AIP Conference Proceedings Series Editor: Hugh C, Wolfe Number 71 Group Theory and its Applications in Physics—1980 (Latin American School of Physics, Mexico City) Editor Thomas H. Seligman Instituto de Fisica, University of Mexico American Institute of Physics New YorkCopying fees: The code at the bottom of the first page of each article in this volume gives the fee for each copy of the article made beyond the free copying permitted under the 1978 US Copyright Law. (See also the statement following “Copyright” below). This fee can be paid to the American Institute of Physics through the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc. Box 765, Schenectady, N.Y. 12301. Copyright © 1981 American Institute of Physics Individual readers of this volume and non-profit libraries, acting for them, are permitted to make fair use of the material in it, such as copying an article for use in teaching or research. Permission is granted to quote from this volume in scientific work with the customary acknowledgment of the source. To reprint a figure, table or other excerpt requires the consent of one of the original authors and notification to AIP. Republication or systematic or multiple reproduction of any material in this volume is permitted only under license from AIP. Address inquiries to Series Editor, AIP Conference Proceedings, AIP. L.C. Catalog Card No. 81-66132 ISBN 0-88318-170-3 DOE CONF- 8006126Chapter I Representation Theory 1 TOPICS IN NONCOMPACT GROUP REPRESENTATIONS Kurt Bernardo Wolf Instituto de Investigaciones en Matematicas y en Sistemas. Universidad Nacional Auténoma de México Apartado Postal 20-726 México 20, D. F. México CONTENTS. INTRODUCTION. CHAPTER 1. A LIE ALGEBRA 1 A Lie algebra and its bases, 2 Representations, 3. The adjoint representation, 4 A faithful 3x3 representation, 5 Equivalent representation and isomorphisms of w, 6 The Fock realization, 7 The power-function basis, 8 Irreducible and indecomposable representations, 9 Self-adjoint representations, Hermiticity imposed, :11 A measure for a Hilbert space, :12 The enveloping algebra, -13 The Schrédinger realization, -14 The special v= 0 case, +15 Self-adjoint extensions of the number operator, 16 12(R), 17 L2(R*), +18 The Bargmann transform, S CHAPTER 2. A LIE GROUP 2.1 Ado's theorem and the exponential map, 2.2 The Heisenberg-Wey! group, 2.3 Functions on the group and on coset spaces, 2.4 Transitive and effective action, 2.5 Multiplier representations, 2.6 Infinitessimal operators in 3, 2 and 1 variable, 2.7 On representations of groups on homogeneous spaces, 2.8 The Q-subgroup basis, 2.9 The P-subgroup basis, 2.10 The quantum free-fall nonsubgroup basis, 2.11 The quantum harmonic oscillator basis, 2.12 The bilateral Mellin eigenbasis, 2.13 Unitary irreducible representa 2.14 Equivalence of representations, 2.15 Classical canonical transformations, 2.16 Quantum canonical transformations and discrete Hamiltonian spectra, ISSN: 0094-243X/81/710001-72$1.50 Copyright 1981 American Institute of Physics ns,217 18 19 +20 221 22 +23 RNNAND 2h +25 CHAPTER 3.1 Quantum canonical transformations to action and angle variables, Quantum mechanics on a continuous compact space, Left- and right-invariant Haar measure, Unimodular groups, The Haar measure and weight function, Completeness of a set of representations, The orthogonality and completeness relations for the unitary irreducible representation matrix elements, The Heisenberg-Wey! case, Harmonic analysis on a group, 3. A FURTHER EXAMPLE The $0(2,1) group and algebra, The SU(1,1) algebra and group, The group SL(2,R), The covering group SL(2,R) , Raising, lowering and Casimir algebra elements, Eigenbases for a representation, Self-adjoint representations, The continuow representation series, The 'discrete' representation series, Some isolated points, "Other! representations, Subgroups and coset spaces, The Iwasawa decomposition, s1(2,R) algebras of differential operators, Basis functions on the circle, In search of Hilbert spaces, Local and nonlocal weight functions, Unitary group action and multipliers, Closing remarks REFERENCESINTRODUCTION The theory of Lie algebras, Lie groups and their representa- tions is a subject which hardly needs of a lengthy intoduction to highlight its intrinsec mathematical interest and manifold applica- tions in physics. It is also a subject whose exposition in a course for physicists may be done from a wide variety of starting points, directions, speeds and objectives. We assume that the audience of physicists is reasonably confident in the use of quantum mechanics, angular momentum theory and the standard SU(3) methods of the old quark model, so we shall proceed presenting some of the Lie algebra- ic and group theoretical concepts, offering alternatives and gener- alizations, with the aim that the subject acquire a certain system- atic structure. This should enable the student to work more at ease when applying the methods of Lie algebras and groups to the problems in his field. The territory we will try to make more accessible is that of representations of noncompact algebras and groups. Symmetry algebras and groups’ 1a Nigner-Raccah are probably standard in any physics curriculum, but dynamical algebras and the associated groups are less so. The similarities between the two are sufficient to use the concepts of the former in order to gain familiarity with the latter; but the differences in formalism and applications are sometimes dra~ matic. Unitary representations of noncompact groups are infinite dimensional, and generally describe covariance instead of invariance of a system. Chapter 1 deals with the Hefsenberg-Wey] algebra of quantum me- chanics, and Chapter 2 with the corresponding group. This is an easy case, as the group is nilpotent and close to the abelian case. Chap- ter 3. explores a semisimple noncompact case, the 2+1 Lorentz alge- bra and group, as well as its covering groups. We do not claim to present everything you always wanted to know in this field, as have other authors in References (1) and (2), so we hardly need to start with a disclaimer. We do wish to point out, however, that many of the prime areas of research in the last years have been left out, notably higher dimensional cases and their classification, similarity methods in differential equations, in- duced representations, pseudogroups, superalgebras and gauge theo- ries It is hoped that this material will prove useful for mathemat- ically inclined physicists. We mut apologize both to the purer math- ematical analysts for glossing over defining concepts or presenting proofs; also to the applied physicists, for not presenting the ener gy levels! match of any molecule, atom, nucleus or resonance. We hope our list of references will partially atone for the sins of omission. Those of comission, we also hope, will entice the reader to explore the source literature.CHAPTER 1: A LIE ALGEBRA We start this set of lecture notes with an example -a rather simple and presumably well-know one- of a Lie algebra. We shall then examine its representations, its irreducible representations, and finally, its unitary irreducible representations. 1.1 A Lie algebra and its bases. We consider the Lie algebra w with elements 2, P and I, over the field of complex numbers, defined by its Lie bracket operation (Q,PI The symbols used for Q and P suggest, of course, that these are the quantum-mechanical operators of position (multiplication by the coordinate q ), momentum (- «fi times differentiation with respect to q) while I should be a multiple fh of the unit operator 1, on the space of quantum mechanical wavefunction completed with re- spect to an inner product so as to form a Hilbert space, normally L2(R). We shall later obtain these as a realization of w, but mean- while they are to be taken only as formal symbols. The three elements 2, P and I constitute a vector basis for the algebra, in the sense that any element of w can be written as =41, [0,1] =0, [P,1]=0. (1.1) E= QQ +yP +20 , xy,zEC (1.2) An algebraic basis for w is provided by Q and P alone, as I is pro- ducedthrough the Lie bracket in the first of Eqs. (1.1). Particular elements in w which we will refer to are 2 (ee), =k (re). (1.3a) v2 v2 These are to be related, later, with the raising and lowering oper- ators for the harmonic oscillator wavefunctions. They satisfy R [L,R I= » [L,T]= 0, [R,2] = 0, (1.3b) and may thus also serve to define w over the field C. 1.2_Representations. A representation p of a Lie algebra a on a vector space V is a homomorphism (i. e. a mapping which preserves the operators of the algebra: Linear combination and Lie brackets) p: a >gl (Vv), (1.4)7 from a into the algebra gl(V) of linear operators on V, where the Lie bracket is the commutator. IF x) jz] is a D-dimensional vector basis for a, abstractly defined thtolgh the set of structure constants Cj 35 ee z ot (1.5) and X; = olx,) € gl(V), then the homomorphism requirements are [XX = ole; x; + OX )= ey 0(Xs)+ cp elX,) Xj +0Xp (1.6a) OCU Xp] ) = KX ~ Hey 2 2 2 ek, (1.66) When V is an N-dimensional vector space, gl(V) is the set of Nx matrices. Amongst these, for w, we should be able to find three matrices Q, P and | such that (1.1) holds replacing each symbol for its boldface homonym, and the bracket meaning commutation. Abstrac- tly, you will recall that the Lie bracket is only required to be skew-symmetric [A,8]= - [8,A], bilinear [aA+bB,C]=al A,C] +61 B,C] ,and to satisfy the Jacobi identity [A,[B8,C]] +18,[C,A]] 4C,[A,8]] . Poisson (3, Sect III-D and V-A) and Moyal (4,5) brackets, as well as commutators, satisfy these three requirements. When V is a function- or other infinite-dimensional space, gl(V) is the set of all linear operators with domain and range in that space. Amongst these we should be able to find, for w, three linear operators f) ,P and [J such that (1.1) holds for them. Clearly here we run headlong into trouble, since we can easily find that some proposed operator does not ‘quite! have V for its domain, or that it may send elements of V out of V. We may require that it do the job only in a dense subspace of V, and that will take us into Hilbert spaces. The a t_representation. For any D -dimensional Lie algebra a [with a D ~dimensignaly vector basis {Xb ge }, defined by the structure constants Cape eg es in the Lie Bracket” '(1.5)] one can always produce a DxD matttx rep- resentation, called the adjoint representation p" of a, through Hoh Ohl tebe See as (1.78) To prove this, replace (1.7a) into (1.5), X,'s replacing X,'s, thus finding for the m-n element of this equality Dilek, ok tex chy tcf eh] =o, csafter a dummy-index change. Equation (1.6) is equivalent to the statement of the Jacobi identity for the algebra. The adjoint representation of w may be obtained from (1.7), nymbering Q, Pand T in (1.1) by 1, 2, 3. As only c3, = -1 and c#)2 1 are nonzero, ot. This is a representation, but it is not faith{ul, as the algebra element | is mapped on the zero matrix. This is a general feature of algebras with a centre, i. e. element(s) which commute with every element of the algebra. pA. it 0. (1.8) ees ess ete ees ess a4 0 > Oo}, 1.4 A faithful 3x3 matrix representation. For the case of w we have to use other arguments: If 2 is represented by a matrix with a single off-diagonal nonzero element in the (a,6) position, a#b, and P by another such matrix with a nonzero (c,a] element, c#a, the commutator representing I will have non-zero elements in the (b,c) position and, if b=c, in the (a,a) position. The latter will commute with the former two when the (a,a) element is zero, i. e., when b #c. Adjusting signs and <' s so that (1.1) be obtained, we may thus provide a simple 3x3 faith- ful representation through a=I, 6 = 2, ¢ = 3: af = ps 15 = (1.9) eso eos ess ess Acs As a representation is a linear mapping, every element (1.2) of w may be represented through Foe xQh+ ypb+ 2h = (1.9b) ‘o° Rox 1.5 Equivalent representations and isomorphisms of w. We may Pagfor any si ee transfor tig on representation matrices (as j]°>/40% = Ate “1 for HT and [°) and obtain another equévatent Ee For w we ae do more, however: We can perform linear combinations of its vector basis elements obtaining new basis elements with the same commutation relations: 8 c] a a, b, 0, d, _ r Caee. 1 0 0 ad-be rf, (1.10) e. (1.1) for Q, P and I implies (1.1) also holds for Q, P andt I implies (1,1) also holds for Q, P and I. The linear transforma- tion (1.10) is an isomorphism of w. This is a rather exceptional case, as usually the isomorphism group of a Lie algebra is only the adjoint action of the Lie group associated to it. For w it is Wet (2,c) . The above paragraph binds the 'simplest' representation (1.9) to the more popular representation [3, Eq' (2.4); 6, Eqs. (2-1)] given by pP = G. mn) i oo) [P= 00 ess It is more popular since it may be generalized straighforwardly as an (N+2) x (N+2) representation of the (2N+1)-dimensional Heisenberg-Wey! algebra used in N-dimensional quantum mechanics, through 'vectorizing' the nonzero elements of Q” and PP. As matri- ces, the link between (1.11) and (1.9) is AT OP A =aQ' +s ph + 18 (1.12) AT pP A =ixQh +2ops vey $ (1.128) AT PP A ~2éapy6 (1.12¢) where in this case B ty 0 A= 0 ap 7 : (1.124) 1.6 The Fock realization. The Heisenberg-Weyl algebra can be also furnished with infinite- dimensional representations. To this end we prefer to work with the basis R, L and I as given by (1.3). We may propose to asso te to each of these elements the formal Fock operators F oie lal. (1.13) ine. UF is the differentiation operator aR §(2)= 26(z) is the multiplication-by-argument operator, and [', the unit operator. Acting on any differentiable function §(z) we can see that (1.13) follow the commutation relations (1.3b). We prefer to speak of (1.13) as a realization of the algebra w, since a representation is defined only when a proper vector space V in (1.4) is fully specified. The Fock operators are purely formal up to now, with no mention as to their domain.7_The powe! unction basi Clearly, we need some functions. Consider the infinite se- quence of power functions pplz) = 2" nEZ = {0,41,22,...},Re vEL0,1). (1.14) These provide a proper basis for a function space V as they are differentiable, and (1.13) belong to gl(V): R pvt) =, (el, (1.15a) LF p22) = (nev) py ytd, (1.158) IF op tz) = pYted. (1.15¢) " | The action of (1.13) can be extended to the whole of V through linear combiation. Note carefully that the vector space axioms speak only of finite linear combinations, and hence V is not the space of z’ times analytic functions in some annullus around the origin (having a convergent Laurent expansion), but only the sub- space of finite sums of power functions. The limit points are the cLosure of that space, of which we shall have a right to talking only when we introduce a notm into that space. Meanwhile, though, we do have a representation through nite matrices with rows and columns n,m€ Z, the set of integers: nm >2>1> 0 4 -1 + -2 + g 0 1 + 1 0 + arte 0 (1. 16a) + -1 oo1 + -2 0 +\m>+2>+1>+0%-14+-24 09° n 4 et +] v2 0 Flv) ; E 2. (1.16b) ‘ =f v 0 $ ~= vil @ + F Ve ae (1.16c) acting on infinite-component vectors, where p’(z) is represented by a column with a single nonzero entry I in the” n‘” position. This entry is raised by one place by the raising matrix (1.16a), lowered and multiplied by n + v by the lowering matrix (1.16b), and left invariant by (1.16c), iv, LF) ang [FtY) given by (1.16) satisfy the Clearly also R' t LPO) Flv) and pF) p Flv) are diag- commutation relations (1.3b): onal matrices with entries v +m + I and v + n along the diagonal. 1.8 Irreducible and decomposable representations. When v is not eeros every Py (z) may be moved and, through re- LF) peated application of R’ Fivl » taken to a function propor- tional to any other palz), m€Z. No subspace being invariant, under the three algebra generators; the whole space spanned by {p,,(zI},,¢7 is thus required as a basis for V , which is thus an 0 it may be raised, but not lowered below n=0. The space spanned by {p) (zl, n © Z} may be divided thus into two disjoint subbases: {p9(z), n> Olwhich still transforms irreducibly under the algebra, and the subspace generated by we, (2), n <0} which does not: It 'spé2ls over! into the first through re- peated action or the raising operator. Every element of w in the Fock representation (1.16) for v = 0 and its powers, are represen- ted by a block-triangular infinite matrix acting on the basis vec- tors as10 0 0 AR Ppa (= [A Pio !2) BB Plo) ) Caan ——0 @ | Pl egy fal C Pico) !2) where we have separated by horizontal and vertical lines on 0°” and (-1)*" rows and columns. The representation of w provided by A is still irreducible, but (1.16) is reducible, though C. Axioms require that it be linear in one argument (physicists prefer the second praument) antilinear in the first, (4,4) >0 and (f,6)= 0 iff 4 = 0. For some purposes a nowm rather than an inner product is naliiads soV is taken to be only a Banach space, but we shall forego this weaker scenario. 1.10_Her ty imposed. Returning to our now self-adjoint representation for 2, P and T in w, the reader will no doubt recognize the Schridinger real iza~ tion as possessing a self-adjoint extension in L2(R). In accord with our emphasis on alternate approaches, however, let us insist in staying with, the Fock fpr zgtlon (1.13) which, from (1.32) must be such that f/f = pF , Ri and of course [f= JF. What we need is a Hilbert space B ae that these adjunction properties hold, i. e., an inner product (-, og where the formal Fock operators (1.13) satisfy (LF §, @ g= (6 Realg forall $9, € 8, (1.18) plus some function-analytic minutae to determine the geometry of theWwW space of functions which belong to B so that the limit points of Cauchy sequences of these are in the space. It has been the work of Bargmann (10) to turn (1.18) into a set of two coupled partial differential equations for the weight function of a measure on the complex plane, and to determine precisely the geometry of the space -thereafter called Baxgmann's space. Gener- alizations of this procedure have been performed by Barut and Girar- dello (11) and the author (12,13,14 Sect. 9.2). Let us follow a different argumentation here, based on the matrix representation (1.16) which we have already, and which we want to turn into a hermitian matrix representation. . An orthonormal denumerable basis for the putative Hilbert space 8, (g\(z), 1 2} should have the property of providing a matrix representation of w through , rol® = pe LEG hg UR ggg LAR Gel RV, (1.19) and a’ ae = (aye Qn) Bt Sq? The representation (1.15)-(1.16) is not far off the mark The nonzero elements of [*!Ylare indeed in the position of the nonzero elements of RFl¥IT (the dagger meaning transposition and conjugation), only the normalization is not quite right. If we were to set Yio) = a’ plz) = a’ oitty y ple ere) eer Gee mez (1.20a) then (1.15) and (1.19) lead to Ja | (nev) | ay \2, As absélute values are positive real numbers,”this implies Fiege that v must be real. As for n, two recurrence relations for |a\|" in terms of jay? may be set up, depending on whether n > 0 or n < 0: v lay’ |? lagi? rv +9) /tinev+ JL, (1.20b) v lal? = lal? rive 1) ftv n+ 1), 10. (1.200) Equation (1.20b) yields a recursion relation, while (1.20c) is a limitant for v # 0 as r(v-n +1) alternates in sign for n> J, yet absolute values must be positive. It follows that only v=0 in (1.20b) will produce submatrices in (1.17) following the adjuntion property (1.19), necessary for a se]f-adjoint representation of w. There, an orthonormal basis is a, palz), with 1-2 a= (nt) / 4, n 20, a= 0,n>0. (1,204)12 1.11_A measure for a Hilbert space. What is the Hilbert space? In that spaggy,an orthonormal basis should be provided by q,,(z) = a,p) O(z)=(n!) az", n> 0(we have set the phase of a ind€pendent”of n). What is a’possible inner pro- duct which would satisfy this requirement? We may follow Galbraith and Louck (15) in proposing, for §(z) and g(z) analytic in a common open circle containing the origin, - . UGg]q, * lagi”? § (d/dz)” gtz) |,29, (1.214) In this way, one ensures that (Qu Garon = (ntn't | Sy, z=0 The inner product (1.21) is very handy for computations invol- ving quantum creation and annihilation gperators, since (1.2la) is in shell-model language just<0|§({a)g(a')|9 > while § and g are usually polynomials. Mathematicians -and many physicists- prefer inner products defined through integrals since Hilbert space theory is usually cast in that way. If we momentarily assume that g in (1.21a) satisfies also the conditions of the Fourier integral theo- rem -although the q,(z] clearly do not- we may write lagi? gtdsdey® J fofe Plz 2") giz) - ‘Apz" layla Lf w fe § lap) glz"e lag\? a fof dz* §*(2*)gizle ~ J. Sn = tf 2 - ~ Wee fe f(z] glz) e After taking z=0 we have changed variables to the independent zezt ZY then to variables x=Re z= ${ z + z*) and y= Imz z- z*) which are readily “interpreted as the real and imaginary parts of a complex variable 7, of which both § and g are analytic functions, the integration ranges of z and z* are convertible into an integration over the complex z = x +iy plane C, with measure d2z = dxdy = d Rez d Imz = |z|d|z| d arg z. n'.(1.21b) ($9) gp (1.22) ay13 If we set ay= 1, we have exactly Baxgmann’s inner product (-y)g (10, Eq. (1.6)), where (1.21b) can be easily verified, in spite of the fact that q,!2) does not abide the Fourier transform conditions. We may abandon the definition of (§,g)¢) altogether and regard now only (§,g) which poses its existence requirements quite openly: §(z) must be entine analytic functions (i. e. no poles or branch cuts are allowed on the finite z -plane) and the growth at infinity should be overcome by the weight function e7/Z|*. In fact, the functions may grow in some direction in C ~-as analytic func- tions do-, but may not grow faster than exp(} @ z2) for some phase @ as otherwise they would overwhelm the weight functions in some direction of the complex plane. The space of entire analytic functions of growth (2,1/2) con- stitute -as proved by Batgmann (10, Sect. 1)- a separable Hilbert space under (-,-),. In Bargmann's space, the Fock operators (1.13) constitute thus a self-adjoint irreducible representation of the Heisenberg-Wey] algebra (1.13). 1.12 The enveloping algebra. The construction we have just completed is straightforward, except, we should say, in our original choice of basis functions (1.14). Had we chosen a set of functions other than power functions, for example trigonometric ones, the construction of the representa~ tions of the algebra and the argument about their irreducibility and self-adjointness would have been considerably more involved. We chose power functions for the reason that we knew that {p)(z]} would map among thenselves up and down the ladder under multipligatjon and differentiation: They are eigenfunctions of the operator RF LF = = z d/dz with eigenvalue n+ v . The product RL between algebra elements is undefined within the framework of the algebra. It may be incorporated through the simple device of defining a (noncommuta- tive) product operation for the algebra elements and placing this product in a new set called the enveloping algebra & of the origi- nal algebra a. _ : If we want @ to be an algebra itself, the product in @ must be bidistributive with respect to the sum, lejX, + OX A) Xp = OX Xe = OX Xp t COX Mee (1.23a) XplexX, + 4X) = ox + eX Xp cg EC, (1.23) and with respect to the Lie bracket it must satisfy the 'Leébnétz nuke! (1.23c) LX XX = KX] My # Xp XpoXy Te4 which is an identity if the Lie bracket is the commutador. The en- veloping algebra @ of a has the structure of a ring (i.e. a non- commutative bilinear product is defined, but inverses under the pro- duct are not, and there is generally no identity under this product -although it may be defined for algebras with a centre when we take equivalence classes modulo the centre). 1.13 The Schrédinger realization The enveloping algebra is a very useful concept when it comes to find ways of building irreducible representations and classi- fying them, as the Casimir operators of semisimple algebras lie there. The properties of N= RL = + (P* +% -T) under commutation with the elements of w are [N,R] = R,[ N,L] = - L and [N,I] = 0 so that if in some representation we manage to construct an eigenvector wv of N with eigenvalue u, then by a well-known argument, Ry wl also be an eigenvector of || with eigenvalue » + n, and so will L" ¥ with eigenvalue u- n, unless such a vector is zero. ~ We can put these concepts to work on the Schrodinger realiza- tion of the Heisenberg-Weyl algebra: 2>0° q, P=PS (1.24a) whereby (1.24) From the arguments of the previous section, we look for the solutions ¥(q) of wo (q)= (nevlyp (ql, me 2, Re v EL0,1). (1.25a) These are any linear combination of 1 wila) = cp Ul-Lntvl- z, YT a), ii in Z a (1.256) Ml) = dp v(-Lnrv]- P wT Qi, where cy and dy are arbitrary constants, and U and V are the Para- bolic Cylinder functions classified in attention to their asymptotic behaviour (see 16, Sect. 19.3). They are related to the more famil- iar Whittaker D and U funtions throughWop eDgjyglnee rg? iy ggltl2l- 2 2 gll4 - 0/2 a /4 aged + m, (1.26a) Vla,ylen"'rlor Hsin x0 D_crpqllt Oo gjql-wl}- (1.266) It is an easy matter to verify that RS anaiS indeed raise and lower the values of n in (ay oT } by units (16, Sect. 19.6): RSW (als (oP /0,2)) Wy qlal, (1.278) LS ¥ (ale (nev) (e¥/e,.2,) Wlal, (1.276) BO 1) (ale (never (/d,2) 1,2) la), (1.28a) LS (al= (d/d,”)) 4°) (ad (1.28) With (1.27) we are at the same point of the program for the Schrédinger realization as we were for the Fock realization, when we wrote (1.15a) for cy= 1. The irreducible representatigns of w wwe obtain is thus identical to et of Eqs. (1.16) for RF'¥) and LF), but now for RS {a} and L[jj}- We have now two sets of basis vectors, (¥(@)},e7 and {T(q), ¢ z» instead of the apparently in (1.14). As far as the representation of the algebra is concerned, we relate them as Rts} 7 aot u ps). privlt Liu 7 Rey This provides the ‘two! representations for the Fock case through pie p single one {py nn ez and ae 1.14 The special v= 0 case: ae for v=0 we obtain from fy, 4 ne€z the upper ~ triangular, and from ar’ dy Ez the lower- triangular | reducible indeconposable representations (1.17). The irreducible parts are provided by oe 0. A or?) n>o and tt}, <9 - Specifically, the 1, -functions are the following: 0 it | wld) = Of DAVE ql= co M24 /2 ig), n20,1,2,... (1.290)16 2 ta 208 ET fe tl? MMerke gy MET Levey (1,296) where H,,(q) are the Hermite polynomials and i™erfc q the repeated integrals dq’ i™'erfc q' of the complementary error function iferfe q= oe qe tn ole dqte@’?. the 1é functions, on the other hand, are related fgr n $4 -) the repeated integrals of Dawson's integral F(q) =e? ry as i dre? 2/249 (q’l- sin(n/2) 0 2 0 0 -q/2 0 ed (a 1, {al= d, e { (d,_7) ah ectaaaii n=1,2,..., (1.30a) i Pita) = df on '/? ot /? Fa), (1.308) 2 1? (ql fy ee ea a er) For negative n' s, the 1 ta) are thus simply proportional to v,l4a)- We have gone into some detail in spelling out the eigenfunc- tions of the Schrédinger operator - R Lv, The reader will have recognized that (1.29a) are proportional to the well-known quantum harmonic oscilator wavefunctions, and Nn the corresponding number operator related to the Hamiltonian as H!"= NS +4, 1.15 Self-adjoint extensions of the number operator. When looking for self-adjoint representations of w, one can follow the same argument which lead us to fe .18) and conclude that we must stay with the subset of ¥2 and 1 jp 220. In that diregtion, the search for an apprdpiate HiiBett space will lead us to L2 -spaces, where the Y2 , n 20 are orthogonal and dense. It is at least as insfructive, however, to adopt a different approach which will yield results ysefyl, ip other contexts as well. Since it was the number operator NP=H"® JI] which provided the basis functions (1.25) for the representations of w, let us examine the L2-spaces where JP may be sel vadjoigt. This is a consequence of but not a requisite for e pS and [J> to have this property. We17 recall some facts: In the L2(a,6) Hilbert space defined through an inner product ($3) (4, p)* “fe 4g 61a)" gla), we may show that (6H 9) (a, 4) 7° W169) Pre (Hs, 9) holds, provided the norms of & 3, BS and Sg are finite. the @tBhsictan WIgg)= gg'-96" valued at a and b, will be zero and f° Hermitean, for spaces of ie functions with fixed logarithmic derivatives at those points, h'(a) = p, hla) and h’(b) = p, h(b). Each pair of values p, and e. pp thus deternines together with certain further technical require- ments related with the domain of YS and its adjoint, a seL{-adjoint extension of ws is determined. If -a and/or b become infinity, the condition of asymptotic decrease -so that the norm of h remain finite- takes precedence. We shall examine First the possibilities for the cas (a,b) = [-»,~), then (0,) and last briefly, (a,b) fi- nite. 1.16 17 (R). The Y- and T-functions in (1.25b) were chosen for their asymp- totic properties (16, Sect. 19.8): ee (1.31a) 2 ee he The growing Gaussian behavior of Ty -for all mand v is suffici reason to discard these as elements of the L?2(R) space where re is to be self-adjoint. The next condition, at q+ -», may be obtain- ed through the special function relation wal-ql= cost m(ntvi] (ql nen/d? rl-n-v)1 Ty La), (1.31¢) and a similar one for TH(-q) which we omit as it is now unnecessary. From (1.31a) and (1.31c) it follows that for q> >, + rly when the second summand, in (1.31c) is zero will ¥,"(-g) be in L2(R). The Finitudg of ¥,"(q) is proven as an immediate consequence of (1.25a), since J? has no singularities for finite q. This means that cn-ve 0, -1,~2,...1. e.gthat ve0 and n is a non-negative integer. The end result: Only {¥,(q)}, as given in (1.29a) may serye as basis functions for a self-adjoint representation of w on L*(R). This set is closed under the algebra (c. f. Eqs. (1.27a), (1.27b)) and fynctional apalysis tells us that the closure of the linear hull of (Jy og is L (R). This quantizes the problem through restric-18 ting the spectrum of JS to be the set of nonnegative integers. We thus reconstitute the representation afforded by the Fock realiza- tion in Bargmann's Hilbert space. The unitary equivalence of the two will be implemented in Sect. 1.18. 1.17 L2(R*). Let us now turn to L°(0,=) spaces where the dense subset of once-differentiable functions have fixed logarithmic derivative at the origin, i. e. where h'(0) = p h(0). The integrability conditions demanded by asymptotic behaviour still demand that only the ¥y(q) appear. We find from special-function tables that v pinev)/2 1/2 YQ) = ¥,(0l= ¢, J rth ti-mv, (1.32a) dy,"(a /dal geg = - ep aime 2I 112 oh tenet). (1.326) The basis of the p=0 space of functions whose derivative vanishes at the origin are ¥,"(q) such that (1.32b) is zero. The Gamma function provides this behaviour through its poles at 1 [-n-v}-0, -1,-2,... This means v=0 and n=2N where N=0,1,2,***. Thé even-n harmonic oscillator wavefunctions in (1.29a) are thus obtained. Next, the ba- sis of the p= space of functions which vanish at the origin re- quire that (1.32a) be zero. Again, this is provided by the Gamma function for [1-n-v] = 0, -1,-2,...; i. e. v=0 and n=2N+l where N=0,1,2,:*+. " These are the odd-n harmonic oscillator wavefunctions. Lastly, for fixed, finite p, ¥X'(0) = p ¥%,°(0) implies the equality P(g U inv) == (2p) rip t-nvd) (1.33) This is a transcendental equation whose set of solutigns for n + v gives the spectrum of the self-adjoint extension of ) determined by p. It is not difficult to see that for p positive, the solutions n+ are all positive and that only one solution exists between any two consecutive integers. Similarly, we check that if some ntv is a solution of (1.33), no (n+M)+v with M integer may be a solution to to the same equation. For p negative, the spectrum has both positive and negative values, but the spacing property is the same. Consequence: Only the p=0 and p=» self-adjoint extensions of Ne ee spectra with equally-spaced eigenvalues. Enter (1.27). The elements of w take us between functions whose ntv differs by units or, as Rev€[0,1), whose n differs by units. When applied in spaces determined by self-adjoint extensions of J’, the elements of w will not respect the constant p which therefore cannot be useg to classify ipreducible representations. Repeated application of R° on the p=0 ¥,(q) function will take us, at each step, between p=0 and pre functions. A self-adjoint representation of w reqyires thus the union of these two self-adjoint extension spaces of . In fact,19 when the basis functions are extendgd to all of R as even and odd functions, we obtain the previous L°(R)space. There, in addition, and PS are ngt only hermitean, but self-adjoint. The hermiticity properties of NP in the union of the p=0 and p = = spaces is a conse- quence of the presence of functions which vanish at the origin, so that the crossed-p Wronskian continues to be zero. For any other self-adjoint extension space (determined by fixed, finite p ) this is not so: The repeated application of the elements of w to some function in that space will never take us back to that same space. We thus conclude that in order that an algebra of operators have a self-adjoint representation, it is necessary but not suffi cient that the operators chosen to classify the basis functions be self-adjoint. For semisimple groups these are usually the Casimir operators. The case worked out above makes it unnecessary to further ana- lyze L2(a,6] for a and b finite: The spectrum of S is never equally spaced, as moreover, it asymptotically resembles the n2 - spectrum of an impenetrable box. This argument ne also eliminate From consideration any other self-adjoint egtensigns for theeje- ments of the Lorentz algebra built out of JP, ( D and CLS), which are elements in the universal covering Hee @ of w. 8 The Bargmann transform. The last point in this chapter will be to relate the Fock re- alization in Bargmann Hilbert space, Eqs. (1.13) and (1.22), with the Schrédinger realization in the L2(R) Hilbert space. Both of these are separable and hence should be unitarily equivalent. The integral kernel A(z,q) which relates them as #2) i dq Alz,q)é(q) © 8, (1.34a) 2 sla) fev az Alz,ql* §B(z) © L208), (1.346) may be found fro, Introduction) ghrough requiging that if 4(q) €C* OLEIR) is mapped on é (z), then es gla) and LS (q) be mapped on rss (z) and L"6?(z) respectively. This leads to a set of two coupled first-order df rferential equations whose solution was gi- ven by Bargmann (10). An equivalent solution may be found as a gene- rating function built out of es dense orthonormal bases: Bargmann- normalized power functions {q¥} in (1.20a)-(1. 304) with dy = 1 for B, and the harmonic gpg feta or yee tions (¥7}_s9 in (71.298) normalized with cf = ( © for L2(R): . 2y az) via) 2 cee le yy (nt2/2y-T aM tq) (1.35) r= aale A (z,q) exp (-h (z2+q7)+¥ 2 z a1, where we have made use of the Hermite polynomial generating function.20 CHAPTER 2; A LIE GROUP. Out of the Heisenberg-Wey! Lie algebra of last Chapter we shall develop the Heisenberg-Wey] Lie group through the exponential map. The basic concepts of harmonic analysis on the group and coset manifolds will follow. Out of these we shall find various equiv- alent unitary irreducible representations through infinite matrices and integral kernels. 2.1 Ado's theorem and the exponential map. A theorem by Ado (17) states that every Lie algebra a over C is isomorphic to some matrix algebra. That is, if we have a finite dimensional algebra we can find a finite dimensional faithful N x N matrix representation which will be a subalgebra of gl(N,C). For the Heisenberg-Weyl algebra w defined in the first chapter through (1.1), a faithful representation and subalgebra of gl(3,C) is given by (1.9); w is not contained in gl(2,C). We can use this representation in order to define the expo- nential map of a into a Lie group G, which will be a subgroup of GLIN,C), the group gf N x N nonsingular, complex matrices. If @ has a yector basis {X,}/_, faithfully represented by Nx N_ matrices AXp}Rez> then to BBE} element ae hel RoR? Xe a 4 Xp» we associate the matrix Glxp,---,%)* exp X, 4 Ec Tepresented by element of GL(N,C) and faithfyl analytic representation of the Lie group G. The parameters {xp}p_, constitute the canonical coordinate system of G. The exponenttaf hap exists since -it is easy to show- the exponential of an arbitrary N x N matrix with finite elements is an absolutely convergent series which yields another such matrix which is, moreover, invertible, (as det exp X=exp tt X) and sends the zero element in a to the unit element inG. Lastly, the matrix elements of exp X are analytic functions of the canonical coordi - nates. They thus satisfy one last requirement of representations of topological groups, namely that these be continuous maps of the abstract group into a matrix subgroup of GL(N,C). 2.2. The Heisenberg-Wey! group. The algebra W with general element represented by x6 in (1.9) is easy to exponentiate since the matrices are nilpotent. We have the elements of W represented by 3 x 3 matrices as Glx,y,z) = exp c(xQs+ yps + z]8) = exp ¢ (2.1) <> fox ess21 00 7, 2 [+e 60 | = 0 ={ 0 yg a xy 0 ig = exp (éx 8) exp (éy PS) expl tz + xy/2l 14) (2.1 cont.) = exp (éy PS) exp (ix QS) exp < Lz - xy/2l 14). The last two lines go under the name of the Weyl commutation reta- tions (18). Through introduction of the < in the exponential map we are assuring that self-adjoint representations of w exponentiate to unitary representations of W. The matrix representation (2.1) yields the composition law of the abstract group elements g(x,y,z) ©W as 1 BX yo Fy 2419 (XpoUpezq) = Bey +X ge Uy tYge 2, t2yty (Y;Xo-Xp¥ql) (2.2a) c= 90,00) , glx,y,z)”! = gl-x,-y,-2). (2.26) Associativity clearly holds. Finally, # is the Lie algebra of W, since aGlx,y,z) /ax |= 6, () = 6(g""19). (2.40)22 In this rather trivial way, W becomes a Lie trqansfounation group on the differentiable manifold M = The general definition of a Lie transformation group is such that to each pair (p,g'), pM (a differentiable manifold), g'© G (a Lie group), there is assgciated an element pgi© M (which may be denoted and mean pg’ or g’~! according to convenience), such that a) de map is Ad b) Bee pe or (ey 5 °) tp 9 4189° Play a) or gy (9, pl = (9499) pe These axioms are the result of the group axioms when M is G itself, as above. But they also hold when M is a coset 4, if HCG, we consider the points of M to be the sets pl-Hg or pk =gH. There is a standard argument to show that any two of these sets are either disjoint or they coincide, and that they partition G. They are called M'= H\G (left cosets) or MR= G/H (right cosets) respectively. Legt cosets map into each other under the right action of the group, i. e. pls Hg 2-8) yigigte Hlga')= pli Right cosets map under the ce action of the group p= gh 2——> gi“! (gH) =(g"~Ig]H= r Consider our example G-W and Hg=(9(%,0,0) } ey Since G(X, 4,2 ~ pul = glx,0,0) gld,y,z), (2.5a) we may partition W into cosets by Hy letting g(x,0,0) range over Hg (i. e.x over R}: 5 Wr2)=(91%0,0) ey 91042) = (9lxet2 ~7 XM Ieq, (2.56) The manifold M = H)\W is then isomorphic to R2 and its representa- tive elenents may be labelled by gl0,y,z). The space of left cosets Ne may be subject to transformations through the right action of “W glx',y",z") (R) c5ly2) — ee lyyzlalx'y', 24) = (91X00) } ey 910,4,2) g(x',y',2") = (91,0, 0) eg IXY t yt, ZH ZT AY) — (2.50) £G1%,0,0) yey 91", 0,0) 910, yry?, ez" 45x" y! 4x’ y) = “5 (yty', zz + 7 xty'+ x'y).23 2.4 Transitive and effective action, The action of W on the right on M = H,\W given by (2.5c) is transitive and effective. We recall these “concepts. A group @ acts transitively on a manifold M when for any_two points p,pEM there exists ag ©G which maps p on p, i. e./p * pg. In our example above, given two cosets _ oply,2} and, cha, 9 the g EW which does the job is any g(x’, y-y™, Z-. xt Gayl), xt ER. A differentiable manifold where a Lie“group acts transitively is a homogeneous space for the group. Every coset space of a Lie group is homogeneous for it, and in fact, every homogeneous space is a coset space for these groups (19, Chapter I, Theorem 3.2). The isotopy group (also called stabélity or Little group) of any fixed point pM is the set of elements h © 1, CG such that Ph = P+ In the preyious paragraph, setting ¥ ‘and 2 = z, the isotropy group of og (y,z) © Hg\W is To(y,z) = t9(X',0,x' WI ER, The isotorpy group, quite clearly, may depend on the coordinates of p. In fact, if G is transitive over M, the leu groups of any two points in M are isomorphic and conjugate: The action of Gon M is said to be ogee if no ee tion in G are the identity leaves all of the points in M fixed. That is 9 ts {e} and is the case in the example(2.5c),. It would not havePbeett the case had we chosen.H7= (9(0,0,21}, @ p to define the coset space H,\W= W/Hy with cosets cz(x,y). There the non-abel- ianity of W would have béen completely fost as Hz would be the isotropy group for every coset ¢z(x,y). It is straightforward to show that a group G acts effectively on a coset space H\G if and on- ly if H does not contain a normal subgroup N of G. (A nogmal sub - group N gp. The physicists’ expertence with combagt groups, where the V are finite-dimensional, leads one to search for matrix representations which may be of infinite dimension, or for their generalizatigns as integral kernels. A finite-dimensional representation on V-R® is already provided by (2.1), although it is non-unitary. An appropiate Hilbert space may be constructed for functions of three, two or one variable on which we defined the action of W. Infinite-dimensional matrix representations may be obtained if we give a complete denumerable basis for the separable Hilbert space, tH ly) dng? and build the matrix o(g)= ||D.(g) || with gle ments Dani(g) "29(¥,¥ 14), the inner product being that of L”(R) and the group action givan by (2.7). Similarly, integral-kernel representations may be obtained through working with a Dirac-ortho- normal basis for the space, fxy(y)}, € where 4 is some index in- terval. There, the integral kernel5 are’o(g)= HOt) I with Dyrlgl= (xyoxyegl- The one-vafiable L2(R) space the is manifestly mapped onto26 itself by W, Its chgice is dictated oyer any other L?(a,6) by the fact that the group action (2.7) includes translations in the argu- ment Y, so that only spaces of periodic functions of period b-a may be contemplated, but the exponential factor e¢X'Y does not res- pect this periodicity over any finite interval. The Q-subgroup bas Let us start first with the integral-kernel representations afforded by the normalized Dirac eigenbasis of the ‘position’ opera- tor Q) , a) ei q xy) 1 tA en (2.10a) xyly) = ill? sta ay). (2.100) Then, the representation of W labelled by \ ©R in the @ -eigen- basis is a (9) rytz)) = (yr, Dag? iglxtay'sz')) (xq Xqrg! Rea ’ Pafetak gtgte xt dy xqly) xgr lyty lexplaalz'+y x'y!# x'y)] (2.11) 6 (q-q' + dy") exp <[Alz'+ + x'y')+ x'q]. The representation property holds: i da! OA9) 195) 0218) tap) = OS (9,99), (2.12) and 0*'2) (e)* 8(q-q') is the unit operator. The strong continuity of % (2.11), meaning the strong continuity of (2.7) is easily ascertained. The subgroup g(x',0,0) is represented by a ‘diagonal’ integral kernel (i. e. one with a factor of 6(q-q']). This represen- tation diagonalizes the subgroup generated by Q. A representation of the operators in the Lie algebra w and W through integral kernels may be obtained subjecting the integral kernel (2.11) to the limiting procedure in (2.8): Qe = 43,0 OND fale ys geg 29 Slang), (2.138) PE = day OND) (glx! y's geg 8" laa"), (2.136)27 tee 74d, on ot. = 6lq-q'). — (2.13c) These integral kernels represent the differential operators of the Sghr&dinger realization on the space of differentiable functions in L2(R], a space dense in the latter. 2.9 The P -subgroup ba A second generalized Dirac basis of 12(R) is provided by the generalized eigenfuctions of [P'"!in (2.9c): PMP ty) =p xh Wy we AER, (2.14a) M ty) = (2n)1/? eAPy, (2.14) The representation thus obtained is 2 lalx'sy",21) = (25 Rag) = 6 (p-p-ax') expéla(z'+ t xty') + pty") (2.15) i. sus kl a f. wf dq Wy XQ! Dag’ '9) Xr Xp It satisfies the representation property (2.12), and diagonalizes the subgroup g(0,y,0| pgenerated by P. The last ligegjn Eq. (2.15) shows that the D (g) are equivalent to the DO ™'(g) in (2.1 since they are bSGically the double Fourier tran{forms of the 0’ in (2.11), as (xt, G4) = (anal) 7!/2 e€P@/* is the Fourier trans- form kernel. The overlap coefficients between the two eigenbases (2.10) and (2.14) yield the tranformation kernel between the two re- presentations (2.11) and (2.15). We shall return to this point below when we comment on the unitarity and completeness of the represen- tation set. Meanwhile, let us produce further representations equive lent to the above ones. The Lie algebra representation obtained from (2.15) may be written as 10) aq (2) Ol te) 1) alPl be 4&5" (p-p'), Ppl po (p-p'), Tops which, again, is only the Fourier transform of the former. = d6(p-p') (2.16)28 2.10 The quantum free-fall nansubgroup ba Further generalized bases of wR), unrelated to subgroups of W may be produced as eigenbases of self-adjoint operators in the envel oping algebra of w. Quantum Mechanics has a large supply of such operators. Let us start with the free-fall Schrédinger Hamiltonian and its Dirac-orthonormal eigenfunctions: Hoarty) 04 pelt, gly aX(y) = ath (y) , a ER (2.178) 1/2) 1/3 1/3 ty) = (2hal ai(t2a)’!” (y a/2)), (2.176) where Ai(z) is the Airy function of the first kind (14, subsect. 9.5.3). Then, a calculation aided by the Fourier transform shows that on (g(x',y',z") iF amet F/2 jay x (2.18) x exp Drzt+ Fx! (ata!) + For - ped. Rather tediously, we can verify that the analogue of the representa- tion property (2.12) holds. Using Lim, 2/4 ane)? exp d(%/ta"e) = Jalsis), (2.19) e>0 we can show that (2.18) is indeed 6{a-a') for g=e , as well as some further properties which will be seen later. (If the powers of A throughout produce any distress, the reader may check that "units'' of A are properly given if the arguments of transcendental functions are to be dimensionless, while wavefunctions have units of (@enght)-1/2 and integral kernels of (Lenght)~!. The task of finding the Lie algebra of integral kernels now takes us to find through (2.19) and its derivatives with respect to 4, as in (2.13), the integral kernel representations: oe) - 7 a8" (ana!) +a6(a-a'), (2.20a) ple . 943 6! lew'l, (2.206) on a (2.20¢) aa29 Note that, indeed, pr att a = a S{a-a') (2.204) is a diagonal numbex integral kernel, as it ought to be from (2.17a). 2.11 The quantum harmonic oscillator basis. A most convenient denumerable orthonormal basis is provided by the eigenfunctions of the quantum harmonic oscillator Hamiltonian 2 2 Bvt = Fees ay iy = aloe D ety, (2.210) n = n 7. 2 eg = (anne ar |ag 2-1/2 ell? taf /2y) (2.216) In this basis we must calculate OM tgtxtyy?y2")) | dy ty) *e (yey!) exp lz" ty! yx I, (2.22a) mise may be done through multiplying (2.19) by glnen")/2 irq) 1/2, i | summing over n and n' so as to use the known generating Brune ions for the Hermite polynomials (16, Eq. 22.9.17), integrating, and finally using the generating function (3, Eq. (2.42) explabtac-bd) = oy > n=0 n=0 in order to separate powers of 4 and zt. Setting a= /2s, b=v2t (n-n') nyt’ RM pay (ed) a’ and c=(|A|/2) a (-y'+ix') = d* we obtain the result DUN gtx yty2t))= exp aléze Epa’ y' 2) nttynty'? x pai! payreaeryy Len Lite? + yh, (2,22b)30 valid for n >n' , Similarly, for a= v2, b= YZA and c= ([a}/2)!/? (ye exl= d* we obtain prlh) DE (gtx uty z= exp alee + Fret ey ty intinrty/? x (n'-n) x fal/an/? cyrece nytt Le) Laer tey! 2), (2.22) valid for no O,y>o0 4, * { yy { (2,24¢) 0,y<0 -y, 9 <0. The representation kernels are now 2 x 2 matrices (rows and cok ums labelled by o = ) with integral kernel elements. We must consi- der the four pieces (o =t,0'= +)for y’ 0 and y’ <0 separately. In constructing the kernels through inner products of (2.24b) we obtain integral representations for the confluent hypergeometric functions M (a,c,z) and Ula,c, z) (16, Eqs. 13.2.1 and 13.2.5): AU) ae : : Donor (2 Y'az'N) =t2a) '[ dy u(y) uy, 5, (yey) x x exp [éatzttx! y"/2 +x"y)l = (2n)Joxp Laalz'+ xty!/2] ee (xy), (2.25a) KA Unt, yh >a) = 01/2 - dphr) gitlor-Pl/d x U[T/2-€ o/A, 144 (p'-pi/a, -daxty"). (2.25b) Kae (gt >a) = = eMlPrPDIN Ax Y KH, xt, yt >), (2.25c) Ke (x1, y'< 9) = (xt, 9 > 0), (2.25d) per Pp, “8 Kesler, gt Daye = oMlPO'M% niajte gota) TN/2 - & e/a x x rll + élp!-p) AN “1 yilo'-p Ih x M(1/2- fr, 144 (0'-—) fA, -Ax'y'), (2.25e)tn maxtyt pnt K toyt 0), (2.25f) tt Rp (2.259) The 2 x 2 matrix is lower-triangular for y' > 0, and upper-trian- gular for y! <0 the first and second rows and columns are labelled by o = + and o= respectively). it should be interes- ting to verify that the group representation composition and inden- y properties hold for the integral kernel (2.25). Differentia- ting with respect to the group parameters should yield the integral x(D) pal) A(D) 2 ' one Fon a! a! and Toa, dia! * 26,41 5le-e ). These will constitute yet another form for the Heisenberg-Weyl algebra such that 1/2(QP+ PQ) js the number operator 6 _,pé(p-o'). Any self adjoint operator in L“(R) can be seen thus toRave associated to it an eigenbasis which determines a corresponding representation. The first two cases we gave had Q and P for number operators. These determine that the subgroups g(x,0,0) and g(0,y,0), respectively, be represented by purely diagonal, jptegral kernels. (¢.f. Eqs. (2.11) and (2.15), these are 4(q-q') e** 4 and é(p-p')e“P4 , and hence the corresponding representations are said to be reduced or classified according to a subgroup. The other three cases seen involve nonsubgroup bases, as the corresponding number operator was given by two Schr8dinger Hamil to- nians (2 and h cases) or by the dilatation generator ]J, In these cases, the representation is given by matrices/kernels which are not diagonal in any subgroup, as suggested by the absence of Dirac 6's in (2.18) and (2.25). They are truly integral kernel representations of the group. kernels for Q 3_Unitary irreducible representations. We now define and verify the unitarity and irreducibility of the representations obtained in (2.11) (Q), (2.14)(P), (2.18) (2) ,(2.22) (y) and (2.25) (0). In each of these cases we chose a basis for L4(R) through a self-adjoint operator and the bases are therefore orthonormal. The Heisenberg-Weyl alggbra generators are self-adjoint in their Schr&dinger realization in L*(R), and their exponentiated group operators representing (2.1) unétaty. A unitary operator (DJigl6=6, such that (J (a1 6, (Ig) h}= (4,4) in an orthonormal basis ts représented by a unitary matrix or integral kernel: r a -1))* 2 =( 0 2.26 uur (9) [ ry 19 Ny ( ) where uw ER for cases 9, P and £, uS{0,1,2,...} for case h and us (9,0), o=t, p ER for case D. For A real, this is indeed the case, manifestly, for cases P, Q and £. In the latter care has to33 be taken to define the phase of the parameters in g!(x!,y'z!] = gl-x',-y',~z'), The matrix for the h -case also satisfies (2.26) with both (2,24b) and (2,24c) pequired, The last case, D, can also be seen from (2.25) using the pairs (6,d), (c,d) and ({,g) which correspond under the adjunction of the 2x 2 matrix. In all of these matrices no block-decomposition occurs and the rgpresentat ions are in fact irreducible. This is to be expected, as L“(R) itself is irreducible under (2.7). 2.14 Equivalence of representations. | By equivalence of two representations 2!) (a) ana 0!) (g} of 3 group G, associated to given number operators H(/) and H + we mean that there exist (fixed) invertible transformations C of L“(R] such that the two representations are mapped into each other as dl4lig) 2c 1g) oo? , vge G, (2.278) f 4 cat : (2.27) al igi=t otal t,o ig volZligit, where the set of values which wu can take is the generalized spec trum of H!") in L2(R),and p in that of H!2) in L2(R): wl) gy ot (2) 6 p(t) gl o VoL Gop {ali (227) eH!) ul2) © @ then C in (2.27c) is a (possibly exterior) automorphism of the algebra, mapping one subgroup basis into another subgroup basis. An example is provided by the two subgroup represen- tations denoted by Q and P , as we shall see below. If the H) are self-adjoint and have the same spectrum, C will be a unitary transformation of L2(R), i.e. C! = Ct. this is the for the transformation connecting the Q ang P ‘representations (R} the Fourier transform- which in fact maps L unitarily onto it- self. There C*(q,p)= (2n)7!/2 explipq/a} is the transformation kernel. The Q- and L-representations werg defined through eigen bases of the operators Q in (2.10a) and H* in (2.17a), and have the same spectrum. The transformation kernel C is then 2 ae c = . wa “Karty! i. e. the Aipy transform (14, Sect. 8.5.3), which as expected is ary in L4(R). This is a point transformation, where to the op- erator representing 9 we niay add any function of its canonically conjugate P, as 9>Q+ 6(P], while leaving P invariant. Thus pir’? a taal, (2.28)35 ars JH) = afe pe Lf dg’ 2tHla,pl-vla/? q. The angle variable is (26, p. 292) -with a minus sign- w (H,T) = - (aH/aJ)T. (2.316) One can depart slightly from the usual notation: Since q, are the libration endpoints where V(q,) = H (while otherwise ~ H (q,p). The first observation is that even in classical mechanics, this transformation is generally not bijec~ tive, i. e. the classical phase space motion may be subject to a group of transformations which leave the action-angle variables in~ variant, as the projection of the Riemann surface for a multivalued function over the complex plane, under exchange of sheets. This ambiguity group A is therefore an object which appears already in classical mechanics. Quantizing the system now means replacing q and p for self-adjoint operators and in soe appropiate representation, say, the Schrédinger ee on PPR while q and p are replaced by operators @Q and Pp ... in what space? If we have constra g potentials giving rise to a closed classi- cal orbit in phase space and were to propose simply L“(R), the spec- trum of_{) would be lower-bound and discrete. In what space may we define Q such that its spectrum be R, as it is for) ? This is of interest since we desire that the quantum canonical transforma- tion be unitary. As we have also the ambiguity group, we may build a space L2(R,A) = De, L2 R} consisting of the ordinary L2(R) summed with itself ofce for Qvery element g of the ambiguity group, 0 as to obtain discrete and perhaps infinite matrices with integral kernel elements. This is the space where Q may act so as to have R for its,spectrum, and here the canonical transformation to the original L2(R) may be bijective and unitary. The space LP(B,A) is then classified in a way where linear com- binations of the L°(R) spaces are taken so as to build the unitary irreducible repres@ntations of the ambiguity group A; in this way one defines an ambiguity Spin. Some lower-bound discrete spectra allow for a dihedral ambiguity group of rotations by multiples of the period,and inversions. The corresponding ambiguity spin is a pair of numbers: a continuous one x © [0,1] and a sign oc. The space L2 is thus written as cits 2s 12. (Ri. The operators Q found of Moshinsky and Seligman (33) were such that they are a sum of a Hamiltonian operator with a lower bound and discrete spectrum, témes the sign o plus the representa~ tion index «. In all, thus, the spectrum of Q is R. Transform kernels are found which represent the above quantum canonical trans- formation. 2.18 Quantum mechanics on a continuous compact space There are other approaches to the problem of making the Hamil- tonian of a contraining quantum potential to fit into a Heisenberg- Weyl algebra (3, Refs. 138-154). One of them follows a suggestion by Weyl (36) introducing a mixed group W™ (3, Sect. VI): It is a proper subgroup of W with the composition rule (2.2), and defined through37 w = {9 (mzl © W] x= nM, ny a 2 (2.33) y =y mod L3 z= z mod L/2M }. It is a Lie group of transformations on the circle as in (2.7), where X is a discrete group coordinate for the subgroup elements Ho while the subgroup manifold of Hp is a circle. For the latter, the infinitessimal generator |P fay has, discrete eigenvalues P*MPo, Mt, © 2, pg = 2u/L. The former group Hy does not have an infinitesBimal generator. It has a gcnite genePator instead: multi- plication by e(¥ . The eigenvalues of the Hy generator are similar- ly quantized to A=, ron, © Z, Ag= 4nM/L = 2 Pg M. In this model for Quantum mechanics on compact spaces one way work with a properly defined enveloping algebra, implement quantization procedures, clas- sical limits and canonical transformations. Furthermore, as will be brought out in Chapter 3, in connection with the 2+] Lorentz group, one can define a nonlocal inner product on the circle so that the operator -4d/dy have a lower-bound spectrum (37). On the other hand, one does not have a self-adjoint 'posi:ion’ operator, and has in effect quantized on the Lorentz group level. 2.19 Left-_and right-invariant Haar measure. Having gained familiarity with the Heisenberg-Wey! algebra and group, we may state what a noncompact group is, and what its repre- sentations are like (20, Sect. 2.3). Consider a Lie group G with a finite number D of continuous parameters (Xp}P.;, XR CR, and functions §(X) over G. A pos- itive Radon measure is a positive linear form ald) Sf ssirsior f w(KAX4IK) > 0 (2.34) on the space C* (G) of continuous nonnegative functions { on G with support on a finite-radius sphere. The Left (resp. right) invariant Haar measure is a positive Radon measure which is left (resp. right) invariant under the group action (2.4): vig) = ult shy) (resp. vRi6) = u®ig8,1 1, for all g! €G. A theorem may be prove (38, Sect. IV-15): E¥ery Lie group has a unéque left (and right) invariant Haar measure, up to mu tiplication by positive constants. If we fix the multiplicative constant, we may define the vol- ume of the group G, vol G, to be the limit of the sequence of values of (2.34) when 4 is taken as a sequence of characteristic functions over any nested growing sequence of group subsets. This is (2.34) for §(g)=1 when it exists. If the volume of G is a finite number, the group is said to be compact. If it is not finite, the38 group is said to he noncompact. Let u4(§) be a given left Haar measure. We can produce a new left Haar measure through acting on the Aight of the argument with a fixed group element: ud (§) = u!(g® ). But since right and left actions commute, t.e. 9 (6 yh (gh? gig' Fog (6ts)® igh, it follows that we (gh Je ube ele wlla® ye uk (41, so ub is Go 3" Io 3" Hoe eee Io also a left-invariant measure. By the uniqueness theorem, we con- clude that “4 (6) = Blgglub(g), i.e. ut may at most differ by a go constant A(g,] from ut. 2.20 Unimodular group: A modufar function over G_ is a positive function A:_G—> r such that 4(gg’) = A(g)A(g'). This implies A(e)=1 and alg ')=1/A(g). The constantsA(g,) seen above are modular functions, as can be veri- fied acting with two elements from the right on the left-invariant measure. If A(g,)=1 for all gg&G, then the left-invariant Haar measure is also Invariant under right action, so that the left- and right-invariant measures are the same. Such groups are called uni- modular. The difference between right and left Haar measures never ap- pears in compact group theory: Every compact group is unimodular. Proof: If G is compact, §(X)=1 is in C\(G) and we may normalize uy through asking for ufl)=1. The modular function of the group is then A(g)= A(g)u(T)=u(To)=ulT)=1. Abelian groups -cofpact or noncompact- are unimodular, since their left and right actions are the same. Noncompact groups may be non-unimodular, an example of this is the two-parameter solvable group of linear transformations x ——> x! = a,x#a@, seen in (39, p- 316). Noncompact groups which ate unimodular are the followin (a) all abelian groups, (b) all semisimple groups, (c) all connected nilpotent groups -as the Heisenberg-Wey] group, (d) Lie groups for which the range of values of modular functions is compact. (e) di- rect products of unimodular groups. 2.21 The Haar measure and weight functions. When the composition functions for the parameters of a group, are known, it is not difficult to build a weight function for a left- invariant Haar measure. Right-invariant Haar measyres are very simi lar and will be given below. We require uh({)= u-(f") in (2.34). This implies 5g dué(g) $(g7'g)= i 0 0 LL u 65, du'(g.g)gigl= uilg). — (2.35a) Since g G =G, we need dut(g g)=dué(g) for all g €G. If the coordi- nates of g are X and those’of g’=g,g are X' then the weight func- tion and parameter volume element must satisfy39 aX" (g59(X)) whK@X = whiX X= al (Xd (—ae—) PK (2.350) where J(2-/3*)= J(gg,X)_is the transformation Jacobian. If the group identity is at X=Q so that g(Q)=e, and w (Q) ig a fixed num- ber, (2.35b) gives us the appropiate weight function w (X') at g! 8X" (g,9(X)) 7 X" (9,9 (X ] (2-36) ahi) = 0) [J ae] k-0 This is the left-invariant weight function for the parameter volume element at g'=g,, where the parameters are X' and which is invariant under left group translation. A similar argument for right-invariant integration, measures and Jacobian leads to R R aX" (g(X)g) yy = Ro [J 1 | (2.368) X-0 as the appropiate right-invariant weight function at g'=g"! where the parameters are X'. . The measure_(2.35) is also invariant under the inversion involu- tion g! ——* g' of the group manifold, (20, p. 69, Prop. 3). The Heisenberg-Wey! group W, being connected and nilponent, is unimodular. Hence, right and left invariant measures are the same. The Jacobian in (2.36) may be computed from the group composi functions (2.2) for g'(X')=gg(Xo)g(X) and g"(X") =g(X)9q(Xg) + Xt XY HUot yy t'=Z_ + zH(Yx - Xpy)/2 (2.37a) xt ny = Maze - - : vty z-2,- (ye,- wf? . 42-970) The Jacobians have I's on the diagonal and are triangular, therefore the determinants are unity. Normalizing w(Q))= 1, the invariant Haar measure for W is du(X) = dx dy dz. (2.38) The Helsenberg-Wey! group Is very close to the abelian R° space. The ‘twist’ which makes the third parameter compose in a non-abelian way, is relatively minor. 2.22 Completeness of a set of representations. We would like to insist on the distinction between a representa~ tion and its subgroup (or nonsubgroup) reduction. Different examples of the latter have been given in the first part of this Chapter, and40 refer to the row-column classification through the choice of basis for the homogeneous space of the group. Since we saw they are all unitarily equivalent, we can refer, to any one fixed classification through a given basis in writing D\y1(g). The (in general, collec- tive) indices % and 'are eigenvalues of a (maximal set of mutually commuting) operator(s) in the right- and left-action enveloping algebra of the group, and self-adjoint under the inner proguct defi- ned by the Haar measure over G (i.e. in a Hilbert space L“(G)). The eigenvalues may be discrete, continuous or mixed,and their range is assumed to resolve degeneracy completely. These representations compose as (2.23) in the discrete case, and as (2.12) in the contin- uous one. We shall write vee for Dees or Sd... The represen- tation index 2 (which in‘general if a collective index) is usually given as eigenvalue(s) of a (maximal set of algebraically independent) right and left invariant operator(s) in the centre of the enveloping algebra, self-adjoint in L*(G). The range of the (generally .col lgc~ tive) representation index A(A={A,,Ag,+++,Ay}) is a subset G of R. In benign cases it is a measurable space, and a Planchere£ measure and weight function do(A)=v(A)dd exists. For W , the centre of the enveloping algebras (2.9a) and (2.9b) ig WIRD e. is I Casimir operator. The eigenvalue of tion label AER. The difficulty in treating the representations of noncompact groups vis-a-vis the same task for compact groups is the same as that of Fourier integral transforms over Fourier series. The space being noncompact in the former case will allow continuous spectra for cer- tain operators whose eigenvectors are normalizable only in the Dirac sense. Casimir operators may also have mixed (continuous and dis- crete) spectra. In the W case, the difficulties will be handled through Fourier transform techniques. In general one has to invoke rigged Hilbert spaces (20, Chapter 14) and pay close attention to functional analysis arguments (40, 41). The problem for compact group are less, as there all unitary representations are finite di- mensional and representations come in discrete series. 4a/oz = - T!4), so this generator takes the place of the (3/3z provides the representa- 2.23 The orthogonality and completeness relations for the unitar reducible representation matrix elements. For unimodular groups (with some mild conditions), we can gener- ajly assert that the unitary irreducible representation matrices Di»: (9) are a generalized orthonormal set of functions over 6, under the inner product of L“(G) given by the invariant Haar integral. We denote the latter through S = fgdulgl--, in order to include the finite and compact cases in our formulae. We may write a at = » ey (ave Peigrede “Se (Phys tal” nla aC No (2.39) G yny where 6 means a collective Kronecker delta in discrete indices, (which may’ bs generalized to a Dirac 6's over a continuous pair), 6,(A,A'] should play the role of the Kronecker or Dirac 6's for Aja! EG, (G being endowed with a Plancherel measure and weight func- tion do(A)= v(A)d (A). Equation (2.39) is not hard to prove through integration by parts with the operators which determine the represen- tation and row/column labels. Most interesting is the statement that the ot (a) are, moreover, complete in the L2(G) Hilbert space with inner product (+,*)4. This means that we may define an inner pro- duct in G through an integration as Sg dp(X).., which may contain x a sum, if the Plancherel measure is a point measure in some domain We have (Dlg,), D (apg = Ss Tr (D*(a,F Dag) (9)+59) » (2,40a) where the trace of a product of matrices is Te NW = Do hall» (2.400) For integral kernels an integral over % and, 4' is used. Equation (2.40a) defines an inner product between matrix or integral kernel functions over 4 © G. The completion of this space of func- tions with finite norm defines a Hilbert space L(G). The 86(9 499) is a Kronecker or Dirac delta for discrete or continuous groups: Sgl9y25q)=0 for g, # 92, and under sum or integration, it satisfies Ss élgldgla,g") = g{9") (2.41a) for any continuous function (g). Similarly, 6,(A,A"] is such that G S Fe) 60,09 = Fa) (2.41b) ASG c for continuous matrices or integral kernel functions F of 4 ©G. The defining properties (2.41) imply a relation between weight functions42 and 6's, as wlGIXI)6gl9(KI,9IX')) = XX, (2.42a) va) 6, (A,A") = Sfa-a'). (2.42b) G In the case of compact groups the Plancherel measure is a point measure and S,-*"= ¥ dim(x)/vol G+ where dim(4) is the dimension of the A unitSr irreducible representation, and vol G is the volume of the group. The corresponding &, is thus a Kronecker 6&,(,A') = 8,1 VO! G/dim(r). G G For compact groups, the Peter-Weyl theorem (20, Sect. 7.2, 42) supports the proof of (2.39)-(2.40). For finite groups this can be found in (39, Eqs. (3.143), completeness appears only as (3.178)). The general case of unimodular noncompact groups appears and is re- ferenced to in Barut and Raczka's book (20, Chapter 14). 4 The Heisenberg-Weyl case. We return to our example W and choose for simplicity the Q -eigenbasis where D> (g(x,y,z)) is given by (2.11). The Haar mea- sure is given by (2.9438) with unit weight function and hence 6g in (2.42a) is an ordinary Dirac 6 in x, y and z. We do not yet know the unitary irreducible representation space WW, but since 4 €R, we want to determine if R is or acts as the full representation space. To this end we have avail to (2.39). If R were not WW, we would not get a Dirac 6 in this variable. We perform fof af (5 q-q'+rylexp < [Al z+xy/2)+xql }* x x{6(qt-q ta%y) exp < Ed" (ztxy/2) #xq a pr eq" ,Par a(jada' | big-a'/a sears f dz exp i[(a-r')z] x x [ dx exp [(-< x} ((a'~a} (q"- a") /2a4(q-q") 1 = (2.43) = 4n2|a]7"5(a-a") 8(q-a")6(q'-q"") = 85 (aer"16lara"lslat-a™ | - So we do, indeed, obtain a Dirac 6. From (2.42b), the Plancherel measure for W is43 dotal= ([al/4n2] dh, AER. (2.44) Completeness is verified as ae a et (Dlay), Dag) y = (4x?) [nda fda fda" 0% 44) 0%, glap) R Re = 8(x7-Xp)8(Yy-Yo) 61Z4-Zp) = Syl9y499)- (2.45) The orthogonality and completeness relations (2.43) and (2.45) are valid whatever subgroup or nonsubgroup row/column classification we choose. Hence, orthogonality and completeness relations similar to these follow not only for (2.11), but for (2.15), (2.18), (2.22) and (2.25). 2.25 Harmo Having the complete and orthonormal generalized basis Din (g) over G allows us to perform hatmonic analysis over the manifold G, expressing any function within a wide class £(g) over G , through a series or integral over these functions, as ie S © tor i, (2.46a) r1€6 an! c¢ anal The 'linear combination coefficients! Ken ttl cn be obtained through Performing the G -inner product of (2.46a) with po $ $2 : 3 with > 2 and using (2.39) so as to obtain i yin (g), exchanging 612 § 69) Ota. (2.46) ne 6 vue We can think of F(A) as a matrix- or integral-kernel-valued function on G and write (2.46) as sla) = S TrtDiglF 1 = Dio .F I. , (2.47) 1€G 9 : ‘ Fil = S (9) DMa) =D, Fig, (2.476) 9644 Finally, the Parseval relation FeHlg= S 6lal'Atal- oe (2,48) . -. oF a = SY by Ry Od = & TRtFouko eA 1B! 1G 6, holds, telling us, that the harmonic transform (2.47) is unitary be- tween L(G) and L7(6). The subject of orthogonal and complete sets of functions over G and 6 spaces extends to all coset spaces H\G or G/H together _ with right- or left-invariant measures on these, and a corresponding reduction in the row- and column-indices (43). It also extends to other, more general equivalence sets on the group called bilateral classes (44). Rather than delve on the general theory, we shall give some results for the 2+1 Lorentz group in the next Chapter.CHAPTER 3: A FURTHER EXAMPLE. In this Chapter we shall present in some detail the case of the semisimple noncompact Lie group of lowest dimension. In the former two Chapters we dealt with the Heisenberg-Wey! group, which was ‘as abelian as possible’: Only one of the three commutators in the alge- bra was nonzero. Now we work on the ‘least abelian’ of three-para- meter groups: The 21 Lorentz group $0(2,1) and its covering group SL R) . The 2#1 Lorentz group has many resemblances as well as definite differences with the three-dimensional rotation group $0(3), which is probably most familiar for physicists who have worked with quantum mechanical systems such as atoms and nuclei. We shall find all irre- ducible unitary representations of the algebra and covering group. We then realize both the algebra and the group on a coset space rela~ ted to the Iwasawa decomposition: the circle, and functions and dif- ferential cperators thereupon. As a final development, we find the in general nonlocal measure defining Hilbert spaces of functions on the circle, for the various representation series. The S0(2,1) group and algebra. Consider a three-dingns ignal gpace,? with metric (4,-,-), where the distance is d= xp - x; - x5. This is invariant under the '2+1' Lorentz transformations. These transformations are repre- sented by (pseudo-) rotations around each of the three axes, co. 0 ee exp liv Jf lef 0 chy shy} @ Jo =| 0 0 -<], (3.12) 0 shy chy @ -t 8. chy 0 Shy © @~< exp ix Jp l={ 0 1 0 ~ 3 =( 0 0 of, (3.16) shy 0 chy -i 0 os -bind 0 ¢ ai ¢ exp (4b Jy 14 5énb coad 0 J -[¢ @ ¢) BW 0 e _ ee We have expressed the rotation around the k*" axis as explé a J?) in order to produce a 3x3 representation of the associated Lie algebra. The distance is also invariant under the inversions Xp -X9 and X1 & -X,3 these compound (in semidirect product) with (3.1). We shall not consider them in what follows, as we are interested primarily in46 reaching every element with a Lie generator, and they lie in group components not connected to the identity. From (3.1) we define the 3x3 faithful group representation of the 2+1 Lorentz group as 6° (a, 8,1) = exp (éaJ9) exp (489) exp lay9) , (3.2a) a =a mod 2x, y =ymod 21, BER, (3.2b) thereby parametrizing it through the Euler angles a,8,y adapted for the nonpositive metric. The matrices have unit determinant while the generatorsJ/ are all traceless. The abstract Lorentz group composition law is obtained from the composition law of the matrix representation (3.2) in the same way as done for the Heisenberg-Weyl group in (2.1)-(2.2). The matrices (3.2) are '2+1' pseudo-orthogonal, e. orthogonal with respect to the Lorentz metric L as “10 0 @Le™ = L : L-[ 0-1 0 be (3.3a) We call this group, Special (i.e. of unit determinant) Orthogonal group in 2+1 real dimensions: S0(2,1). The fact that no isochorous space-time inversions are included is usually denoted through a zero subscript, but we shall omit it understanding that we deal with the connected Lie group only. Correspondingly, the algebra representation matrices are pseudo- skew-symmetric: i PEt. hel, 2, 0, (3.3) and satisfy the $0(2,1) algebra give by (I,,Jg]- “yy (Jg,Jgl= 4 J}, (JpJyle 4 Jy. (3.4) Notice the minus sign in the first commutator: The ordinary three- dimensional rotation group algebra so(3) has a plus sign in its stead. one cannot bring so(3) to (3.4), no matter how we redefine ge- nerator signs, unless, of course, we introduce i's (J+J, , Jy >J)i but as we work with real groups, its representation structure fould be readically changed. 3.2 The SU(1,1) algebra and group. We are familiar with Pauli matrices, so we may look for another representation of the Lie algebra so(2,1) in (3.4) through 2x2 matri- ces. Indeed, we can associate the representation47 fa 1 chy/2 —éshy/2 ojo tL « iy J) = Fy > sy Z ( :) explains) = (tie chp/2 3.5a) 1 chy/2 bhy/2 itt vy (My 2 Jg> bp i> exploxdo) = (coe ee), (3.50) ae ue Jy * JG of, 1) expléosg)= (; ait). The matrices to the right define a matrix group (3.50) GH (8,8, Y= expl G°la.8yy) An alternative parametrization of the SU(1,1) group which is sometimes preferable to the Euler angles in (3.6) is found through demanding (3.7a) for any 2x2 complex matrix. This leads to noe GYin,0) = (: °), (3.8a) In|?-Jo|? = 1, nO EC. (3.8)48 In this parametrization, the SU(1,J) manifold is a twordimensional complex hyperboloid. The ralation between. the Euler angle parame- ters in (3.6) and the parameters in (3.8) favoured by Bargmann (23, Sect. 3b) is easily found (reinterpreted by Sally: 45, p. 3) as etlo-v/2 snaye, (3.8) oe 3.3 The group SL(2,R). Another parametrization of SU(1,1) is obtained through a sim- ilarity transformation of (3.8) as lab 1-1 1 -1\-1 GS(a,6, 0) (: ). Z ) sti 4 ) - Re n- ReO@ -Imn+ime “\im n+ Imo Re n.tRe Of, (3.9a) ad-be=1, a,b,0,d ER. (3.9) The corresponding 2x2 algebra representation is ee : - che/2 sh¥/2 J #(j i) % exp (ex) = (re chv/2 ), (3.10a) erx/2 9 BF ( 4) exp laxlg) = (, otf, (3.108) So og, ( cost/2 sinb/2 Wore € at exp (aap) “(ait cosd/2 (3.10¢) In this form, two further group isomorphisms are displayed: Since GS{a,b,c) is the most general unimodular (unit determinant) 2x2 real matrix, the group represented here is clearly SL(2,R). The 2x2 unimodular real matrices (3.10) have the further pro- perty: eee Gan) where S is the symplectic metric matrix. The relation (3,11) defi- nes the two-dimensional real symplectic group Sp(2,R). This group and its 2N -dimensional versions Sp(2N,R) are important as dynamical groups -rather, algebras- for the N dimensional harmonic oscillator.49 3.4 The covering group SL(2,R). 7 1:1 We saw $0(2,1) “© su(1,1) ue SL(2,R) “x Sp(2,R). What are their connectivity properties? A convenient handle is provided by the complex hyperboloid in the n-@ plane of SU(1,1). Although we need four digensiong, we can Igok at the surface described by (Ren) 2+(1mn) @-(Reo) 4=1 + (1mo)2. For fixed Im 0=0, the remaining three parameters are constrained to a one-sheeted equilateral hyper- boloid with a circular waist in the (Re n, Imn) plane. The group unit g“(1,0) is on that waist. As we let Im 0 range over R, the outside! of the hyperboloid fills. The group manifold of g-(n,9) is thus the full 0 complex pane, times the n complex punctured by a round hole of radius 1+#|0|* . We may surround that hole any number of times describing a path which may not be continuously deformed to a vanishing loop. The argument of n increases, but whether or not an increase by 2m is considered to bring us back to the starting point depends on the number of distinct Riemann sheets we provide for g4(n,o) in n. The simply connected universal covering group of SU(1,1)* * SL(2,R) * Sp(2,R), denoted by SL(2,R), is that where the argument of n may take any real value without repeating any group element. A convenient parametrization for SL(2,R) is provided by (3.5)- (3.8) with new parameters as : ee a ame 2_,)-1/2 3.12a GY (yo) = (fy|*1) ee ee yec, lyf-u2 su. The maximum of -u2*y occurs at y/=F1/2 and has a value of 1/4; so recalling (3.185) for q > 1/4, tha’fepre- sentation k= 1/2 +4p,o # 0 contains all values of u-m+e,m€Z, for any fixed « © (-1/2, 1/2]. The conditions q >-u2 ¥ uy = 1/4 = (Yay)? may be satisfied52 also for a subset of ¢ © (1/2,1/2] such that the maximum of the right-hand side does not fall in the u-content of the representation: If uz m+ ec, the points falling nearest to the maxima umqy-F1/2 do so at a distance U-imy= 1/2 - le] from it, so that only q>|el(1-le|) 20 is ™féquired. For any fixed q in (0, 1/4], thus, we can find a range of © in (-1/2,1/2] which allows for unbounded values of up . Writing q= k(I-k) , adding -1/4 to both sides of the inequality to complete squares, the condition on © for fixed real k is given by |k-1/2|< 1/2-|e|. In particular, for k=0 alle but e = 1/2 allow for the unbounded range of u . Bargmann (23, see also 45) considers only SU(1,1) representay- tions: C&*" the principal (integer) series for 1/4 1/2i. e. k © [-»,0)U (1,%), where q<0. In those intervals, the distance between u, and uy is larger than 1, sono e can be chosen such that the sequence u=e+m, m€z avoids falling in the negative- |c|“ region unless falls on the boundary zeros. The row index u will then have an upper or lower bpupd. For, consider what happens when f_ acts on the ‘Jouest state! dX" | > ='k: It gives zero since ¢ = 0 , hence @f.7 does not bélong to the irregugible eigenfuncttBa set of the algebra, which consists then of {6} The same statement holds for &", up =~ k +1, and Bally Feflects the inversion symme- try under kUZ@7 5 ky Correspongiggly, for J, , the representation must contain a ‘highest state’ 6°%', uy = k- 1 which the raising operator wil} turn to zero. The 2 irreducible eigenfunction set will then be (ohm } , and the analogue statement holds for aa! ' "these lower- and upper-bound representations were called 'Dis- crete’ series D, and D, by Bargmann (23). Since he worked with su(1,1), he allowed only for integer or half-integer values in the spectrum fu} of lj , so was only allowed to be an integer or half-integer. Here, it may be any real number. When |k - 1/2| < 1/2 i. e. k€ (0,1), @ covers the interval (0,1/4) twice, and the point q = 1/4 once (corresponding to k = 1/2). In this interval, the distance between uj and u5 is less than 1, so that the sequence y =e +m, m@Z may ‘jump! the forbidden range of u . This constitutes the exceptional interval of the con- tinuous series seen in the last Section. Again, lower- and upper- bound representations occur when the lowest yu falls on uy or up andImk FIGURES 1 S1(2,R). (a) as function *% of real q. (b) as function of complex k for q=k(I-k). Shaded regions correspond to allowed self-adjoint representations. Dashed lines indicate that the region does not in- clude the boundary. The parallel boundaries at ¢ =-1/2 are to by ig gti ied. Heavy lines indicate Bargmann's continuous series C_ and cit : q The continuous C° irreducible representation series of54 FIGURES 2 (a) the zeros of |ot 12, (b) the zeros of |e, fe Shaded regions correspond to negative Values of these quantitieS'which must be excluded from the range of u.55 the highest on ut or nf . We can make use of the inversion symmetry k@1-k inorder to“ascribe the lowest ) of the lower-bound rep- resentation to u, = k, for k € (0,1) and, correspondingly, the ghest uy of the upper-bound representation to wy = - k for k (0,1). The points k= 1 and k = 0, both mapping on q = 0 deserve special attention. The first, k = 1,,is on par with the neighbouring points along k, it correspondsto 0] containing u= +(1+m),m=0,1,2,...- The point k = 0, however, is ynique: It lies in the origin of Figs. 2a and 2b, on zeros of both Cy, and c,,. In consequence, JI, = 0, and so the eigenfunction ¢, is the basis for the one-dimensional tri- vial representation of the algebra by zero. As a representation for the group, 69 constitutes the trivial one-dimensional unitary repre- sentation. In summary, the lower- and upper-bound self-adjoint representa- tions-of 51(2,R) are Dy , k > 0 containing the eigenfunctions $, of Wy and C for u = #(kbn), m=0,1,2, If k € (0,1) we can write ue tm as for the continuous series, but keeping the congruence interval of «¢ to be [-1/2,1/2]. The discrete series provide the boundaries of the open regions of the exceptional interval in Figs. la and 1b. In particular, the CY series convers,the interval q > je point q = 0 belongs yto the fiscrete series Dj and to the trivial - Similarly, the C1’* serigs covers the interval q > 1/4, while the point q = 1/4 belokgs to 049. For 0 we can give the generator matrix elements u sp le fe, k, ke | gk fe JF Em Uglmmt = ne Ly Omve!, j21,2,0, of #0, (3.22) as (Uperes = by gle # ml = by ge wl, (3.23a)56 + FIGURE 3. Discrete Dy and continuous C® irreducible representation series. 4ol Im k Im k 0 Co aoa c, O tan 5 = ~ abgtddy * Ty ~B) tans/Z , (3.29a) x eX + oX' = (cagtdog)? + (ebgtddy) ? & cos? (HI lagtan $ - og)* + (dy-bytan $17). (3.296) 3.14 s1(2,) algebras of differential operators. Global transformations will be futher analyzed below; here we are interested in infinitessimal transformations which in 3 x 3 ma~ trix form (3.10) appear as 1 1 ‘ay b, I-z 6 (5,4+6)) 99). 1 +2 15,78 +6,7545,95) + 082) -(,7 2 2 1 o C9 4 tay 2010.0 tis a.) tela 2 iO Coe (3.30a) On a dense subspace of the space of functions (3,28a) on the coset space M = P\ SL(2,R), they are given by 6x1") = LTS pH 8g + 59 THF HO (S11 6(x,61, (3.300) where te , k20,1,2 will be first-order differential operators in x and “@ . Replacement of (3.30a) in (3.29), Taylor expansion and collection of §,'s allows us to find them: A} = dcostay + sinba,), (3.31a) uf = ilsinbay ~ cos69,), (3.310)62 M : ty 74 (3.31¢) They satisfy the commutation relations (3.4). Prom here we can find the raising and lowering operators (3.13) as Gt eae alps ce# ay - a, (3.328) Me te . Gre Oi) - A, ee lay + 20,1. (3.32b) Most important, we find the Casimir operator (3.14) in this realiza- tion to be 2 2 2 Cat ap a =~ alta). (3.33) 0 One can see the special feature of the Iwasawa decomposifion (3.27a) and the parabolic coset space M=P\SL(2,R): That J[p is a differential operator in @ and” in yx, . Functions on M~ belong- ing. to a Given eigenvalue k{1-k) under @° can be characterized through & bo) = eo ™ G16). (3.34) On these spaces of functions, 3, may be replaced by -k, so as to obtain from (3.31) and (3.32), ee ee a) (3.35a) a = day - (3.35b) This is the s1(2,R) algebra realization employed by Bargmann (23). Equation (3.34) will be used below to examine the global action of SL(2,R) on this space of functions. 3.15 Basis functions on the circle. In Bargmann's realization, the normalized eigenfunct igng oe in Eq. (3.16) are proportional to the exponential functions 2+?. “The eigenvalue we saw, must range in integer steps y=ctm,m=0,1,2, passing through e(for Cy) or starting from ajyplue use, for svecified in Eqs. (3.24) so that etud = 2% We let @ range on the unit circle S,(i.e. $=$ mod?) and write the(possibly multivalued) function £(¢) ona space associated with Rk and e as fle) = of SUI g gine (3.368)where we are indicating the sum over the proper u-set as {h}_@ + © >: : >: : © to . = [ for Chik)! = [for 0, , withe = 4k]. (3.36b) 7 mo = The possible multivaluation will not be a problem when calculating inner products ~ with a measure stil] go be found- , as any sesqui~ linear inner product involving ,(g®)" and 82? with uzzctm) and ug=etmg will cancel out the e“*” factors, or otherwise render them innocuous. We have not yet written down the nofmalé: ation constants for the eigenfunctions. If we asqyge that L“(Sj;] is the proper space, these constants will be (2m) for all m. But we may have other spaces. In general their normalization will be prescribed by the condition (3.19)-(3.21). k We may fix ghe normalization of $ for u,=e and from this ob- tain all other $-,,, » with € and m ra ging as in (3.36), through ascending or descending by means of tr : (a Lem otter of. ELEN! 8 161 = mls ke - [ TT ey en] Care (le (3.37a) ne : We have the realization (3.35a) for Ji!" and #16) =" o“*, hence m-1 ot (0) = Ke [ 1 Siycen] | Lie (age cee? 7 m-1 ‘ ‘ [ fae | (erty cot agecny MTetlett16 ie 1 ce | py een | etleamis © | n=0 cp peen (3.376) ce bt 1 ett [1/2 dleeme © Nesm eine (TR) © n=0 where nt is the product of the inyerse of the Shy in °°" (3.21) for u=e,etl,...,c4(n-1). We shall not need a definite phase convention in these notes. It should only be noted that phases can be arranged so that the ¥¢,,-1, that is, that the raising and lowering operators have purely pésitive matrix matrix elements. This is the phase definition followed in (23, Sect. 6d) and known as Bargmann's convention. + hases f th pl Ypy Of the 6364, We use the Pochhammer product symbol m-1 T] (atm) = afatt)---(atm-1)=(a),,* Plat) /P (a), (3.37¢) m-1 [] (o-n) = b(b-m+l),, = P(b+7)/T(b+I-m), (3.374) i so as to write (3.37b) in the form hk oe gfletm) ¢ Seam (0) = Kerem (3.38a) be [mn 11/2 [rrestae) rfertetm | 1/2 one = : P(t-ee) 7 (teterm) |1/? ‘tm | (1-kEe}m Tletk) Tle+t-REm) “lrlkte)— TU1-kee+m) (3.38b) We now examine the characteristics of the oft square root fac~ tor for the various representation series. We refer to (3.24) (3.36) for notation and index ranges. For the principal series C- in the nonexceptional interval, k=1/2+p, pER and hence the ratio‘of func- tions of the form y(T-b) /y(k) #y(1/2-d0) /y( 1/2440) has absolute value unity. Thus ch q>d, off = 1 (continuous (3.39a) ~ nonexceptional). For the exceptional interval k&(0,1), on the other hand, for kh S 1/2 we have (kta)/(I-kta) = 1. The ratio of T -functions becomes a product of such factors for a-te,te+,...,te+m-1, so that : ee < ( c o, 1 (continuous (3.39b) qk(I-k), ia, exceptional). Finally, for the discrete series oy , where e=th, we may write expli- citly ot be flr1/2) hath r(2k+m) [1/2 k, (1/2,=), 2" r(zeIr (me7) = 1, (discrete). (3.39¢) The inversion symmetry k + 1-k is not explicitly present in this formula, but a unitary intertwining operator may be set up to bridge these two representations (45, Sects. 2.3 and 2.4).65 3.16 In search of Hilbert spaces. We have now sets of functions @"(6] where wu 4is in the spectrum of Ip in agivendefinite representation, (C- or D,] 68, (the cir- cle) Given by (3.8). We search for inner préducts where these are orthonormal and complete. Completeness of these denumerable bases, when proven, will define the Hilbert spaces as the closure of linear combinations of these functions. The most general sesquilinear inner product on Sj may be written as (4,9) "e) foe fo sto)" a!) (9,67) gio). (3.40) der th id nh Under this, jnner,produdt thd alggbr: Crane Ob tel arg) Boeharg potty tes rements ifposed hy, j-1,2 511. e. by hermiticity of Jy’, integrating by parts: (alg) 4,9) (ee) = fo fore, stl)" ae (9,6") gto") $1 8; = fa fas 566)" -aagal®*)(6,6°N1g(0") ob “(gah gy tele f= ‘fo 610)" a) (6,6) 295,910] 1 1 - fefe 616)" 42g, 0! *) (8,6°)1 916"). Sy) 3; (3.41) g)generators (3.35) must be hermi- + (Wie have gen before the requi- Jp = SUT We now impose the This leads to ' (ke) 1 Ne do fdo" §(6) [(a,-3g.)0 (9,6")]g(') = 0 (3.42) | od which is to hold for all 616) and g(@')in a space I), there is a raphe subtle joint to the ensying reasoning, and that is since may be di ferent frop L°(S7), what (3.42) actually implies is that 2(9,0')=(34-341) 2 7 6,0'1, as a function of @, is orthogonal in the sense of L*(S,) to §(¢), and similarly orthogonal to g(¢') in the same sense. If we were to put 2(9,$') as an inner product measure in Plagg gf 219.0") in (3.40), the result would be zero for all §,g in v£) and hence z(¢,@') is equivalent to the zero func- tion itself. On the basis of this equivalence, we may replace z(¢,@') by zero and thus conclude (ag-2gr)a!®#) (4,9%)= 02a El (6,97) a0 BE (g-4'), (3.430) i. e. 2 is a function only of the angle difference @-$' . As the66 basis fynctions e 8 with as specified by the representation cy or Dy, is assumed complete in eee ee may expand qe ae as albeliy) » > whe a (3.436) 7 as in (3.36), and ubse as yet unknown and put it in (3.40) with the orthonormality condition imposed on the basis functions, using the Fourier series orthogonality results for the exponential func- tions. We thus develop a) with Heine, bee te “fv fon neem efter) mm < Huis flew ies 3 hut capa ot, often") or by 2, fb) ok PT Utes Soe tC ete of) ayn ; fo eilaenlé 4) fo» ila! nh ‘$1 SI . {2n) Pixel? che? uke (34a) We fellows that the proper coefficients for the weight function **(9-$") are (1-kte) Be tance of mo Galo Tee y? (ke), 1 Tle+I-k) _Tletktm) = (3.44b) (2a [Ke]? Tletk) TP (e#T-ketm) ol T(kte) Pl 1-bte+n) (an|Ke |)? Pli-kte) rlktetm |. Bal 7 Local and nonlocal weight functions. Let us now examine the various fepresentation series in order to give the description of the 4 spaces. For the conginuous nonexceptional series Cr we have n©Z and (3.39a), since osm is only a phase. Then a VP) « (eet? Sectors meZ Hanke 5(y) (3.45a)67 We have hence a btrore . 25) (3.456) and the inner product is the ordinary L2-product on the circle. For the continuous exceptional series, ery _ ake gélermy , a ae aE (yp) yt (20 iene 2 me | OD) -m © m=7 es [soa an Suet saltln (2a |e (1? | Lod (bel nt Lb een efev , P = oral (1, T-breskerese) +0F U1 1teesteese™®)-1] (2n[ ke) (3.46a) When e=0 it was proven by Bargmann (23, Eqs. (8.7), (8.9) and (8.11)) that this expression reduces to (1b) pik gO oom. 2 rk) kT (y) = ein Set Tos ¥) eZ (ed, w7r[Kol> rlk-1/2) a (3..46b) Bargmann (23, Sect. 8c) also proves that J? is a Hilbert space when RE[1/2,1), while Sally (45, Sect. 2.4) proves this for the remaining cases. For the discrete series a, finally, we can use (3.39c)-(3. 4h) in order to find oteletmly (3.47) ay oF tte dsthse™) This series converges absolutely for k > 1, conditionally for 1/2 < k< 1 (excluding y=0,2n,... although its integral with boun- ded functions is bounded), and diverges for k=1/2. For 0

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