Elasto Plastic Damage Constitutive

Modeling of layered Concrete Shells

A Report Submitted for the state of Art Seminar

by

Shashibhushan Kumar Singh

(126104029)

Supervisor of Thesis

Dr. Arbind Kr. Singh

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY GUWAHATI

July , 2013
Contents

Contents 1

List of Figures 3

1 Introduction 1

1.1 Shell Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1.2 Application of shells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

1.3 Classification of Shell Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

1.3.1 Based on Gaussian curvature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

1.3.2 Based on geometrical developablity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

1.4 Nonlinear Shell Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

1.5 Organization of the report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

2 Literature Survey 11

2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

2.2 Finite element analysis of shells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

2.2.1 (a) Flat plate elements approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

2.2.2 (b) Curved shell elements approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

2.2.3 (c) Degenerate Shell element approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

2.3 Degenerated Shell Element (DSE) Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

2.4 Elasto-Plastic Analysis Based Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

1
 2.5 MITC element based approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

2.6 Stress resultant approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

2.7 Isogeometric Shell element approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

2.8 Development of reinforced Concrete Shell Element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

2.9 Constitutive modeling of reinforced concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

2.9.1 Representation of Reinforced Bars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

2.9.2 Bond Mechanics of Reinforced Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

3 Objective and plan of Research work 39

3.1 objective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

Bibliography 59

2
List of Figures

1.1 The Dome of the Rock Mosque . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

1.2 The Pantheon ofAncient Rome . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

1.3 The United States Capitol dome . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

1.4 Cooling towers at the recently built Bushehr nuclear power plant in Iran . . 5

1.5 The Kudankulam Nuclear Power Plant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

1.6 Zero Gaussian curvature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

1.7 Positive Gaussian curvature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

1.8 Negative Gaussian curvature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

3
Chapter 1

Introduction

1.1 Shell Structure

Shell structure is light weight construction using shell elements. These elements are typically
curved and are assembled to large structures.
All structure shaped as curved surfaces are called shells.A shell is a curved structure in space
which thin in one direction compared to the other two directions. Main advantage of shell
structures is that they are thin and light, span over large areas, hold applied loads very
effectively and thus utilize minimum amount of materials.The form of the middle surface
and the thickness at every point are the two parameters required to define the geometry
of the shell.A shell may have a uniform or varying shell thickness.thin shell is one where
thickness is small in comparison to other dimensions and its radii of curvature.Shells are
used in many structural parts of various modern vehicles and civil engineering structures. A
significant number of historical and modern buildings contains shell-type structures.Shells
are used in many structural parts of various modern vehicles and civil engineering structures.
A significant number of historical and modern buildings contains shell-type structures. These
structures were designed long before the advent of modern engineering analysis. Examples
include the Dome of the Rock Mosque shown in figure 1.1, which stood for almost one
thousand years, the Pantheon of Ancient Rome,shown in figure 1.2 , which stood for about
two thousand years, and the United States Capitol Dome,shown in figure 1.3 , Nuclear
reactor shown in figure 1.4 and Kudankulam nuclear power plant shown in figure 1.5. The
static and dynamic studies of these and many other structures give us a better understanding
of their behaviors

Nowadays many branches of technology require extremely light and durable shell struc-
tures;this has brought about requirement for efficient and reliable techniques for general

1
 Figure 1.1: The Dome of the Rock Mosque
[3]

shell structural analysis .In same cases ,as an aeronautic industry,the objective is to analyze
thin shell structure ,as in nuclear industry ,interest lies in analysis of moderate thick shells
,with accidental conditions giving rise to extensive area of plasticity.

A shell can be defined as a curved, thin-walled surface. It can be made from a single layer
or multi layers of isotropic or anisotropic materials. Shells can be classified according to
their curvatures: plates (where both curvatures are zero), cylindrical (where one curvature
is zero), spherical (where both curvatures are equal),conical (where one of the curvatures is
zero and the other changes linearly with the axial length), and doubly curved (where the
two curvatures are different).

Laminated composites shell are important structural materials because of their high strength
to weight and strength to stiffness ratios. The mechanical properties of the laminated com-
posites depend on the degree of orthotropy of the layers, ratio of the transverse shear mod-
ulus to the in-plane shear modulus and stacking sequence of the laminate. By appropriate
orientation of the fibres in each lamina, desired strength and stiffness can be achieved.

shells has gained much interest of many researchers from past few decades. In analyzing and
designing complex structures, such as doubly curved shells, whose exact behavior pattern is
difficult to conceive, it is deemed to fit to have a preliminary idea regarding the nature and
magnitudes of displacements and stresses over the entire structure by adopting a simpler and

2
 Figure 1.2: The Pantheon ofAncient Rome
[4]

cheaper method. Obtaining closed form solutions for such problems are complex; therefore,
to efficiently and conveniently solve the problem, the finite element method is widely used.
Many of the classical theories developed for thin elastic shells are based on the Love-Kirchhoff
assumptions in which the normal to the mid-plane before deformation is considered to be
normal and straight after the deformation. It under predicts deflections and over predicts
natural frequencies and buckling loads. These deficiencies are mostly due to the neglect
of transverse shear strains. The errors are even higher for structures made of advanced
composites, whose elastic modulus to shear modulus ratios are very large. The first order
shear deformation theory (FSDT) developed by Reissner [187] and Mindlin[150] . considers
a constant value of transverse shear strains through the thickness of the plate and thus
requires shear correction factors. The shear correction factors are introduced to account for
the discrepancies between the constant state of shear strains in the FSDT and the parabolic
distribution of shear strains in the elastic theory. Many researchers [186, 117, 142] developed
higher-order theories in which the displacements of the middle surface are expanded as cubic
functions of the thickness co-ordinate and the transverse displacement is assumed to be
constant through the thickness. This displacement field leads to the parabolic distribution
of the transverse shear stresses and, therefore, the use of shear correction factors is avoided.

In order to obtain an effective design, a detailed analysis of shell structures is required. The

3
 Figure 1.3: The United States Capitol dome
[5]

difficulty of analysis lies in that a shell resists the applied loads largely by its curvature. The
peculiarities of shell structural behavior and the wide use of shell structures have instigated
a large research effort in shell analysis. Various shell theories have been developed and
approximate solution techniques have been proposed. However, for shells having arbitrary
geometry, loading and support conditions, variation in material properties, openings and
many other aspects of practical design, analytical solutions are practical impossible. As such
the finite element method is well suited to structural analysis of shells. The development of
the finite element method for shell analysis is not without formidable difficulties and pitfalls.

1.2 Application of shells

Shell structures are light weight constructions using shell elements. These elements are typi-
cally curved and are assembled to large structures. Typical applications are fuselages of aero
planes, boat hulls and roof structures in some buildings

Shell structures are mainly used in industrial applications such as automobile, civil, aerospace
and petrochemical engineering. Various types of shells are used in civil field such as conoid
shell , hyperbolic paraboloid shell and elliptical paraboloid shell . All are used for roofing to

4
 Figure 1.4: Cooling towers at the recently built Bushehr nuclear power plant in Iran
[2]

cover large column-free areas

Shell structures are widely used in all industrial applications; especially those related to auto-
mobile, marine, nuclear, civil, aerospace and petrochemical engineering. In civil engineering
construction, conoid, hyperbolic paraboloid and elliptic paraboloid shells are commonly used
as roofing units to cover large column-free areas .Conoid shells shown in figure 1.6. provide
ease of fabrication and allow sun light to come in. They are most suitable when greater rise
is needed at one end. The hyperbolic paraboloid shells are aesthetically appealing and are
used widely.

Laminated composites are such type of material which has high strength to weight and
strength to stiffness ratios. The mechanical properties of the laminated composites depend
on the degree of orthotropy of the layers, ratio of the transverse shear modulus to the in-plane
shear modulus and stacking sequence of laminates

Shell structures efficiently and economically used in various fields of engineering and archi-
tecture. A great variety of shell roofs have been designed and constructed in many parts
of world.Large spans have been easily covered by reinforced concrete shells.water retaining
shells have been constructed of steel,concrete and even precast and prestressed concrete.Tall
silos(up to 60 meters high) and other containments structures of high efficiency have been

5
 Figure 1.5: The Kudankulam Nuclear Power Plant
[6]

built using shell forms.structurally efficient doubly curved high arch dams(up to 300 meters
high) have been constructed to resist high intensity hydrodynamics as well as earthquake
loading.The containment shells of nuclear power plants,requiring high degree of safety,have
always been made of reinforced concrete shells.Tall chimneys and also huge cooling tower(as
high as 200 meters)have been built of steel or reinforced concrete shells.recently,with the ad-
vent of various fiber-reinforced and laminated composite materials,the domain of application
and range of structural efficiency of shell forms has immensely increased .Ground,as well as
space vehicles ,having shell forms ,have been designed and successfully built of high strength
temperature resistant composite materials.The skin of aircraft structures and also ship hulls
are composed of shell forms,built of stiffened shells and composite material bodies.

These applications are several important of shell technology as applied to various fields
of engineering and architecture .one may also conceive of other applications in which the
structurally efficient,economically promising,and aesthetically appealing shell forms could
be conveniently designed constructed.

6
1.3 Classification of Shell Surfaces

The classification of shell surfaces can be done in many ways.but on the basis of IS code
[7] .Shells may be broadly classified assingly-curved and doubly-curved. This is based on
Gauss curvature. The gauss curvature of singly curved shells is zero because one of their
principal curvatures is zero. They are, therefore, developable. Doubly-curved shells are non-
developable and are classified as synclastic or anticlastic according as their Gauss curvature
is positive or negative.

(a) Based on Gaussian curvature.

(b) Based on geometrical developablity.

1.3.1 Based on Gaussian curvature

The product of two principal curvature at any point on surface of the is defined as Gaussian
curvature ,K = K1 K2 . Shell surface based on gaussian curvature mainly classified as three
type but may be classified of five type.

where,

K1 = maximum value of curvature .

K2 = minimum value of curvature

1.3.1.1 Single curved or zero Gaussian curvature

if K = 0,then surface is said to be singly or zero curvature surface.shows in Figure 1.4

.e.g.,cylindrical shell,circular conical shell

7
 Figure 1.7: Positive Gaussian curva-
Figure 1.6: Zero Gaussian curvature ture
[1] [1]

1.3.1.2 positive Gaussian curvature(synclastic surface)

ifK > 0 , then surface is said to be synclastic surface ,i.e. the centres of curves are on same
side of the surface of the shell .shows in Figure 1.5 .e.g., cooling tower ,water tank dome.

1.3.1.3 anticlastic surface or negative Gaussian curvature

if K < 0 ,then surface is said to be anticlastic surface.i.e. the centres of curves are on
opposite sides of the surface. shows in figure 1.6. e.g., hyperboloids of revolution,hyperbolic
paraboloids and conoids.

1.3.1.4 combined shells

partly synclastic and partly anticlastic shells;shell composed of simpler forms.

1.3.1.5 shells with discontinuous curvature

Example:folded plate

8
 Figure 1.8: Negative Gaussian curvature
[1]

1.3.2 Based on geometrical developablity

Another delineation of surfaces can be may on the base of their Geometrical developabil-
ity.According to this distinction,shell surfaces are either developable or non developable.

1.3.2.1 Developable surface

The developable surfaces are ruled surfaces such that all points on a ruling have the same tan-
gent plane. The developable surfaces can be unrolled on to a plane without distortion.Hence
they are surfaces which can be obtained by bending plane regions.Because of this property
developable surfaces are often used in industry. The Gaussian curvature of a developable
surface is everywhere zero. A curved surface is said to be developable if it can be reduced
to a planer surface with stretching the surface.e.g., cylindrical panel

1.3.2.2 Non developable surface

A curved surface is said to be non developable if surface which has to be cut and/ or stretched
in order to be developed into planer form. e.g.,spherical dome.
non developable surface are stronger than developable surface because they take additional
forces to collapse compared to planer surface.

9
1.4 Nonlinear Shell Theory

A shell is said to behave nonlinearly if the deflection at any point is not proportional to the
magnitude of the applied load .There are two types of nonlinearities: geometric and mate-
rial.The geometric nonlinearity is the result of nonlinear strain-displacement relations, and
the material nonlinearity is the result of nonlinear stress-strain relations. most of the work
done on linear shells takes into account the material nonlinearity because traditional engi-
neering materials, such as steel and aluminum, behave linearly when the strain-stress relation
is linear. The small deflection equation are formulated from the classical linear theory of
elasticity.For every shell with specified load and constraints,a unique position of equilibrium
is determined with the help of linear shell theory.the solution of a physical shell problem is
not always unique.several position of equilibrium are possible in some cases,even with iden-
tical conditions of loading and constraints.In the linear shell theory,rotation are neglected
in the expression for strain and equilibrium.However ,the rotation term are to be included
in the investigation of multiple equilibrium states.Bathe and Bolourchi[22] developed the
Ahmad. Irons and Zienkiewicz formulation [10]for nonlinear analysis.

1.5 Organization of the report

The thesis consists of Three chapters. A brief description of each chapter is presented here.

Chapter 1 presents a introduction of shell structure .

Chapter 2 present the literature review of degenerated Shell Element (DSE) Approach ,elasto-
plastic analysis based approach ,MITC element based approach,stress resultant approach and
Isogeometric shell element approach ,development of reinforced concrete Shell Element and
constitutive modeling of reinforced concrete.

Chapter 3 presents the objective and plan of future work.

10
Chapter 2

Literature Survey

2.1 Introduction

Understanding the behaviour of shell structure has been attempted from many years.Initially
domes were constructed based on knowledge by trial and error.These structures were primar-
ily masonry structure and compressive internal stress development was prime consideration.
But the construction of shell structure was more an art than science. Next important in the
understanding of shell behaviour was laboratory experiment and development of shell the-
ory. These shell theory provides partial differential equations. These equation were solved in
closed form. Obtaining the closed form solution has been a very challenging tools. But these
solution can be obtained for very limited simple geometry. Numerical methods have becomes
vary popular to its versatility of applications. Finite different method, boundary element
method and finite method are popularly employed numerical technique. As this study in
restricted to finite element analysis of shell structure, we shall confined the literature review
to finite element method.

2.2 Finite element analysis of shells

Finite element method has become one of the most popular method to analyze the shell
structure. Developing the robust and efficient finite element and its applications to analyze
various structure have been active area of research for last four decades.
The development of robust efficient finite element has followed three parallel paths.These
three approach as follows

11
 (a) Flat plate elements.

(b) Curved shell elements.

(c) Degenerated shell elements.

As present study is restricted to degenerated shell element, we shall briefly give the de-
velopment of flat plate element and curved shell element. Subsequently, Degenerated shell
element(DSE) has been discussed in details.

2.2.1 (a) Flat plate elements approach

In this approach, a shell is modeled using flat elements by superposition of membrane element
and plate bending element. Main features of this approach are easy formulation, capable
of modeling rigid body motion, capable of incorporating complex loading and boundary
condition. This approach gives acceptable results for many practical purposes. Gallagher
[75] the following disadvantage of the flat plate elements employed to solve the problem of
shells

1.Even in the limiting stage,the assembly of several flat elements does not simulate the
behaviour of the shell represented by the differential equation.

2.The adjacent plate elements will have different slopes and such discontinuities of slope may
produce bending moments where they should be theoretically zero.

3.The coupling of membrane and bending effects due to curvature of the shell is absent in
the interior of the individual elements.

Modeling of shells using flat elements based on displacement formulation can be found in
the works of Clough and Johnson [48], Dawe [54], Argyris, Dunne, Malejannakis and Schelke
[14], Meek and Tan [146]. In addition to displacement based flat element, hybrid and mixed
formulations were also used by many authors like Dungar and Severn [62], Mau, Pian and
Tong [143], Liu and To [222, 137]. In non-linear analysis of shells, application of flat elements
can be found in the works of Bergan and Horrigmoe [88], Hsiao [90], Liu and To [135, 136],
Levy and Gal [134].Some of Flate plate element approach is shown in Table 1.

12
 Table 1:Flate plate element approach
Authors Type of structure analyze
Clough and Johnson [48] Spherical dome,Circular cylinder,Translational shells
and Conoid
D J Dawe[54] Pinched cylinder and Cylindrical shell roof
J.H.Argyris et al. [14] No
J.L. Meek et al. [146] cylindrical shell roof,clamped hyperbolic paraboloid
,pinched cylindrical shell and Northlight folded plate

2.2.2 (b) Curved shell elements approach

The Curved shell elements approach uses curved elements based on classical shell theory
developed from 3-D field equations by incorporating various simplifying assumptions ap-
propriate to the structural behavior. This approach gives better representation of element
geometry than flat plate elements, but main difficulties are choice of appropriate shell the-
ory, complicated mathematical formulation, inter-element incompatibility, incapability to
represent rigid body motion and convergence. In case of non-linear analysis, additional dif-
ficulties arise in finite element formulations due to non-availability of a general non-linear
shell theory. The curved shell element can be divided into singly and doubly curved shell
elements. Connor and Brebbia [49], Bonger, Fox and Schmit [31], Catin and Clough [36],
Sabir and Lock [194], Ashwell and Sabir [16], Catin [35], Dawe [53], Fonder and Clough
[74] presented on displacement based singly curved element, while Hanshell, Neale and War-
burton [85], Tabarrok and Gass [215], Edwards and Webster [67], Altmann and Iguti [11]
developed various singly curved elements based on hybrid formulations. Doubly curved shell
elements can be found in the works of Utku [223], Argyris and Scharpf [15], Pecknold and
Schnobrich [173], Cowper, Lindberg and Olson [51], Dupuis and Goel [63], Yang [240], Dawe
[55], Idelsohn [98]. Hybrid and mixed formulations for doubly curved have been used by
Prato [181], Tahiani and Lachance [216], Talaslidis and Wunderlich [217], Rigby [189] and
Kang and Pian [114]. Curved shell elements based on discrete Kirchhoff theory (DKT) were
also developed by many authors like Wempner, Oden and Kross [233], Dhatt [57], Batoz and
Dhatt [27], Batoz, Cattopadhyay and Dhatt [26], Bathe and Ho [25], Nagtegaal and Slater
[156],Murthy and Gallegher [154], Dhatt, Marcotte and Matte [56].

2.2.3 (c) Degenerate Shell element approach

In this approach, the shell is discretized directly from 3-D continuum field equation. The
basic element in this approach is the isoparametric, curved shell element proposed by Ah-

13
mad, Zienkiewicz and Irons [10] known as degenerated shell element. The shell element is
developed by degenerating 3-D solid element by introduction of assumptions that normal
to mid surface remains straight after deformation and normal stress to the middle surface
is zero. This formulation incorporates the shear deformations and thus gives satisfactory
results for thick to moderately thick shells. This approach gives a better fit of curved shell
geometry and can be easily formulated using computer programming. Although this type of
element seemed very promising as a general shell element, it was observed that the element
was very inefficient in treating thin systems. The element tends to show shear locking and
membrane locking when applied to thin plates and shells.

Since the introduction of the degenerated shell element by Ahmad, there have been many
attempts to improve the performance of the shell element and various techniques have been
used to eliminate the problems of locking in case of thin shell systems. Pawsey and Clough
[172] developed a selective reduced integration scheme while Zienkiewicz, Taylor and Too
[160] proposed uniform reduced integration scheme to overcome the problems of locking
in Ahmad shell element. However, elements with underintegration subsequently suffered
from element deficiencies like rank deficiencies, spurious zero energy modes or hour-glass
modes. Belytschko [29, 30] proposed some stabilization procedures for spurious mode control.
Wilson, Taylor et al.[234] and Choi and Schnobrich [47] suggested addition of nonconforming
displacement modes to improve the performance. Konak-Nukulchai [116] developed a bilinear
degenerated shell element from eight node 3-D brick element based on degeneration concept
while Talha [218] proposed modified version of degenerated shell element using he concept
of strain definition of semiloof element developed by Irons. Based on a mixed or hybrid
variational principle in which displacements, strains and stresses are taken as independent
variables, many mixed or hybrid degenerated shell elements have been developed by Saleeb,
Chang and Graf [195], Cheung and Chen [45], Rhiu and Lee [188] and Chieslar and Ghali
[46]. Many authors tried to develop modified versions of the degenerated shell element based
on assumed strain concept. The elements developed based on assumed strain concept showed
significant improvements and they generally do not exhibit locking problems and are also
free from spurious or hourglass modes. Some of these works include MacNeal [140], Bathe
and Dvorkin [120], Park and Stanely [80], Huang and Hinton [93], Jang and Pinsky [104],
Kailash and Lakshminayarana [128].

The finite element formulation based on degenerated shell element and its modified ver-
sions has been extensively used in both material and geometric non-linear analysis of shell
structures. Important contributions in this area are Cormeau [50], Paricsh [168, 169], Bathe
and Bolourchi [24], Hughes and Liu [96], Hughes and Carnoy [97], Ramm and Sattele [185],

14
Surana [213], Owen and Figueiras [165], Jang and Pinsky [178], Hsiao and Chen [91], Ke-
bari and Cassel [118], Hauptmann and Schweizerhof [87], Lee and Konak-Nukulchai [175],
Voyiadjis and Woelke [229].

In case of laminated shell, the material properties are different in each layer and the inte-
gration has to be carried out for each layer along thickness direction. However, numerical
integration along the thickness direction results in considerable increase in the computational
time. Hence, in order to increase the computational efficiency, explicit integration is carried
out along thickness direction. Various explicit through-thickness integration schemes are
proposed by many researchers like Panda and Natarajan [166], Chao and Reddy [43], Mil-
ford and Schnobrich [149], Yunus, Kohnke and Saigal [241], Vlachoutsis [227], Premakumar
and Palninathan [125, 126]. In non-linear analysis of laminated shells, there are basically two
approaches. One is the layered approach or through-thickness integration approach while
the other is the non-layered approach or stress resultant approach. In non-layered approach,
constitutive relations are integrated through the thickness of shell and expressed in terms of
stress resultants. For the case of non-layered approach, a general and accurate shell theory
is of crucial importance. In layered approach, a shell is divided into layers where stresses
are calculated and the yield condition is checked for each layer separately. The forces and
moments are then calculated by integration through the thickness. Although this procedure
can give very accurate results, computational efficiency is very low if numerical integration
is carried out through the thickness. Layered approach is implemented by Parisch [170],
Hughes and Liu [96] and Buchter, Ramm and Roehl [33], while stress resultant approach is
used by Simo and Kennedy [204].

2.3 Degenerated Shell Element (DSE) Approach

Degenerated shell element approach is developed by Degenerating the solid element formu-
lation[ Ahmad et al.[10],[116]] by introduction of assumptions .Two main assumptions are
used in the degeneration process from solid 3-D element to shell element. These are:

1. The normal stresses and strain in the direction of thickness is zero.

2. Normals to the middle surface before deformation remain straight after deformation but
not necessarily normal to the deformed middle surface.
The DSE evolves from 20 node 3-D solid brick element by a degeneration process which
directly reduced to 8-node 2-D element in terms of middle surface nodal variables. The ele-
ment is derived directly from the fundamental equation of continuum mechanics. Beside,its

15
implementation in finite element procedure is straightforward. While basic concept under-
lying the degenerated element is very simple ,these elements are expensive in computation
and,therefore their application to non linear problems can be limited. Due to the simplicity
of the mid-surface geometry and the displacement field, the strain energy can be integrated
analytically over the shell thickness. The integration over the reference mid-surface can then
be performed numerically. This not only simplifies the derivation but also saves computer
effort in formulating the element stiffness.

Ahmad et al.[10]presented general formulation for the thick and thin shell structures by
curved finite elements. The presented new formulation using curved,thick shell finite ele-
ment was overcoming the classical plate theory assumption to the geometry of structure
and the neglect of shear deformation. They analyzed spherical dome under uniform pres-
sure,thin cylinder under radial edge load, thick water-retaining tank,cooling tower under
wind load,Hill-side water tank,circular plate,long cylindrical shell (ring) under gravity ac-
tion with line support,barrel vault and arch dam with water load for validation of formulation
.

Zienkiewicz et al. [160] presented reduced integration technique for general analysis of plates
and shells when general plates and shells theory was applied for thin plates and shells the
problem of locking is occurred this problem is alleviated by that technique. This technique
improved the behaviour of thin plates and shell without sacrifice the convergence property.
This technique was of very wide applicability in improvement of element properties. They
analyzed examples which were simply supported square plate,circular plate with clamped
boundary under concentrated load at centre of the plate and cylindrical shell roof for vali-
dation of this technique.

Pawsey et al. [172]investigated selective integration scheme of thick shell element. They
used selective integration scheme for evaluation of stiffness of element rather than reduced
integration. This integration alleviated the problem of spurious shear energy appeared in
reduced integration scheme. They used different gauss integration for evaluation of shear
and bending energy. They analyzed examples which were simply supported square plate
was subjected to a central concentrated load,cylindrical shell roof and arch dam number one
subjected to water pressure for validation this technique.

16
Wang and Teng [231] developed finite element model for nonlinear analysis of reinforced
concrete flat plate structures by using layered shell element. They implemented three-
dimensional hypoelastic material model to model reinforced concrete. They also incorporated
cracking effects of tension softening, aggregate interlock, tension stiffening, and compression
softening in multi directionally cracked reinforced concrete explicitly and efficiently.They
identified the influence of the distribution of transverse shear strain on the punching shear
failure mode in numerical studies.They concluded that proposed finite-element model was
capable of simulating the localized punching shear behavior of slabcolumn connections and
to be suitable for global analysis of structural performance of flat plate structures.They an-
alyzed numerical studies which were flat plate, a flat slab with drop panel and a large size
flat plate with irregular column.
Macneal [141]investigated new four noded isoperimetric shell element with modifications
that included reduced integration for shear term and enforcement of curvature compatibil-
ity. This modifications which relaxed the excessive constraints. He analyzed cylindrical shell
roof,rectangular plate,square plate and Torsion-bending buckling of an end-loaded cantilever
for verification of the formulation.

Nukulchai [116] used Bilinear Degenerated shell element (BDSE) with reduced integration
technique for transverse shear energy which performs accurately in both thick and thin shell
conditions. The element was also capable of analyzed other types of thin structures, such as
a curved web of the curved box girder with slight alteration. He analyzed following exam-
ples for validation of formulation which were thin cylindrical shell roof,clamped hyperbolic
paraboloid shell,thick cylindrical shell,arch dam and curved box girder.

Talha [218] presented new version of ahmad thick shell element using vector manipulation,
reduced integration and the incorporation of the missing term in the approximating poly-
nomial. Missing term was achieved by adding to the original nodal configuration a central
node having only one degree-of-freedom. That node later eliminated to preserve the original
number of degrees-of-freedom by constraining the integral of the shear (in the vertical plane
perpendicular to the sides) around the periphery to be equal to zero. New version presented
passes patch test for quadrilaterals while Ahmads thick shell element did not pass that test
but pass for unequal parallelograms. He analyzed following examples for validation of formu-
lation which were simply supported square plate under uniform load,cylindrical shell under
its own weight,line supported thick long cylindrical shell under gravity action and arch dam.

17
Bathe et al.[23]presented displacement-based versatile and effective finite clement for linear
and geometric and material nonlinear analysis of plates and shells. For nonlinearity analysis
they used total and updated lagrangian formulation. They analyzed following examples for
validation of the formulation which were linear analysis of three cantilevers,linear analysis of
a cylindrical shell,large displacement/rotation analysis of a cantilever,elastic-plastic instabil-
ity analysis of a column,large deflection analysis of a diamond structure,large displacement
analysis of an elastic simply supported plate,elastic-plastic dynamic analysis of a simply
supported plate and large displacement analysis of two shells.

Arnesens et al.[8]developed two different computer programs for nonlinear analysis of rein-
forced concrete structures. The first program deals were about plane stress problems using
flow theory of plasticity in the modeling of concrete and reinforcement while second program
was developed for analysis of plates and shells with implementation of endochronic theory
was used in the constitutive law for concrete whereas an overlay model is utilized for the
reinforcement Geometric nonlinearities are accounted for through updating of coordinates
for the triangular shell elements. The plane stress program is efficient and inexpensive in
use and gave good results in spite of a crude material model.they analyzed following exam-
ples for validation of computer programs which were bresler-scordelis beam,corbels,simply
supported square slab and cylindrical shell with edge beam.

Han et al.[84] presented modified Ahmad shell for the analyses of rotational shells which had
doubly curved shell element of quadrilateral shape. They used polar coordinates for better
representation of the rotational geometry and when the stiffness matrix was computed this
provides a more accurate estimate of the element volume. They only presented the formu-
lation.

Stolarski and Belytschko [212]proposed reduced integration technique for elimination of mem-
brane locking for behavior of a curved beam elements by comparison to an analytic solution.
They incorporated curvature effects through shallow-shell type theory in curved beam ele-
ment and this curvature effect yield membrane locking in curved beam element. They used
reduced integration technique for alleviate the problem of membrane locking. They illus-
trated numerical examples for verification of results of analysis which were elastic circular
ring,shallow arch and elastic-plastic ring.
Milford et al.[149] analyzed reinforced concrete shell including effect of geometric nonlin-
earity using the effect of crack on failure load with aid of rotating crack model. Rotating

18
crack model showed better performance over conventional fixed crack model and rotating
crack model showed converge with experimental investigations. They analyzed example for
validation of formulation which was cooling tower.

Huang et al.[93]presented new nine node degenerated shell element with enhanced inter-
polation of the transverse shear strains in the natural co-ordinate system to overcome the
shear locking problem and an enhanced interpolation of the membrane strains in the local
cartesian co-ordinate system to avoid membrane locking behaviour. This new element did
not exhibit membrane or shear locking and which had no mechanisms, could be used for
thick and thin shell structures. They investigated that the new element with the enhanced
interpolation of membrane strains used for the analyses of problems with either material
or geometrical non-linearities. They investigated that the lagrange element with selective
integration for the membrane stiffness could only be used when the material properties of
shell were constant through the thickness or vary symmetrically about shell the mid surface.
The presented degenerate shell element could be easily implemented by modifying existing
degenerated shell programs.The main advantages of the element was it did not lock or has
any mechanisms, passes appropriate patch tests and gives generally very good behaviour.
They tested examples for validation of the formulation which were cylindrical shell roof,
Pinched cylindrical shell and clamped hyperbolic shell. The new element performed very
good compare with reduced and selective integration of general DSE .
Liu et al.[235] developed an efficient and reliable resultant-stress degenerated-shell element.
This element formulation permited the use of general, three-dimensional nonlinear consti-
tutive equations. They presented a stabilization procedure for the 4-node resultant-stress
degenerated-shell element to avoid the problems of shear and membrane locking and the ex-
hibition of spurious mode. They performed numerical tests which were shallow circular arch
under concentrated unit load,spherical shell subjected to concentrated forces,cylindrical shell
under its own weight,short cylindrical shell subjected to a point load and buckling analysis
of an axially compressed perfect cylinder.

Briasouulis[32]investigated the conditions under which zero energy mode developed in the
case of nine-node lagrangian degenerated shell element. He also studied two methods for
elimination of zero energy modes which were stabilizing element method and artificial stiff-
ening method. For verification of performance of element examples tested which were square
plate simply supported at corners, barrel vault under self-weight, hinged cylindrical shell
under concentrated load and the pinched cylinder.

19
Cheung et al.[45]presented quadratic shell/plate elements based on a hybrid variational prin-
ciple with separated stress, strain and displacement variables. This element found to be very
effective in eliminating membrane and shear locking and did not have any extra zero energy
mode. They tested numerous examples which were cylindrical roof, cylindrical shell clamped
at both ends, spherical shell, clamped circular plate under uniform load and patch test. The
elements performed very good compare with other analytical solutions.

Vlachoutsis [228]proposed a modified formulation with explicit integration across the thick-
ness for three-dimensional degenerated shell finite elements and this formulation the Jacobian
matrix of the physical-parameter spaces transformation is decomposed into a product of in-
middle-surface and out-of-middle-surface terms. This formulation was satisfactory applied to
homogeneous and multilayered structures.They considered following following examples were
cylindrical shell roof, pinched cylinder with end diaphragms, hemispherical dome, twisted
beam.

Hu et al.[92]proposed plane stress constitutive models for the nonlinear finite element anal-
ysis of reinforced concrete structures under monotonic loading. They used an elastic strain
hardening plastic stress-strain relationship with a nonassociated flow rule to model concrete
in the compression dominating region and an elastic brittle fracture behavior is assumed
for concrete in the tension dominating area.They employed the smeared cracked approach
together with the rotating crack concept after cracking occurred and modeled steel by an
idealized bilinear curve identical in tension and compressions.They tested the model against
test data with numerical examples which were slabs in uniform flexural force fields,corner
supported slabs and diaphragm supported cylindrical shell.

Polak[179]presented a degenerate shell finite elements formulation in which 3-D states of

stress and strain throughout the element was taken into account. This allows the formu-
lation of a reinforced concrete shell element which can be reinforced in both in-plane and
out-of-plane directions. The consideration of out-of-plane shear and the implementation of
a three-dimensional material model permited accurate predictions of out-of-plane shear fail-
ures. The presented formulation showed that practical advantage of these 3-D degenerate
shell elements which could be used in the global analysis of plate and shell structures.For val-
idation of formulation examples examined which were shell specimens subjected to in-plane

20
shear,shell elements subjected to transverse shear and reinforced concrete shells subjected
to punching shear.

Dvorkin et al.[64] presented a new four-node (non-flat) general quadrilateral shell element
for geometric and material non-linear analysis.They formulated the element using three di-
mensional continuum mechanics theory and it was applicable to the analysis of thin and
thick shells. In this formulation shear strain was not evaluated from basic displacements due
to problems lies in the representation of these shear strain for this reason. Therefore they
introduced separate interpolation for shear strain components. The choice of the interpo-
lation for the transverse shear strain components was the key assumption in this element
formulation.They demonstrated test examples which were patch test of plate ,linear analysis
of a simply-supported plate,linear analysis of cantilever beam,analysis of a rhombic can-
tilever,linear analysis of a pinched cylinder,large deflection analysis of a cantilever,geometric
non-linear response of a shallow spherical shell,linear buckling analysis and large deflection
response of a simply-supported stiffened plate and analysis of elastoplastic response of a
circular plate.

Polak et al.[180] analyzed Reinforced concrete shell elements subjected to bending and mem-
brane loads and this analysis was done by tested of large deformation concrete shell elements
under condition of biaxial loading and in plane normal force.Test was conducted for offshore
concrete structure.

EL-Abbasi et al.[155]presented new formulation based on variational inequalities for analysis

of contact in degenerate shell elements. The effects of normal stress through the thickness
and double-sided contact are examined. Based upon a newly developed consistent method,
the true contact surfaces were described and the contact forces were evaluated. The prob-
lem is expressed in terms of an incremental variational inequality in an updated lagrangian
framework and solved using Lagrange multipliers. For validation of formulation two exam-
ples examined which were three-beam contact and ring compression.

Song et al.[81]investigated failure in reinforced concrete shell using layered shell element with
pressure node (it has only one degree of freedom ,namely change in pressure). They presented
finite element technique for the path-dependent nonlinear failure analysis. They successfully
utilized path-dependent constitutive models of cracked plain and reinforced concrete and

21
by controlling the pseudovolume of shell structures with pressure node formulation, total
failure behaviours including the postpeak softening failure behavior of RC shell structures
were successfully obtained and verified with experimental. For validation of validation of
this formulation following examples examined which were slabs subjected to in-Plane and
out-of-Plane loads,slabs subjected to cyclic transverse loads and reinforced concrete dome
structure under external pressures.

Tan and Vu-Quoc [219] presented an efficient and accurate low-order eight-node solid-shell
element formulation for analysis of large deformable multi layer shell structures with non-
linear materials.The presented element contain only displacement degrees of freedom (dofs)
and an optimal number of enhancing assumed strain(EAS) parameters to pass the patch
tests (both membrane and out-of-plane bending) and to remedy volumetric locking.They
used assumed natural strain (ANS) method to resolved the problem of Shear locking and
curvature thickness locking.They applied two non-linear three-dimensional constitutive mod-
els ( MooneyRivlin material and hyperelastoplastic material at finite strain )directly with-
out resorting to the plane-stress assumption.The presented solid-shell element proved to
be accurate and robust for thick or thin aspect ratio in large deformation multilayer shell
implicit/explicit analysis with non-linear materials.They presented numerical examples to
validate present element performance which were large deformation of rubber shells and
large deformation of elastoplastic shells.

Schulz et al.[198]investigated the simultaneous effect of in-plane and transverse loads in

concrete shells. They used smeared rotating crack approach to analyzed infinitesimal shell
element divided into layers with triaxial behavior and they verified the proposed theory and
the material model used with experimental data obtained from the literature and compar-
ison with test data reported in the literature confirmed that the formulation was able to
accurately model in-plane conditions, flexural behavior and transverse shear effects.

Tamayo et al.[110]presented reliable numerical modelling finite element method for static
and dynamic analysis of reinforced concrete shell. For this purpose they proposed two inde-
pendently computer program based on plasticity and viscoplasticity theories. Degenerated
shell element was used for the static analysis up to failure load, while 3D brick elements
were used for the dynamic application. For validation of the numerical model two bench-
mark examples analyzed which were geometrically nonlinear reinforced parabolic cylindrical
shell experimentally tested by Hedgren and Billington and aircraft impact on nuclear power

22
plant are compared with those obtained by other authors.

2.4 Elasto-Plastic Analysis Based Approach

Backlund et al.[20] presented finite element analysis to elasto-plastic shells of arbitrary

shape.This analysis material was assumed to be originally isotropic, following the von Mises
yield criterion and the Prandtl-Reuss flow rule.They used flat triangular shell element with
twelve degrees of freedom of constant moments and constant membrane forces for the anal-
ysis of elasto-plastic shells. They illustrated numerical results for test the merits of the
element which were square plate,cylindrical shell roof and hyperbolic paraboloid shell.

Ko et al.[230]analyzed elasto-plastic dynamic response of a multi-layered spherical vessel

with inter-laminar gaps , generated by internal blast loading. The vessel was composed
of N concentric layer unsupported spherical shells of identical material and of the same
thickness,separated by evacuated gaps of equal thickness. They assumed wall material to
be elasto-plastic obeying the bilinear stress-strain law. By taking into account of the wave
interactions,induced by inter-laminar impacts, response of the vessel system was calculated
up to five cycles of vibration and they concluded that Under the given loading condition, all
the disturbed layers undergo plastic deformations. In most cases the inner layers suffered
the most severe plastic deformations.If the time span was extended, it was likely that the
chances for multiple inter-laminar impacts can arise. They illustrated numerical results for
several gap sizes.

Cormeau[50]proposed general and simple method for the quasistatic analysis of curved
thick shells in the elastic/viscoplastic regime.He introduced shell assumptions in a three-
dimensional isoparametric finite element provide a kinematic description of smooth thick
shell structures. Elastoplastic solutions was obtained through the stationary response of
an elastic/viscoplastic model.He devoted attention to the problem of numerical integra-
tion across the depth of the shell, as well as the applicability of the method to thin shell
analysis.He illustrated examples to check efficiency of formulation which were viscoplastic
relaxation in plates,simply supported square plate,parabolic shell,cylindrical shell roof and
range of applicability in thin plate context.

Dinis et al.[127]presented a finite element method for the solution of elasto-viscoplastic and

23
elasto-plastic large deformation thin plate and shell problems. They considered semiloof
plate and shell elements for the analysis. They employed von Mises and Tresca yield criteria
to predict the onset of viscoplastic deformation for plate analysis. The yield function for
thin shell based on the iliouchine and modified iliouchine criteria which can be considered
as extensions of the von Mises yield surface and they employed a lagrangian formulation
to describe the geometric deformation of the structure.They presented numerical examples
which were simply-supported square plate,clamped circular plate,elasto-viscoplastic analysis
of a deep cantilever beam and uniformly loaded cylindrical shell roof.
Owen et al.[165] presented finite element displacement based method for analysis of elasto-
plastic thin plates and shells considering anisotropic material,using the semiloof shell ele-
ment.They used elasto-plastic analysis for anisotropic material based on the Huber-Mises
yield criterion extended by Hill. They considered material anisotropy in both region by
introducing the appropriate elastic constant in the elastic region and anisotropic parameters
in the yield function in the plastic region . They presented numerical examples to illustrated
the solution procedure which were cantilever beam,clamped square plate,clamped quadratic
shell,cylindrical shell and wind turbine blade.
Owen et al.[164]presented displacement based finite element method for elasto-plastic analy-
sis of anisotropic plates and shells.They considered Material anisotropy for both elastic and
plastic material response. They introduced shear deformation for considering thick shell
formulation,which was based on a degenerate three-dimensional continuum element.They
investigated that isoparametric elements of the serendipity family gave satisfactory solutions
for thick and moderately thin shells the results exhibited locking for an increasing ratio of
span to thickness. They also introduced the nine-node lagrangian element and the Heterosis
element to developed a numerical model which was applicable to thick or thin plates and
shells.They employed only the 8-node Serendipity and the Heterosis element for numerical
examples. The Heterosis version gave better results, particularly for thin plate situations
where the 8-node solutions exhibit locking. They introduced shear correction factor for as-
sume constant shear stress.They presented numerical examples and compared with available
solutions which were clamped and simply-supported uniformly loaded skew plate,simply-
supported rectangular boron-epoxy composite plate,cross-ply strip under variable transverse
load,three-ply simply-supported square plate,clamped square plate,clamped quadratic shell
and cylindrical shell.

Huang[94]used assumed strain element to explore elastic and elasto-plastic behaviour of

plates and shells with isotropic and anisotropic material models. In this element formulation
assumed shear and membrane strain fields was used to overcome the locking problem.He

24
derived C 0 continuity formulation of assumed strain shell elements from the 3D degener-
ated shell theory which considered as extended Reissner-Mindlin theory and demonstrated
elasto-plastic static and dynamic analysis with use of nine node assumed strain shell ele-
ment. For elastic and elasto-plastic analysis, the assumed strain shell element performs well
and was convenient to use for both isotropic and anisotropic materials.In anisotropic elasto-
plastic model material behavior was governed by three conditions which were the initial
yield condition, the flow rule and the hardening rule. He demonstrated numerical examples
which were static elastic analysis of clamped circular plate,static elastic analysis of curved
cantilever,static plastic analysis of clamped quadratic shell,dynamic analysis of clamped cir-
cular plate and dynamic analysis of spherical shell cap.
Oller et al.[193]presented a plastic damage model for nonlinear finite element analysis of con-
crete.The model was based on standard plasticity theory for frictional materials.This model
allowed to include elastic and plastic stiffness degradation effects. They concluded that
plastic damage model can be successfully applied for nonlinear analysis of both plain and
reinforced concrete structures. They illustrated one example( Prestressed cantilever beam)
of application which showed the accuracy of the model.

Miehe[148]presented isotropic elastoplastic analysis of large strain shell structures. He used

assumed strain and enhanced strain variational approaches for numerical implementation
of a shell based on the parametrization of the top and bottom surface in terms of a new
8-node brick-type mixed finite shell element. The element based on a trilinear displacement
interpolation and has five internal degrees for enhanced strain modes and eight collocation
points for assumed strain modes. He used recent proposed formulation of plasticity based
on the notion of a plastic metric in geometric setting relative to the manifold of curvilinear
coordinates of the shell element for plasticity.He formulated this frame in terms of princi-
pal strains and principal stresses with respect to dual co- and contra-variant eigenvector
triads associated with a mixed-variant elastic strain tensor. Stress update algorithm for
the plasticity model included a general return mapping in the eigenvalue space in aspect
of computational plasticity. He presented several numerical examples to demonstrate the
performance of the finite element formulation and constitutive algorithms which were elastic
bending of a beam,elastic bending of plate,elastic warping of pretwisted ribbon,elastoplastic
plane-stress necking of a rectangular strip,elastoplastic response of a simply supported plate
and elastoplastic response of a pinched cylinder.

Darendeliler et al.[86]developed triangular flat shell finite element based on MIN3(Mindlin

25
3 node element) plate bending element for large strain and large deformation elastic-plastic
analysis of plates and shells. They assumed material to be isotropic and obeying the Mises
yield criterion.They incorporated work hardening characteristics of the material. In the for-
mulation,they used the updated lagrangian method and all nonlinear terms were included.
They concluded that this element is effective and easy to use in modeling arbitrary plate and
shell geometries due to its three-noded configuration and C o type nodal variables. They veri-
fied accuracy of the element in both geometric and material nonlinear problems by comparing
the numerical results with those obtained by experiments and observed good agreement be-
tween the results.
Eckstein et al.[65]simulated ductile damage phenomena by means of a multi layer kinematics.
This phenomenon was achieved on the basis of numerical effective 6-parametric shell formu-
lation and an adequate finite element implementation accounting for several locking effects.
Thereby the elimination of the volume locking effect in the nearly incompressible range on
the basis of the Enhanced Assumed Strain(EAS) concept for 3-D shell elements presented a
relatively new approach providing the simulation of large inelastic strains without numerical
deficiencies.They reformulated Rousselier model for the simulation of ductile isotropic void
damage mechanisms.In order to achieve numerical efficiency, elastic strains was supposed to
be sufficiently small providing a numerical effective integration based on the backward Euler
rule. They demonstrated examples to the performance of the algorithms developed which
were large inelastic strains of shells and ductile damage phenomena of perforated strip and
cylindrical shell.
Floreser et al. [73]presented a simple rotation-free shell triangle for large strain analysis
of thin shells. This element had only nine translational degrees of freedom and was based
on a total Lagrangian formulation with hypoelastic constitutive law.They considered Large
strain plasticity incorporating a logarithmic strain -stress pair. They assumed plane stress
isotropic behaviour with an additive decomposition of elastic and plastic strains. They
adopted a hyperelastic law for the elastic part while for the plastic part a von Mises yield
function with non-linear isotropic hardening. They illustrated examples to assess the per-
formance of the this formulation which were linear examples were Patch test,square plate
under uniform load with either hinged or clamped support and cylindrical shell roof loaded
vertically by dead weight and non-linear examples were elastic large deflection response of
a pear-shaped cylinder under end shortening,stability of L-shaped plate strip,pinched hemi-
spherical shell,pinched cylinder with isotropic hardening,hemispherical punch stretching and
deep drawing of a square cup.
Zhao et al.[239] modified Hoo Fatts model [71]to obtain analytical solutions of plastic col-
lapse for 3-D damaged cylindrical shells. To assess the effective wall thickness of a damaged

26
pipeline, they used ASME B31G [12]and its burst test results with Hauch and Bais ap-
proach.They developed analytical solutions for evaluating the elastic buckling pressure and
the plastic yield pressure of a cylindrical shell with three dimensions of non uniformity, cor-
rosion defect.They illustrated numerical results of cylindrical shell pipelines.
Valente et al.[183]revised previously proposed Enhanced Assumed Strain (EAS)[105, 206]
finite element formulation with keeping the original strain field unchanged, then adding
additional strain terms for thin shells analysis and extended to account for isotropic and
anisotropic material non-linearities.This revised formulation dealing with the treatment of
transverse shear locking in degenerated bilinear shell elements, only resorting to the ap-
plication of the EAS method.This displacement based formulation successfully alleviated
Transverse shear and membrane-locking patterns. They updated stress and strain tensors in
the local frame, together with an additive treatment of the EAS terms, lead to a straightfor-
ward implementation of non-linear geometric and material relations. They illustrated several
numerical examples for test the accuracy of implemented algorithm which were isotropic
elasto-plastic constitutive behaviour of channel-section beam with plasticity,elasto-plastic
analysis of a simply-supported plate and Pinched cylinder including elasto-plasticity and
anisotropic elasto-plastic constitutive behaviour of hydro-bulge forming of a circular plate
(bulge test),forming of elliptical cross-section pressure vessel heads.
Woelke et al.[171]presented non-linear finite element analysis for the elasto-plastic behaviour
of thick/thin shells and plates with large rotations and damage effects due to micro voids.
For the prediction of damage evolution in plates and shells they presented a simple and
convenient formulation.The presented formulation in the paper provided extremely valuable
information about damage in plates and shells .The illustrated examples showed that ne-
glecting damage in the analysis of plates and shells leads to over prediction of ultimate load
carried by structure. They illustrated numerical examples which were clamped square plate
subjected to a central point load,spherical dome subjected to a ring of pressure.

2.5 MITC element based approach

Mixed interpolation of tensorial components(MITC) formulation is special kind of

formulation in which different interpolation function for transverse shear strain and bending
is formulated.

Bathe et al.[24]developed formulation of general shell elements for linear and non linear
analysis based on a mixed interpolation of tensorial components(MITC) and showed this

27
approach could be applied to higher order (8 node) shell elements. They extended previous
developed 4 node shell formulation to 8 node shell elements and for geometric non linearity
they implemented total lagrangian formulation.They demonstrated examples for validation
of the formulation which were plate with a hole in plane stress, analysis of a curved can-
tilever,Analysis of a square plate,analysis of pinched cylinder,analysis of Scordelis-Lo shell
and analysis of a cantilever in large dejections.

Eucalemi and Bathe [119] presented two mixed-interpolated general shell finite elements for
non-linear analysis a 9-node element and a 16-node element. This presented elements for-
mulation was based on the Mixed Interpolation of tensorial Components (MITC) approach
in which the covariant strain component fields for the in-plane and shear actions are in-
terpolated and tied to the also interpolated displacement field.They presented numerical
examples to illustrate the performance of the formulation are patch test,analysis of a curved
cantilever,analysis of a pinched cylinder,analysis of a hemispherical shell,Plate bending anal-
ysis with the MITC shell elements and Snap-through of a shallow spherical cap.

Eucalemi and Bathe[69] proposed MITC9 and MITC16 general shell finite elements for
non-linear analysis.They interpolated covariant strain component fields for the in-plane and
shear actions for this elements . This newly developed elements did not exhibit shear or
membrane locking in a number of well-chosen test problems,and displayed a very good per-
formance.The objective of developed this formulation is to replace displacement-based ele-
ment.They demonstrated various examples which were the patch test,Analysis of a curved
cantilever,analysis of a pinched cylinder,analysis of a hemispherical shell,plate bending anal-
ysis with the MITC shell elements of analysis of circular plate and analysis of a skew
plate,snap-through of a shallow spherical cap.

Dvorkin et al.[66] developed quadrilateral finite element formulation for modeling finite strain
elasto-plastic analysis based on mixed interpolation of tensorial components. This developed
formulation is based on Lees multiplicative decomposition of the deformation gradient and
on the hyperelastic expression of the associated von Mises flow rule. They developed quadri-
lateral element using displacements interpolation and interpolation of the Hencky strain
tensor covariant components.This developed formulation (QMITC-TLH) did not contain
spurious zero energy modes satisfies Irons patch test ,did not lock in plane strain. They used
axisymmetric analyses and presents a high predictive capability even when distorted meshes.
They presented numerical examples to illustrate the performance of the QMITC-TLH for-

28
mulation which were elasto-plastic cylinder under internal pressure,necking of a circular
bar,axisymmetric sheet metal forming and Plane stress tension of a perforated plate.

Lee and Bathe[133]presented a simple methodology to design isotropic triangular shell finite
elements based on the mixed interpolation of tensorial Components (MITC) approach. They
used 3 Node and 6 Node MITC isotropic triangular shell elements and tested these elements
using the continuum-mechanics based approach with the ReissnerMindlin kinematics. These
1
elements performed very well for Lt ratio of range 10 1
to 1000 .They tested 3-node and 6-node
triangular shell elements.They illustrated examples which were basic tests of isotropic el-
ement test,zero energy mode test and patch test,clamped plate problem , cylindrical shell
problems and hyperboloid shell problems.

Bathe et al. [120]presented evaluation of the MITC general shell elements and showed that
elements are effective in membrane and bending dominated shell problems and thus that
elements can employed in general shell analysis situations. They also presented conver-
gence behavior of MITC shell elements.They illustrated examples for validation which were
clamped cylindrical shell,clamped hemispherical cap,free cylindrical shell and partly clamped
hyperbolic paraboloid.

Chapelle et al. [52]presented the formulation of nine-node mixed-interpolated shell elements

based on a classical mathematical shell theory by taking into account some fundamental
considerations for the finite element analysis of shells. They used mixed interpolation of
tensorial components approach (MITC). They applied assumed covariant strain fields for
the membrane and shear components.They used two different formulation for description
of shell mid surface depending on whether or not geometric approximations are included in
the formulation.They illustrated one test example of the Scordelis-Lo roof for validation of
formulation. This tested example suggests that the errors introduced by finite element inter-
polation of the shell mid surface geometry, a largely used technique in engineering practice,
do not significantly affect the finite element solution results.

Kogl and Bucalem[122] presented a new finite element approach for the analysis of multi-layer
piezoelectric plate and shell structures using piezoelectric MITC plate and shell elements.
They analyzed for both single-layer and laminate piezoelectric plate and shell elements.They
demonstrated numerical examples for test the the accuracy of the solutions and the suitabil-

29
ity of the approach and results showed that locking is eliminated using MITC approach.

Lee and Bathe [175] presented performance of the quadratic MITC plate bending and MITC
shell elements in some typical linear analysis plate bending test problems and compared
the performance of plate and shell elements.The presented elements based on the Reiss-
nerMindlin kinematic assumption. They concluded that MITC7 plate element performed
somewhat superior to the MITC6 shell element and while MITC9 shell element was per-
forming surprisingly well,and better or equal to the plate elements.

2.6 Stress resultant approach

Liu et al.[235] developed an efficient and reliable resultant-stress degenerated-shell element.This

element formulation permitted the use of general, three-dimensional nonlinear constitu-
tive equations. They presented a stabilization procedure for the 4-node resultant-stress
degenerated-shell element to avoid the problems of shear and membrane locking and the exhi-
bition of spurious mode.They performed a variety of numerical tests namely Shallow circular
arch under concentrated unit load,Spherical shell subjected to concentrated forces,cylindrical
shell under its own weight,Short cylindrical shell subjected to a point load and Buckling anal-
ysis of an axially compressed perfect cylinder.
Simo et al. [201, 106, 107, 108, 205, 100, 200]proposed stress resultant based geometrically
exact shell model formulation and optimal parametrization with constitutive model formu-
lated entirely in terms of stress resultants and is equivalent to a one director inextensible
cosserat surface.

Keulen [224]presented curved triangular shell element with constant stress resultants and 12
degrees of freedom. The formulation of element started with the combination of a constant
strain triangle and a flat constant bending triangle.In this formulations membrane deforma-
tions of this original flat element are modified, so that curvature changes give an essential
contribution in the geometrically nonlinear regime.

Jaka Dujc et al [102]revisited the stress resultant elastoplastic geometrically exact shell finite
element formulation which was based on the IlyushinShapiro two-surface yield function with
isotropic and kinematic hardening. They main focused on implicit projection algorithms for

30
computation of updated values of internal variables for stress resultant shell elastoplastic-
ity.They derived four different algorithms and compared. They presented Several numerical
examples to illustrate the IlyushinShapiro stress resultant shell formulation and the nu-
merical performance of the presented integration algorithms and these examples which were
iso-error maps,stretching of cylinder with free ends,stretching of perforated plate,rectangular
plate,half of a sphere,pinched cylinder with isotropic hardening and cylinder under shear load.

2.7 Isogeometric Shell element approach

Isogeometric analysis is computational approach that offers the possibility of integrating

finite element analysis into conventional non-uniform rational basis spline(NURBS) based
CAD design tools.The pioneers work was done of this technique by Tom Hughes and his
group at the university of Texas at Austin,America. Isogeometric analysis employs complex
NURBS geometry in the finite element analysis application directly.This allows model to be
designed ,tested and adjusted using common data tests.
Non-uniform rational basis spline(NURBS) is mathematical model commonly used
in computer graphics for generating and representing curves and surfaces. It offered great
flexibility and precision for handling both analytic and modeled shapes.

Benson et al. [59]implemented ReissnerMindlin shell formulation based on a degenerated

solid for non-uniform rational B-splines (NURBS)-based isogeometric analysis performed
with LS-DYNA.They examined this approach for linear elastic and nonlinear elasto-plastic
analysis.They illustrated examples for validation of presented formulation and illustrated
examples which were linear elastic analysis of pinched cylinder,plate loaded by a uniform
pressure,roof loaded by velocity impulse ,buckling of a cylindrical tube and buckling of a
square tube.

Hosseini et al[197] proposed an isogeometric solid-like shell formulation in which B-spline

basis functions were used to construct the mid-surface of the shell for nonlinear analysis.
They implemented proposed shell element in a standard finite element code using Bzier
extraction.

31
2.8 Development of reinforced Concrete Shell Element

In table 5 recent development of concrete shell element is shown .

2.9 Constitutive modeling of reinforced concrete

Concrete is a heterogeneous, cohesive-frictional material and exhibits complex non-linear

inelastic behaviour under multi-axial stress states.The increased use of concrete as primary
structural material in building complex structures such as reactor vessels, dams, offshore
structures,shell structure necessitates the development of sophisticated material models for
accurate prediction of the material response to a variety of loading situations. Concrete
structures are often analyzed by means of the finite element method. Analysis of a structural
engineering problem by finite element method is based on solution of a set of equilibrium
equations and a kinematically admissible displacement field. These are supplemented by
boundary and initial conditions of a particular problem.However,crucial for the validity of
the solution is the formulation of general and realistic material constitutive relations. Some
of plasticity based models for concrete along with hardening parameter used( see Table
2).Damage parameter implemented for concrete(see Table 3).Elastoplastic damage models
for various load histories have prosed by many invesigators(see Table 4).

32
 Table 5:Development of reinforced Concrete shell element
Authors Remarks
Cervera et Nonlinear analysis of reinforced concrete plate and shell structure using
al.[145] 20 noded isoparametric brick elements
Harmon et Shear strength of reinforced concrete plates and shells determined by
al.[221] finite element analyis using layered elements
Schnobrich [232] Reflection on the behaviour of reinforced concrete shell
Hu et al. [92] Nonlinear nite element analysis of reinforced concrete plates and shells
under monotonic loading
Di et al.[58] Nonlinear analysis of RC shell structures using using laminated element.I
Di et al.[199] Nonlinear analysis of rc shell structures using laminated elements ii.
Roca et al.[182] Nonlinear geometric and material analysis of prestressed concrete general
shell structure
Polak et al.[180] Reinforced Concrete Shell elements subjected to bending and membrane
loads
Krauthammer et Observed finite element capability and limitation from multi-team simu-
al.[220] lation of three concrete shell structure
Polak [179] Shear analysis of reinforced concrete shells using degenerate elements
Manjuprasad et Non linear dynamic response of reinforced concrete secondary contain-
al.[152] ment shell subjected to seismic load
Assan [18] Nonlinear analysis of reinforced concrete cylindrical shells
Basha et al.[209] Predictions of ultimate load capacity for pre stressed concrete contain-
ment vessel model with BARK finite element code ULCA
Noh et al.[196] Numerical simulation of serviceability ,damage evolution and failure of
reinforced concrete shells
Vecchio et Crack Shear-Slip in Reinforced Concrete Elements
al.[225]
Oh et al.[34] An advanced FE analysis of PSC shell structure incorporating tendon-
induced deformation dependent loads
Phuvoravan et Nonlinear Finite Element for Reinforced Concrete Slabs
al.[177]
Ju et al.[112] Numerical simulation study of spallation in reinforced concrete plates
subjected to blast loading
Pandey et Non-linear response of reinforced concrete containment structure under
al.[167] blast loading
Estrada et al. Thermo mechanical behaviour of a thin concrete shell during its early
[37] age
Koechlin et Global Constitutive Model for Reinforced Concrete Plates
al.[121]
Zhang et al [243] A layered cylindrical quadrilateral shell element for nonlinear analysis of
RC plate structure

33
 Table 5:Development of reinforced Concrete shells
Authors Remarks
Zhang et al.[242] Non linear analysis of moderately thick reinforced concrete slabs at ele-
vated temperature using a rectangular layered plate element with Timo-
shenko beam function
Wang and Teng Finite-element analysis of reinforced concrete flat plate structures by lay-
[231] ered shell element
Yu et al.[238] An embedded EF model for modelling reinforced concrete slabs in fire
Tomas et al.[13] Shape and size optimisation of concrete shells
Haido et al.[103] Dynamic response simulation for reinforced concrete slabs
Schulz et al. Analysis of reinforced concrete shells with transverse shear forces
[198]
Huang [95] Modelling the bond between concrete and reinforceing steel in a fire
Lee [132] Shell finite element of reinforced concrete for internal pressure analysis
of nuclear bulding
Zhao et al [38] Damage mechanism and response of reinforced concrete containment
structure under internal blast loading

2.9.1 Representation of Reinforced Bars

Three approaches have been documented for modelling the reinforcement bars

(a) Smeared layer/disributed model.

(b) Embedded model.

(c) Discrete model.

2.9.1.1 Smeared layer model

In the smeared layer model, the steel is assumed to be distributed over the concrete element
with a particular orientation angle and steel bars are replaced by a smeared uniformly dis-
tributed layer over an element with stiffness only in the direction of reinforcing bars. The
thickness of the smeared layer is such that the volume of smear layer is equal to the volume of
reinforcing steel in an element. Dowell action and Flexural stiffness of the bars are neglected.
Subsequently, the constitutive relationships are derived from composite theory by using an
assumption of perfect bond between the concrete and the reinforcement. Such a model for
steel representation has been adopted by numerous investigators [78, 144, 21, 199, 184].

May and Ganaba [144] presented a full range analysis of reinforced concrete slabs ,which
included the effects of both geometric and material non-linearities, using the finite element

34
 Table 2:Plasticity model of concrete [19]
Authors Remarks
Park and Kim[80] Independent failure criterion for each stress component Non asso-
ciative flow rule
Grassl et Menetrey and Willam [147](1995) yield surface Non-associative flow
al.[174](2002) rule Proposed a novel hardening law is used as hardening parameter
Imran et al.[99](2001) Four-parameter Hsieh-Ting-Chen Criterion Non-associative flow
rule Isotropic hardening plastic strain is used as hardening param-
eter
Kang and Willam Derived from the proposed intermediate loading surface Non-
[115](1999) associated plastic flow rule Proposed a hardening function 0 k
1 is used as hardening parameter
Feenstra and de Borst Drucker-Prager yield surface Non-Associative flow rule k1 , k2 are
[72](1996) hardening parameters
Onate et al.[162] 1988 Modified version of Mohr-Coulomb yield surface Non-associative
flow rule changes in intergranular cohesion as hardening parameter
Ohtani and Chen and Chen yield surface (1975)Associative flow rule N number
Chen[161](1988) of hardening parameters hardening parameters:1 , 2 ..., N
Han and Chen[83] Yield surface:Willam-Warnke five-parameter, Hsieh-Ting-Chen
(1987) four parameter Non-Associative flow rule and Non uniform hard-
ening rule effective plastic strain as hardening parameter
Han and Chen Chen and Chen yield surface [44](1975) Associative flow rule Mul-
[82](1985) tiple hardening parameters effective plastic strain as hardening pa-
rameter
Vermeer and de Borst Mohr-Coulomb yield surface Non-Associative flow rule cohesion and
[226](1984) internal friction as hardening parameters.
Murry [153](1979) Arrived from a biaxial failure surface Associative flow rule Multiple
hardening parameters are hardening parameters
Chen and Initial discontinuous surface, loading surface and failure surfaces
Chen[44](1975) proposed

35
 Table 4:Damage models for concrete[19]
Authors Remark
Grassl and A thermodynamically consistent plastic damage model,plastic part
Jirasek[174] based on effective stress and damage part on plastic strain
Jason et al.[138] An isotropic elastoplastic damage model with hardening yield plas-
tic surface
Wu et al.[237] Damage energy release rate and damage growth based on Helmholtz
free energy ,describes the degradation of macro mechanical behavior
of concrete
Nguyen [76] Different damage variable for compression and tension Decomposi-
tion of stress tensor into positive and negative parts Damage evo-
lution controlled by axial strain
Proenka and Pituba Modeled damaged concrete as transversely isotropic bimodular
[210] solid
Li and Ansari [70] Bounding surface constitutive model for high strength concrete
Meschke et al.[77] Multisurface elastoplastic damage model,anisotropic stiffness
degradation and inelastic stiffness degradation are considered
Khan et al.[17] A bounding surface orthotropic damage model using damage effect
tensor ,model loading function approach
Lee and Feneves [133] Fracture energy based plastic damage model for cyclic loading
multiple hardening variables,thermodynamically consistent scalar
model to simulate stiffness degradation and recovery caused by
crack opening/closing
Abu-Lebdeh and Plastic strain is calculated from the plastic modulus Damage growth
Voyiadjis[9] rate is obtained by hardening modulus Hardening is controlled by
both damage and plasticity Strain-softening is controlled by damage
process only
Ramtani et al.[211] Thermodynamic potential based model dealing with elastic
anisotropy induced by damage
Yazdani and Pressure dependent damage surface and yield surface of von Mises
Schreyer[214] type ,anisotropy induced by microcracking
Sauris et al.[236] Damage evolution from loading surface and bounding surface, sep-
arated compliance matrices for tension and compression failure to
occur because of microcrack growth
Mazars et al.[109] Scalar damage model,different damage parameter for compression
and tension ,unilateral effect due to crack closure incorporated
Lubliner et al.[101] Model used on internal variable formulation of elastic and plastic
stiffness degradation ,crack propagation predicted by finite element
analysis
Klisinski and Elastoplastic damage model based on evolution laws for hardening
Mroz[151] and damage growth ,interaction between damage and yielding
Resende,L.[139] Inelasticity due to shear damage and hydrostatic damage are con-
sidered in the model
Cook and Modeled elastoplastic damage behavior of concrete under cyclic
Chindaprasirt[60] compession
36
 Table 3:Representation of damage parameter[207]
Damage variable as References
Scalar Kachnov [113] , Rabotov [190], Simo and Ju [202, 203] ,Ju [111],
Lemaitre [131, 129, 130], Chaboche [40, 41] Mazars [109], Krajci-
novic
Vector Kachnov, Hayhurst and Storakers, Davison and
Stevens,Krajcinovic and Foneska [124], Krajcinovic[123]
Second rank tensor Rabotov, Murakami and Ohno, Vakulenko and Kachanov, Dragon
and Mroz, Cordebois and Sidoroff, Betten
Fourth order tensor Chaboche [39], Sidroff, Chow and Wang,Chow and Wei, Ortiz [163]
Eight order tensor Chaboche.
Strain tensor Rudnicki and Rice [191], Singh and Digby [208],Bazant and Kim[28]
, Nicholson [158]

method. In the finite element model the reinforcement replaced by smeared layers which
had the same areas as the reinforcement. This reinforced carried only axial axial force.

2.9.1.2 Embedded model

In the embedded model, contribution of the reinforcement to the element stiffness is evalu-
ated (in conjunction with isoparametric shape function used in element formulation) inde-
pendently for each steel bar. Phillips et al. [176] were first to present such a formulation
where the element representing reinforcement bar was restricted to lie along one of the
isoparametric axes (natural coordinates) of a 2D element. Chang, et al. [42] extended the
approach and presented a formulation to represent the embedded one dimensional line ele-
ment which could be placed at any angle with respect to isoparametric axes of an element.
Formulation was however restricted to straight reinforcement in a rectangular 2D element.
The approach was further refined by Elwi et al. [68] who presented a formulation for the
curved reinforcement embedded in a higher order 2D element. Similar work has also been
done by Phillips et al.[176], who attempted embedded representation of reinforcement for 20
node isoparametric brick element, and by Phillips et al. [176] who employed the model for
eight node serendipity isoparametric elements for the analysis of skewed RC panels.

37
2.9.1.3 Discrete model

In the discrete model on the other hand, one dimensional bar element is superimposed on
side of a continuum concrete element, sharing the nodes (Dodd et al. [61]). A discrete
representation of the reinforcement, using one dimensional element has been most widely
used.

2.9.2 Bond Mechanics of Reinforced Concrete

The transfer of forces across the interface by bond between concrete and steel reinforcement
is of fundamental importance to most of the aspects of reinforced concrete behavior. The
location, spacing and width of cracks in members and strength all relate directly to the
characteristics of the interface. For finite element modeling, the law by which interface
behaviour are described are exactly analogous to the constitutive laws which describe the
behavior of the concrete or steel [157, 159, 79, 89, 192]. The constitutive models of bond
mechanics are traditionally grouped into two main kinds
Micro model and macro model: In the micro approach, the local bond- slip relation is applied
to analyse RC structures. In the Macroscopic approach, the bond behaviour is analysed via
member response on the global scale
In finite element analysis of RC, a zero thickness bond link element is placed between steel
and concrete elements to deal with interface bond micro behaviour. Ngo et al.[157] use
a linear bond slip relation for linkage element. Later, Nilson [159] employed a nonlinear
behaviour as the constitutive law for the linkage element. Subsequently, several bond slip
relations based on test data have been used for finite element analysis.

38
Chapter 3

Objective and plan of Research work

3.1 objective

The objective of the my work is to develop concrete shell element considering elasto-plastic
damage constitutive model capable of predicting its observed nonlinear inelastic behavior in
realistic manner.

Eight noded layered degenerated shell element will be used to analysis of concrete
shells.

Issues related to the modeling of ( a ) concrete (b) reinforcement (c) bond between
concrete and reinforcement will be addressed.

Continuum damage mechanics based constitutive model of concrete will be considered

.

Subsequently, thermal analysis of concrete shells will be considered .

The developed shell element will be used for the nuclear containment vessel and cooling
tower.

39
 Plan of Research work
July,2012 Joined PhD
Dec,2012 Comprehensive exam held
July,2013 SOAS
August,2013 to Implementation of continuum damage based concrete shell element
July,2014
August,2014 to De- Analysis of concrete shell structures
cember,2014
Jan,2015 to Dec,2015 Incorporation of thermal analysis
Jan,2016 to July,2016 Writing thesis

40
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