2, 1998 M bending moment (Nm)
[9] Van Koten, H: Structural damping, HERON report no.4, e eccentricity (m)
1977, Delft. The Netherlands Dimensions
[10] Berger, G : Measured damping decrements of steel chimneys h height (m)
and their estimation taking account of their type, CICIND
REPORT, Vol. 15, No. 1, 1999 z height above ground level (m)
[11] Turner J.G.: Wind load stresses in steel chimneys, CICIND d diameter (m)
REPORT, Vol. 12, No. 2, 1996 t wall thickness (m)
[12] Hirsch, G.& Jozsa, M.: Optimum control of chimney vibration,
CICIND REPORT, Vol. 10, No. 1, 1994 4.2. Subscripts-Superscripts
[13] Bierrum, N.R.: Mis-tuned Mass Dampers, CICIND REPORT, y yield limit
Vol. 10, No. 2, 1994
k characteristic value
[14] Warren, R.M. & Reid, S.L. Shell to Flue Impact Damping for
Dual Wall and Multi-Flue Chimneys CICIND REPORT * stress multiplied by load factor
Vol. 10, N0. 1, 1994 cr critical
[15] Ruscheweyh, H., Kammel, C. & Verwiebe, C. Vibration
Control by Passive Dampers a Numerical and Experimental 4.3. Units
Study of the Damping Effect of Inner Tubes Inside a Steel Stack Generally, the units of the SI system are used.
and a new dynamic vibration absorber CICIND REPORT
Vol. 12, No. 2, 1996 Examples:
[16] Bunz, G., Diepenberg, H. and Rendie, A.: Inuence of fuel oil m (metre) and mm (millimetre) for dimensions and
characteristics and combustion conditions of flue gas MN (Meganewton) and N (Newton) for forces
properties in W T boilers Journal of the Institute of Fuel,
Sept.1967 MPa for stresses
[17] Lech and Lewandowski: Prevention of cold end corrosion in In those cases where other units are used, the relevant references
industrial boilers Corrosion, March 1979, Atlanta, U.S.A. are given.
[18] Henseler, F.: Desulphurisation Systems and their Effect on
4.4. Definitions
Operational Conditions in Chimneys, CICIND REPORT, Vol.
3, No. 2, 1987. The common names of parts of a steel chimney are explained in
[19] CICIND chimney protective coatings manual, CICIND, commentary 1.
Zurich, Switzerland
5. BASIS OF DESIGN AND SAFETY FACTORS
[20] Schulz, U.: Die Stabilitat axial belasteter Zylinderschalen mit
Manteloffnungen, Bauingenieur 51,1976. 5.1 General
[21] European Recommendations for Steel Construction: Buckling The design of sections subject to permanent load and wind loads in
of Cylinders ECCS/CECM/EKS, 1984 the wind direction is based upon ultimate limit state conditions, the
[22] Bouwman, E.P.: Bolted connections dynamically loaded in safety of the chimney being ensured by partial safety factors for loads
tension. Proceedings ASCE, Journal of the Structural and material. The ultimate limit state considered is reached when any
Division, ST9,1982. part of the section is at the limit stress. The limit stress is dened as
either yield stress or critical buckling stress (whichever is least),
[23] CICIND Model Code for Concrete Chimneys Part C, Steel divided by the material safety factor. The calculation of the stress
Liners, December 1995 CICIND, Switzerland distribution and the strength of the sections shall therefore be made
in accordance with the theory of elasticity.
4. NOTATIONS, UNITS AND DEFINITIONS
The use of this procedure, combined with the partial safety factors
4.1. General listed below will ensure that low cycle fatigue will not contribute to
failure of the chimney.
The following list shows only the principles by which the notations
and their meanings are related. The actual notations are mostly In the design of details such as anges, ultimate limit state may take
explained in the text. account of plastic stress distribution
Local factors Safety in the case of response to vortex shedding is ensured by the
use in the fatigue calculations of a suitable Miner Number, a material
load factor factor and a modelling factor.
Material properties
5.2 Reliability differentiation
f strength (MPa)
Different levels of reliability shall be adopted for chimneys, depending on
E modulus of elasticity (GPa)
the possible economic and social consequences of their failure.
stress (MPa)
Two classes of reliability related to the consequences of structural
Loadings failure are used Normal and Critical, as dened below. The choice
of reliability category shall be decided by the chimney owner and
T temperature in centigrade
relevant statutory authorities. Most chimneys will, however, be
V wind-speed (m/s) regarded as of Normal reliability.
CICIND Model Code Amendment A March 2002 page 5
5.3 Partial Safety Factors Fe360 A 235 225 215 205 195
B FU/FN 28 20
Material safety factor for steel 1.1 C FN 28 0
Load factors for: D FN 28 20
Normal Chimneys
Permanent load 1.1 Fe430 A 275 265 255 245 235
Guy rope pretension 1.2 B FN 28 20
Wind load in wind direction (temperate zones) 1.4 C FN 28 0
Wind load in wind direction (tropical storm zones)* 1.5 D FN 28 20
Critical Chimneys
Permanent load 1.1 Fe510 B FN 355 345 335 325 315 28 20
Guy rope pretension 1.2 C FN 28 0
Wind load in wind direction (temperate zone) 1.5 D FN 28 20
Wind load in wind direction (tropical storm zones)* 1.6 DD FN 40 20
* See literature (e.g. lit.(3)).
The materials generally used for steel chimneys are described below. density s: 8.0 Mg/m3
Special steels can be used providing that they are precisely specied (wide ats and plates)
and that their characteristics, such as yield stress, tensile strength, 7.85 Mg/m3
ductility and weldability, enable the Model Code to be put into (other steel products)
application. In zones where bearing elements are subjected to tension Modulus of elasticity E (tension, compression, bending)
as a result of external loads or in zones of three-dimensional stress, 210 GPa
the ductility requirements, in addition to the minimum strength Shear modulus: G 81 GPa
values, shall be considered. Poisson ratio: 0.3
Coefficient of thermal expansion : 1.2105 / oC
6.2. Structural Steels
6.2.1 The mechanical properties and the chemical composition of 6.2.5 At temperatures T between 200C and 400C the properties of
structural steels shall comply with local national standards. steel shall be varied as follows:
6.2.2. For the most commonly used grades of steel, Fe 360, Fe 430
and Fe 510, Table 6.1 gives the mechanical properties. Steel grade Yield stress see Table 6.2
ASTM A36 has similar properties to Fe 360.
Youngs modulus:(see Table 6.3)
6.2.3. The limit stresses of steel are equal to the yield stress of the ET E {1 (15.9 105)T (34.5 107)T2
steel used, divided by the material factor 1.1: i.e. fk fy / 1.1 (11.8 109)T3 (17.2 1012)T4}
The yield stresses of structural steels at normal ambient temperature
are given in table 6.1. The yield stresses at high temperatures are Thermal expansion: L / L 1.2 105 T m/m
given in Table 6.2. (100C
T
800C)
page 6 CICIND Model Code
When the metal temperature is below acid dew point for prolonged
Steel Grade Steel Grade Steel Grade
periods, the performance of low copper alloy steels in contact with
Fe 360 Fe 430 Fe 510
ue gases is similar to that of carbon steel.
C fyT/fy fyT fyT/1.1 fyT fyT/1.1 fyT fyT/1.1 Where stainless or alloy steel components are connected to carbon
20 1.000 235 214 275 250 355 323 steel, bolted connections are preferred. In order to avoid accelerated
200 0.880 207 188 242 220 312 284 corrosion due to galvanic action, such connections should include
250 0.832 196 178 229 208 295 269 insulating gaskets. Welded connections are permitted, provided
300 0.778 183 166 214 195 276 251 specialist metallurgical control is exercised with regard to weld
350 0.717 169 153 197 179 255 231 procedures, electrode selection, etc.
400 0.647 152 138 178 162 230 209
Care should be taken to use the correct coefficient of expansion for
the grade and temperature of the steel being considered.
Table 6.2 Yield stresses of structural steel in MPa
(thicknesses t
16mm) 7. ACTIONS (EXTERNAL AND INTERNAL)
Where:-
= upwind slope H/L in the wind direction (see Figs. 7.1 & 7.2)
s = factor obtained from Figs. 7.1 & 7.2
H = height of hill or escarpment
x = distance of chimney from crest
z = height of considered position in chimney
Le = effective length of the upwind slope, dened in table 7.2
Lu = actual length of upwind slope in the wind direction
Ld = actual length of downwind slope in wind direction
wm(z) 1/2
a V(z)2 CD d(z) (N/m) ... (7.3) 7.2.3.3 Effect of fluctuating part of the wind-speed
The inuence of the uctuating part can be found by multiplying with
where: the gust factor G.
a 1.25 (h1 / 8000) kg/m3 ... (7.4) the structural plus aerodynamic damping expressed as a
fraction of critical damping (see 7.2.7)
7.2.3.2.3. Shape factor f1 sthe natural frequency in sl of the chimney oscillating
The shape factor CD depends on the Reynolds number Re of the in its rst mode
chimney (see Fig. 7.3), where Re 6.9 104 V d, in which
V V(z) is the mean wind speed at the top of the chimney in m/s and h height of chimney in metres
d is the diameter in m.
7.2.4 Vortex shedding
CD 1.2 if Re 3 105
7.2.4.1 General Principles
CD 1.2 1.36 {log Re 5.48) if 3 105 Re 7 105
Forces due to vortex shedding cause cross wind response of a
CD 0 7 if Re 7 105 chimney. The frequency (f) at which vortices are shed is related to
diameter (d) and wind velocity (V) by the expression:
for chimneys with helical vanes CD 1.4 (see gure 7.3}. CD is
applied to the outer diameter of the chimney in the vaned portion and
not the outer dimension of the vanes. St f d / V ... (7.6)
where St Strouhal number
For attachments, including ladders, etc., the area presented to the
wind for each member must use a force coefficient of 1.2 for circular The Strouhal number decreases with decreasing distance (A) of nearby
members and 2.0 for structural shapes. Typical lengths and widths of chimneys in a row arrangement. For A/d 15 the Strouhal number is
ladder members have been taken into account. 0.2 and for different distances this number is as shown in g. 7.6
CICIND Model Code Amendment A March 2002 page 9
Significant amplitudes usually only occur when the shedding The approximate maximum value of y can be expressed in terms of
frequency (which increases as the wind speed rises) co-incides with two quantities, c1 and c2 as follows:-
a structural frequency. This occurs at the critical wind speed (Vcr)
which is derived by the following expression:
y Kp . d1 . c1
(c12
c2) ... (7.9)
Normally only the rst mode structural frequency (f1) is relevant. d1 mean diameter over top third of chimney height
However, for slender chimneys with very low rst critical wind-
speed, the response to second mode vibration (at frequency f2) should c1 0.08 {1 ( . mo) / (Ka .
a . d2)}
also be studied.
c2 0.16 .
a . d3 . Ca2 / (Ka . mo . St4 . h)
No signicant movement due to vortex shedding will be found if the
critical wind-speed exceeds 1.2 the design wind-speed at the top
Kp 1.5 when c1
c12
c2 0.04
of the chimney.
The cross-wind movements depend strongly on the mass and 4 when c1
c12
c2 0.04
damping of the chimney. A major determining property is the
dimensionless Scruton number dened as: Ka Kamax . (1 3 . I)
d1 the diameter (averaged over the top third) The value assumed for minimum local turbulence intensity (I) shall
be as listed in Table 7.3.
u1 (z) the mode shape of the rst resonance frequency
Chimney Location
c / cr damping ratio (see Table 7.4)
Open Sea or Lake shore with at All other terrain Categories
h the height of the chimney least 5km fetch upwind of water, or
smooth flat country without obstacles
If the Scruton number is less than 5, cross-wind oscillations could be Vcr
10m/s 10m/s
7m/s 7m/s
violent. The addition of stabilisers or damping devices (see 7.2.9 and I 0 0.1 0 0.1
7.2.10) is mandatory in this case.
If the Scruton number is greater than 5, the designer may choose Table 7.3
between providing stabilisers or damping devices (see 7.2.9 and
7.2.10), or estimating (per 7.2.4.2) the chimneys response and 7.2.4.3 Bending Moments due to vortex shedding
resulting stresses, ensuring these stresses remain within the limits of In deriving the bending moments associated with the maximum
fatigue per 8.5 and that movement does not exceed the limits agreed response amplitude of a chimney due to vortex shedding, the
per Section 5.4. associated inertial force per unit length [F(z)] should be used.
7.2.4.2 Estimation of cross-wind amplitudes due to F(z) (2 fn)2 m(z) y(z) ... (7.10)
vortex shedding
The method described in this section for estimating amplitudes Where: m(z) mass per unit length at height z
depends upon parameters such as structural damping and y(z) maximum amplitude at height z
atmospheric turbulence, whose values are not known with certainty. fn natural frequency of nth mode
The results of the calculation should, therefore be treated with care In deriving the fundamental mode maximum amplitude at height z
and should not be assumed to be accurate. from the maximum amplitude at the chimney top (per 7.2.4.2), a
The top amplitude (y) of a chimney moving across the wind because parabolic mode shape may be assumed.
of vortex shedding depends upon:-
7.2.5. Ovalling
The Scruton Number Sc (see 7.2.4.1 above)
In most cases, a suitably sized stiffening ring at the top of a chimney
The Strouhal Number St (see 7.2.4.1 above) will eliminate problems associated with ovalling.
The Reynolds Number Re ( 6.9 104 V d)
see 7.2.3.2.3) 7.2.5.1 Static effect
The local minimum atmospheric turbulence intensity (I), see The uneven wind pressure distribution around the circumference of a
Table 7.3 circular cylinder causes bending moments acting on vertical cross-
sections of the shaft. The bending moments have a maximum value of:
The chimneys own movement, making the behaviour non
linear M 0.08 w5 sec (z) d2(z) (Nm/m) ... (7.11)
page 10 Amendment A March 2002 CICIND Model Code
Where w5 sec is the wind pressure at height (z) averaged over 5 sec 7.2.6. The increase of wind effects by nearby structures
(m/s). Note the assumption that 5 sec gust windspeed (m/s) at height
Interference effects, caused by the presence of a nearby structure
z 1.4 V(z) is safe at all heights.
upwind of a chimney, can signicantly increase the chimneys quasi
static wind load in the wind direction, described in 7.2.3 and its
7.2.5.2 Dynamic effect response, normal to the wind direction, described in 7.2.4. If the
Due to vortex excitation ovalling vibration of the shell can occur. interfering structure is itself a chimney, its own response when
These vibrations can be expected if the frequency of the vortices downwind of the new chimney should be checked.
(f 2 V St / d) coincides with an ovalling frequency of the shell.
7.2.6.1 Effect on wind load in the wind direction
The fundamental ovalling frequency of unstiffened shells is When interference effects are expected from a nearby structure, the
determined by: design windspeed per equation 7.1 used to determine the wind load
f1 (0.5 t / d2) .
E /
s ... (7.12) should be increased by a factor ki as dened below:-
Where E Youngs Modulus of the steel shell a) Where the height of the interfering structure is less than half the
chimney height, ki 1.0
t the average shell thickness (in m) over the top third
b) Where the height of the interfering structure is half chimney
d the shell diameter (in m) height and it is approximately cylindrical in shape, ki is
s density of shell material determined from the following expression for values of a/d
between 1 and 30 (see g. 7.5):
Substituting typical values of E and
s, the associated critical
ki 1.2 .0067a/d
windspeed is then
The participating length of the shell (d . t), but its area must not Fig. 7.5 Effect of interference on downwind loading
exceed that of the stiffener ring (see Fig. 7.4).
7.2.6.2 Effect on cross-wind response
When an approximately cylindrical structure (e.g. another chimney)
CL is upwind and within 15 diameters of a chimney of similar or smaller
height, aerodynamic Wake Interference effects can considerably
increase the downwind chimneys cross-wind response (the diameter
concerned being that of the interfering structure). The increase is not
yet fully understood, but is thought to be due to increases in both lift
t coefficient and negative aerodynamic damping. Note that
Centroid of aerodynamic stabilisers (e.g. helical spoilers) are ineffective in
stiffener and controlling response in cases of wake interference.
participating For a spacing ratio (a/d) greater than 10, the magnication factor kc,
shell applied to response amplitude, calculated per equation (7.12), may be
estimated as follows:-
d.t For a/d 15 :- kc 1.0
For a/d 10 :- kc 1.5
kc 2.5 0.1a/d for a/d between 10 and 15
e For a spacing ratio (a/d) less than 10 there is a risk of very large
increases in amplitude. In these circumstances the chimneys structural
damping should be increased (e.g. by the use of a tuned mass damper)
to ensure that the Scruton Number exceeds 25. At this value of Scruton
Number, the amplitude of response is expected to be minimal.
The associated critical windspeed and value of c2 in equation
(7.12) increase with decreasing values of a/d, due to a reduction in
d/2 the value of the Stouhal Number. This can be important in the design
of a tuned mass damper. Fig. 7.6 shows the relationship between
Figure 7.4 Strouhal Number and a/d.
CICIND Model Code Amendment A March 2002 page 11
f1 (1 / 2 . ) .
[ge .
ms
x
/ x2] (sec1)
ms ... (7.16)
in which:
ms is the mass of the section including the lining or
covering (in kg)
x is the deection of the same section due to the force equal to
gravity acting normal to the centre-line at the mass centre (m).
ge is the value of gravitational acceleration (m/s2)
Figure 7.6 The reduction of Strouhal Number caused by Accurate estimation of the second natural frequency requires the use of
aerodynamic interference a nite element structural program with a dynamic capability or other
advanced computer program. For a chimney with constant diameter
When the interfering structure or chimney is less than 2 diameters and thickness, however, the following expression may be used:-
away, Interference Galloping can cause even greater increases in
the chimneys response. Probably the best solutions in this case
f2 3.5 .
(E . I
/m.
L4) ... (7.17)
would be either to t tuned mass dampers, or to connect structurally,
the chimney to the interfering structure, using an energy absorbing
connection system. Where E Youngs Modulus
I Moment of inertia of cross section
7.2.7 Damping ratio
m mass per unit length
The structural damping ratio ( c / ccr) without aerodynamic
damping is given in table 7.4. 7.2.9 Passive Dynamic Control
Type of chimney Damping Ratio Steel chimneys must be designed to suppress excessive cross-wind
movement. Several options are available to the designer.
Unlined, uninsulated 0.002
Unlined, externally insulated 0.003 7.2.9.1 Aerodynamic stabilizers
Lined with refractory concrete 0.005
Lined with brickwork 0.015 When a chimney stands alone, its cross-wind vibrations can usually
chimneys with steel liners*:- be reduced by aerodynamic stabilizers. The useful effect of three
26 0.006 continuous helical vanes has been proved on many steel chimneys.
28 0.002 The radial width of the vanes must be 10% of the diameter. The pitch
Coupled group 0.004 of the vanes should be 5 D. The vanes must be tted over at least the
Chimney with tuned mass damper (0.02min) see Appendix 2 upper 1/3 of the height. The extra wind drag due to the vanes must be
considered (see 7.2.3.2.3).
Table 7.4 Aerodynamic stabilisers will not reduce the wind interference effects
of nearby chimneys or structures.
Notes: If rotation of foundation decreases the rst natural frequency
more than about 10% the foundation is considered to be soft
7.2.9.2. Damping devices
and the damping ratio may be increased by 0.0005.
liner length / liner diameter Damping devices are attached to a chimney to increase its structural
damping, thereby signicantly reducing the cross-wind and along-
* In order to ensure impact damping the gap between the wind vibrations, including the effects of aerodynamic interference by
liner and its restraint should not be greater than 50mm. other nearby towers or chimneys. Damping devices should he
The damping for wind loading in wind direction can be increased by designed to avoid the need for their frequent routine maintenance.
the aerodynamic damping: Most such dampers are mounted near the top of the chimney.
Because of their prole and small size, the associated increase in
c / ccr 2.7 . 106 . V / (f1 . t) ... (7.15) wind drag is minimised. The use of damping devices, therefore, has
been proved to be benecial in the design of steel chimneys and they
in which: can be safely retro-tted without incurring signicant increase in
V is, for wind loading in wind direction, the wind speed V(z) at the wind drag loads.
top of the chimney (7.2.2.2)
Tuned mass dampers provide an extra mass, coupled to the chimney
V 0 for cross-wind loading by an energy absorbing medium, which absorbs the wind induced
energy. Tuned mass dampers have proven effective in reducing self-
f1 is the fundamental natural frequency (7.2.8) generated along wind and cross-wind vibrations and also the effect of
t is the thickness of the wall in the top third. nearby chimneys or structures.
Where chimneys are lined, t total mass per square metre over the Other chimney damping devices such as hanging chains have also
top third (kg/m2) divided by 7850 kg/m3 been successfully used.
page 12 CICIND Model Code
and:
Elementary chlorine: 0.1% by weight (1300 mg/m3 at 20C and
1 bar pressure) h height of the chimney (m)
N total axial load at the base of the shell
Hydrogen chloride: 0.1% by weight (1300 mg/m3 at 20C and 1
(without load factor) (N)
bar pressure)
E I stiffness of the cross section at the base of
6) Saturated or condensing ue gas conditions downstream of a ue the chimney (Nm2)
gas desulphurisation system shall always be considered as
The second order moment M11 is approximately determined from:-
causing High chemical load.
M11 M1 (1 2 / 8)
8. DESIGN OF STRUCTURAL SHELL
Where M1 is the wind moment at any particular level.
8.1 Minimum thickness This simplied approximation may only be used when 0.8 and
Nh / N 0.1. It is not applicable to guyed chimneys.
At the time of construction the minimum thickness of the shell of
carbon steel chimneys shall be 5mm, including the corrosion Where Nh is the design value of the total vertical load at the top of
allowance. the shell.
When imperfections w are smaller than 0.01l (Fig. 8.1): The amplitude of movement varies, with maximum movement only
representing a small proportion of the total number of cycles. The
N 0.83 / (1 r / 100t)0.5 for r/t
212 ... (8.9a) effect of fatigue due to all of the load cycles can be expressed by
and: N 0.7 / (0.1 r / 100t)0.5 for r/t 212 ... (8.9b) considering the factored Miner Number M*:-
B 0.189 0.811 N Where M* . M (max / wn)k (logeN)k
If the imperfections (w) are between 0.01l and 0.02l (see Fig. 8.1) the Where:-
above formulae may be used if 1 is substituted for a: max The maximum stress range due to vortex shedding
1 [1.5 w / 0.02 l] ... (8.9c) wn The fatigue strength after N cycles (see gs. 8.2 & 8.3)
Imperfections (w) greater than 0.02l shall not be permitted. k the (positive) exponent of the fatigue curves. for steel, k3
Stiffeners may be used to increase the shells resistance to buckling. Determines the load vs. cycles relationship (Vcr / 8)1.2
Guidance on the design of such stiffeners is given in CICIND Model
Modelling safety factor 1.4
Code for Concrete Chimneys Part C Steel Liners.
(for temperatures up to 200C)
If the factored Miner Number (M*) is less than 0.2 no cracking will
occur during the required lifetime. Nevertheless, occasionally
movement amplitude may be sufficient to cause alarm. In such cases
the amplitude limitation of Section 5.4 may govern.
Figure 8.1
From ENV 1993-3-2 : 1997 Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures Part 3.2 Chimneys
face of the outer shell requires no corrosion allowance, provided a 9. DESIGN DETAILS
weather-tight cover is tted over the air space(s) between the liner(s)
and the outer shell. 9.1. Connections
Table 8.1. External corrosion allowance (CE) The carrying capacity of bolted connections shall be checked with
regard to tension and shear or bearing.
Note:
9.1.2.1. Shear
The external corrosion allowances quoted in Table 8.1 are suitable for
a normal environment. When a chimney is sited in an aggressive The shear stresses multiplied by the load factors shall not exceed the
environment, caused by industrial pollution, nearby chimneys or limit shear stress divided by resistance factor 1.1:
close proximity to the sea, consideration should be given to
increasing these allowances. t*
u / 1.1 ... (9.1)
8.6.2. Internal corrosion allowance The values of limit shear stress are given in Table 9.1.
Usual temperature Chemical bolt grade minimum value of the tensile u u/1.1
of metal in contact load per Internal corrosion allowance strength of bolts
with flue gas table 7.5
4.6 400 200 182
65C low not applicable (chem. load always high)* 5.6 500 250 227
medium not applicable (chem. load always high)* 6.8 600 300 278
high corrosion allowance inappropriate, use other 8.8 800 400 364
material* 10.9 1000 500 455
65C 345C low 2mm**
medium 4mm
high corrosion allowance inappropriate, use other Table 9.1 Limit shear stress (U) in MPa.
material
345C low 1mm The design shear stress * relates to the gross area or to the nett area,
medium 2mm depending on whether the shear plane is in the unthreaded or
high corrosion allowance inappropriate, use other threaded part of the bolt.
material
9.1.2.2. Bearing on connected surfaces
Table 8.2 internal corrosion allowance (CI) for carbon steel
The design stress on connecting parts shall not exceed the minimum
only (for chimneys handling flue gases)
value of the tensile strength of the connected parts multiplied by
1.45:
Notes:
*l
l,u / 1.1 1.45 u ... (9.2)
* Provided acid concentration in the condensate is less than 5% and
chloride concentration does not exceed 30mg/M3, high The design bearing stress *l
relates to the area obtained by
molybdenum stainless steel (such as ASTM Type 316L) is multiplying the diameter d of the shank by the thickness of the
suitable within this temperature limit, using a corrosion allowance connected part. Regardless of any preload, the limit stress l,u is valid
of 3mm for a 20 year life. These conditions are, however, unlikely for edge distances greater or equal 2d in the direction of stress.
to be met in a chimney downstream of a FGD system, generating
condensing gases. In these circumstances great care is required in
the protection of the gas face of the chimney or its liner, e.g. by Grade l,u l,u / 1.1
cladding with a suitable high nickel alloy or titanium or by the
Fe 360 575 525
application of a suitable organic coating. For further guidance, see
Fe 430 690 625
the CICIND Chimney Coatings Manual.
Fe 510 815 740
** In conditions of low chemical load, Corten steel shows some
improvement of corrosion resistance over carbon steel, especially
when contact with condensing SO2/SO3 is intermittent or of short Table 9.2 Limit bearing stress l,u in MPa
duration (e.g. during repeated shut-downs).
+ In these circumstances, ordinary stainless steels (including high 9.1.2.3. Tension
molybdenum stainless steel) have little better corrosion The limit state is described:
resistance than carbon steel and are, therefore not recommended.
If carbon steel is used in chimneys subject to high chemical load, *t
t,u / 1.1 0.73 u,B ... (9.3)
it will require protection by an appropriate coating. For further
guidance, see the CICIND Chimney Coatings Manual. for t,u see table 9.3
page 20 CICIND Model Code
9.1.2.4. Combined loading where uE is the guarantied minimum value of the tensile strength of
the weld metal and fy the yield stress of the parent material.
If the external loading results in a combination of tensile stress t*
and shear stress * in the bolt, the carrying capacity shall be checked
for the condition: Throat section Contact section
grade w,u w,u /1.1 s,u s,u / 1.1
(* / u)2 (t* / t,u)2
1.0 ... (9.4)
Fe 360 255 230 165 150
This check is not necessary if: Fe 430 255 230 180 165
*
0.2 u or t*
0.2 t,u ... (9 5) Fe 510 255 230 250 230
9.1.2.5. Deduction for holes Table 9.4. Limit stresses w,u and s,u for fillet welds in MPa
For parts subjected to tension, the following two conditions shall be
checked: The yield stress, tensile strength, strain at failure and notch toughness of
the weld metal shall exceed minimum values for parent material, and,
in the gross section, the stress shall not exceed the yield stress fy failing a specic agreement, shall be at least equal to those of Fe510.
in the nett section, the stress shall not exceed 80% of the tensile w,u values given in table 9.4 are valid for electrodes with properties
strength u of steel Fe 510.
CICIND Model Code page 21
9.1.3.3 Weld Testing It should be noted that the change of the type of connection to one
with proled contact areas may reduce the damping ratio used in
While a minimum, taken at random, of 10% of butt welds and llet
estimating along and across-wind response. The tting of gaskets to
welds shall be tested, the weld testing procedures and quality levels shall
the anges of structural shells is not permitted.
be agreed by the client and the builder. The recommendations of levels
Cof ISO 5817 Arc-welded joints in steel guidance on quality levels
9.3. The support at the base
and imperfections should be used, but subject to agreement between the
client and builder, local codes may be substituted. Self-supporting steel chimneys are normally based on a reinforced
concrete foundation or a steel structure. The foundation or structure
Note The fatigue categories listed in g. 8.3 assume welds are made
is loaded by an overturning moment, normal force and shear force
to ISO 5817 level C quality standards. If local codes are
through the base plate and anchor bolts.
used, the weld categories may require appropriate adjustment.
9.3.1. Anchor bolts
9.2 Flanged connections
When fatigue due to vortex shedding is anticipated anchor bolts
The use of high strength bolts is recommended. The centres between
should be prestressed. Measures must be taken to ensure that the
the bolts should be between 4db and 10db, where db is the diameter of
prestressing is not lost during the lifetime of the chimney. An
the bolt. However, a distance of 5db is recommended as larger
anchorage device shall be attached to the bottom end of the bolt.
spacings result in excessively thick anges. The minimum bolt
diameter should be db 16mm. The stress in the bolts shall be The maximum bolt stress should not exceed 73% of the tensile
calculated taking consideration of the eccentricity of the loading strength of the material of anchor bolt. Alternative satisfactory
transmitted by the shell. methods may be used at the designers discretion when no response
to vortex shedding is anticipated.
9.3.2. Grouting
After the chimney has been erected and plumbed (with the use of
steel shims which remain in position) the space between the base
plate and concrete foundation must be lled with nonshrink grout.
The compressive strength of the grout must be equal to or greater
than the compressive strength of the concrete.
11.3 Structural Flanges and opening reinforcement The effect of openings upon the chimneys stiffness should be taken
into account when determining the chimneys natural frequencies.
These shall be fully welded to the structural shell. Intermittent
welding shall not be allowed.
Flanges shall be at and normal to the chimney axis. Before bolting, the 14 GUYED AND STAYED CHIMNEYS
maximum gap width on the line of the shell, between matching pairs of
anges, shall be 1mm. Before bolting, the gap at the outer edges of the
anges shall not exceed 1.5mm per 100mm width of ange. A stayed chimney is dened as one which derives lateral (but not
vertical) support from another structure. A guyed chimney derives
Note: These tolerances may be ignored if the anges are bolted together lateral support from guy ropes.
before they are welded to their respective shell sections. Their orientation
shall be marked prior to their being dismantled after welding.
The foregoing structural design rules are valid for self-supported
11.4 Stiffening Rings chimneys, acting as cantilevers, xed at their bases, with or without
liners. Some of the rules (e.g. those related to thermal and chemical
If the design permits the use of intermittent welding, crevices load) are relevant also to chimneys that are guyed or stayed. Rules
exposed to weather or ue gases shall be sealed. governing the structural design, related to wind or earthquake loading
do not, however, apply to these chimneys.
11.5 Baseplate
The baseplate and all base reinforcement shall be fully welded to the
14.1 Stayed chimneys
structural shell and to each component.
The base plate shall be perpendicular to the shell plate within 0.5.
Stayed chimneys are supported laterally at one or more elevations
above their bases. The number of lateral supports will be governed by
11.6 Straightness
buckling considerations per section 8.3.4 above and by the need to
Adjoining cylinder sections shall be welded together straight in the avoid oscillations due to vortex shedding, but shall be kept to the
longitudinal direction to a tolerance of 12mm per 10m of shell minimum possible. To avoid vibrations due to vortex shedding, the
length. natural frequencies should ensure that Vcr (assuming
S 0.2) 1.2 maximum windspeed at the relevant elevation (10
Flanges shall be welded to the structural shell within a perpendicular minute mean). The prime concern of the design should be to ensure
tolerance of 0.5. that vertical expansion is not restricted.
11.7 Erection tolerance
In designing the shell and lateral supports, the forces induced by the
The departure of the chimney from the vertical on erection shall not restraint of differential thermal expansion shall be considered.
exceed 25 mm or 1/600 of the height, whichever is the greater at any Differential expansion can be expected if two or more gas streams of
point. differing temperatures enter the chimney at different points. Guidance
on the determination of these forces may be found in CICIND Model
12. SURFACE PROTECTION Code for Concrete Chimneys, Part C Steel Liners.
The exterior and interior surfaces of a steel chimney may be
protected from attack by weather and corrosive gasses by various The design of the supporting structure is outside the scope of this
methods. Specications for different types of protection are given in Model Code.
Appendix 3. See also CICIND Chimney Protection Coatings Manual.