UNIT 4: PETROLEUM TRAPS Trap evaluation is fundamental to the analysis of a petroleum prospect, and an important part of any successful exploration and resource assessment program. DEFINITION ‘A petroleum trap can be defined as: Any geometric arrangment of rock, regardless of origin, that permits significant accumulation of oil and/or gas in the subsurface. trap is an integral part of the petroleum system. Several critical components must be in place for a trap to be effective, including adequate reservoir rocks and an adequate seal, ‘as well as an appropriate geometry to allow accumulation. The formation of hydrocarbons and the formation of traps are independent processes, commonly occurring at different times and through different agencies within the basin. Timing of trap formation in relation to the generation and migration process is important; if the trap forms before the hydrocarbons, and is effective, the evidence that a petroleum system exists (or existed) will inherently be preserved. TYPES OF TRAPS The critical components of a trap, reservoir, seal and geometry, can be combined in a variety of ways [Figure 13.1, from Magoon and Dow, 1994]. Several different classifications of traps exist, some based on geometry and others on the processes of trap formation. As indicated in the course introduction, three broad groups are generally recognised: ‘+ Those formed by structural deformation (structural traps); ‘+ Those formed by stratigraphic phenomena (stratigraphic traps) and ‘* Those formed by a combination of both (combination traps). In addition, dynamic fluid conditions in the subsurface can modify the capacity of some stratigraphic or structural traps, or perhaps lead to hydrocarbon accumulation in otherwise unexpected geological situations. The presence of hydrocarbons is not a critical component, although it is certainly desirable from the economic point of view. An absence of hydrocarbons may reflect other factors, such as the availability of a source, a lack of maturation, or deficiencies in the migration pathway from the source to the trap site. A trap is a trap, whether a mouse is in it or not. 22RESERVOIR ROCK The reservoir rock within a trap provides the storage space for the hydrocarbons. This requires adequate porosity to ocour within the reservoir interval. The porosity may be primary (depositional), secondary (diagenetic) or fracture porosity, but it must add up to ‘enough volume to accommodate a significant quantity of fluid. The reservoir must also be capable of transmitting and exchanging fluids. This requires sufficient effective permeability within the reservoir interval, and also along the migration path that connects the reservoir with the pod of active source rock. Note also that most traps are initially filed with water; traps are not passive receivers of fluid into otherwise empty space - they are focal points of active fluid exchange. ‘Traps with a single, homogeneous slab of reservoir rock are rare. Individual reservoirs commonly include lateral and/or vertical variations in porosity/permeability, caused by depositional, diagenetic or structural effects. Such inhomogeneities can lead to hydrocarbon-saturated but non-productive waste zones within the reservoir [Figure 13.2A, Magoon and Dow, 1994]. Transitional effects can develop over some distance within the reservoir [Figure 13.2C, 13.20], giving rise to zones containing significant amounts of hydrocarbon that cannot be recovered. These should be viewed as uneconomic parts of the reservoir, however, rather than as parts of the seal - otherwise trap spill-points, for example, may be misunderstood. Many traps contain discrete horizons of reservoir racks with interbedded impermeable strata [Figure 13.2B]. These may form internal seals that segment the hydrocarbon accumulation into separate compartments, each with its own gas-oil-water contact and its own pressure distribution. Even so, this is still a single trap and not a multiple trap situation. SEAL The seal is equally a as critical a component as the reservoir of a petroleum trap. Without effective seals the hydrocarbons will migrate out of the reservoir rock with time and the trap will cease to be economic. All traps require some sort of top seal [Figure 13.1]. When the base of the top seal is ‘convex upwards in three dimensions the contours of elevation (structure contours) drawn on this surface (the sealing surface) are closed in plan view. No other seal is necessary to form an adequate trap in such cases. Many traps, however, are more complex, and require other effective seals in addition to a top seal. Such traps may be referred to as poly-seal traps. Lateral seals may impede hydrocarbon movement from the sides of the trap [Figure 13.1B]; they are a common component of stratigraphic traps. Such seals can include lateral lithofacies changes (e.g. a sideways transition from sandstone to shale) or lateral diagenetic changes (e.g. increases in cementation) to form tighter rock materials. ‘Other lateral seals include juxtaposition of dissimilar rock types across erosional or depositional boundaries (e.g. incised valley traps - Figure 13.2F), or across faults or unconformity surfaces. Thinly interbedded intervals containing porous and permeable rocks can act as thief beds, allowing hydrocarbon to escape and destroying the viability of an otherwise useful trap occurrence [Figure 13.2E and F]. 23Faulting can also provide a further seal, either through smearing or dragging of impermeable material along the fault plane or by preferential cementation along the fault itself. However, faults can also allow leakage through fractures associated with the fault plane, as well as through bringing other permeable beds into contact with the reservoir due to the fault displacement [Figure 13.14]. STRUCTURAL TRAPS Structural traps are created by syn- to post-depositional deformation of strata into a geometry suitable for hydrocarbon accumulation. They may be of four different types: a) Fold-dominated Traps These are probably the most important types. The folds themselves may be tectonically- induced or they may be formed by depositional processes such as slumping or compaction. Many folds are fault-related (e.g. flexures over steps in the basement); others are largely fault-free. The distinction, however, is more apparent than real. Fault-related folds include: ‘+ Fault-bend and fault-propagation traps [Figures 13.4A and B] ‘+ Fault-drape folds (flexure over a buried fault - Figure 13.4D) and ‘+ Fault-drag folds where the fold is formed by shear between two sliding planes [Figure 13.4C] Fault-free folds include: ‘+ Liftoff folds, with detachment above a decollement (separation) plane [Figure 13.4E] Chevron and kink-band folds (Figure 13.4F] ‘+ Piercement folds, bending due to movement of a subsurface material (e.g. salt - Figure 13.4G] and * Differential compaction folds, compactional effects over a rigid subsurface body [Figure 13.4H). b) Fault-dominated Traps Fault-dominated traps involve fault displacements at the reservoir-seal level without any associated fold structure. They are typically divided into normal, reverse and strike-slip fault types. Normal fault traps are the most common of the fault-dominated types. They may be: ‘© Simple tilted fault blocks [Figure 13.6A], commonly found associated with basement block movements, or* Curved fault planes, shallowing downwards in dip angle (listric faults - Figure 13.68), typically brought about by movements in the sediment pile itself. Reverse fault traps are commonly associated with detached basement involved thrusts. They tend to produce fold-related traps (e.g. Figure 13.4A and B; Figure 13.6C right] rather than simple fault-dominated types, due to the deformation of the strata inherently also involved. Figure 13.6C (left), however, shows a reverse fault trap without any folding involved. STRATIGRAPHIC TRAPS The reservoir-seal geometry in these is provided by variations in stratigraphy that is independent of any structural deformation, except for regional tilting effects. a) Primary or Depositional Stratigraphic Traps ‘These are by definition not associated with significant unconformities. They include: ‘+ Facies changes, lateral transitions from porous/permeable to impermeable strata arising from depositional effects [Figure 13.7A top]. These typically have gradational boundaries that may lead to non-economic segments within the reservoir bed, and possibly irregularities in strike closure. + Depositional pinchouts, involving thinning out of the reservoir bed [Figure 13.7A bottom}. These can have a more abrupt lateral seal; even so, strike closure is also often at risk. * Traps involving buried depositional relief, such as carbonate reefs, dunes, barrier sands and submarine fan deposits [Figure 13.78]. These require careful attention to detail in mapping out their form. b) Traps Associated with Unconformities These can be grouped into those where the reservoir is beneath the unconformity [Figure 13.8A] and those where the reservoir is above the unconformity [Figure 13.88]. Examples are: ‘+ Truncation of tilted strata beneath or above an unconformity. Lateral seal in such cases may be provided by irregularities in the subcrop pattern at the unconformity surface. ‘+ Truncation on the flanks of incised valleys. Sinuosity of the valley may complete the lateral seal, * Buried landforms or erosional relief (e.g. buried hill in reservoir or onlap of reservoir on to buried basement hill. ¢) Secondary Stratigraphic Traps ‘These arise from post-depositional effects in reservoir-seal development, such as: 25‘+ Postdepositional alteration (cementation) forming a barrier to fluid flow [Figure 13.94). ‘Porosity enhancement (secondary porosity developemnt) due to factors such as dolomite formation in carbonates or postdepositional leaching in otherwise tight sandstone sequences [Figure 13.98]. COMBINATION TRAPS Many of the world's hydrocarbon traps combine both structural and stratigraphic elements, In such cases neither structure nor stratigraphy alone is responsible for trap formation, and both are essential to its construction. Examples include: * Faulting of a straigrpahic pinchout [Figure 13.10A] and ‘+ Folding of a pinchout section [Figure 13.108] HYDRODYNAMIC TRAPS: thas long been known that oil-water contacts in reservoirs can be tilted, as well as horizontal. Dips are seldom more than a few degrees, but inclinations of up to 10 degrees have been noted. This is usually explained by hydrodynamic rather than hydrostatic reservoir conditions. Other possible explanations include variations in reservoir characteristics and the influence of neotectonics. Several different types of hydrodynamic traps are shown in Figure 13.11. The tit of the oil-water contact depends on the hydraulic gradient (water flow velocity) and the density contrast between the oil and the water [Figure 13.11 B and C]. Note also the effect of the direction of water flow relative to the dip of the reservoir bed [Figures 13.11 D/E and 13.11 F/G]. Down-dip water flow tends to promote hydrocarbon 1p-dip flow tends to impede it (or flush the reservoir out). 26Teakokiem TRAPS Mh Menon GO [i rrcaton scan —> Moo pater Figure 12.1, Key elements for (A structural and (8) stratigraphic hydrocarbon taps. zone of anhycite rom Horn 1985), [E) rnecenton section —> tips pty Figure 132. Common trap limitations (A) Waste or nonproductive zones in tap (8) Multiple impermeable layers in rap creating several inaviduat ol-water contacts. (C) Non” to pootly productive transition zone (Irom reservoir sel) rock above productive reservotr.(0} Lateral transition rom reeset to seal (E) Lateral, svatgraphicaly contotied leak point. 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